Assessment of memory deficits in psychiatric disorders: A systematic literature review

Memory deficits are observed across psychiatric disorders ranging from the prodrome of psychosis to common mental disorders such as anxiety, depression, and dissociative disorders. Memory deficits among patients recovering from psychiatric disorders could be directly related to the primary illness or secondary to the adverse effect of a treatment such as Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT). The trouble in the meaningful integration of working-memory and episodic memory is the most commonly affected domain that requires routine assessments. An update on the recent trends of methods of assessment of memory deficits is the first step towards understanding and correcting these deficits to target optimum recovery. A systematic literature search was conducted from October 2018 to October 2022 to review the recent methods of assessment of memory deficits in psychiatric disorders. The definition of 'Memory deficit' was operationalized as 'selective processes of memory, commonly required for activities of daily living, and affected among psychiatric disorders resulting in subjective distress and dysfunction'. We included 110 studies, most of them being conducted in western countries on patients with schizophrenia. Other disorders included dementia and mild cognitive impairment. Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia, Cambridge Automated Neuropsychological Test Battery, California Verbal Learning Test, Trail Making Test Part A and B, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Wechsler Memory Scale, Wechsler Adults Intelligence Scale-IV were the most common neuropsychological assessments used. Mini-Mental State Examination and Montreal Cognitive Assessment were the most common bedside assessment tools used while Squire Subjective Memory Questionnaire was commonly used to measure ECT-related memory deficits. The review highlights the recent developments in the field of assessment of memory deficits in psychiatric disorders. Findings recommend and emphasize routine assessment of memory deficits among psychiatric disorders in developing countries especially severe mental illnesses. It remains interesting to see the role of standardized assessments in diagnostic systems given more than a decade of research on memory deficits in psychiatric disorders.

An overview of the hallmarks of cognitive aging

Although the notion of cognitive aging is commonly associated with decline in popular culture, a wealth of scientific literature shows that cognitive aging is more aptly characterized as multidirectional, such that trajectories of cognitive changes include areas of stability and growth (e.g., general knowledge) in addition to decline (e.g., episodic long-term memory). This article overviews these multidirectional trajectories, the heterogeneous factors that moderate the rate of change across individual trajectories, and the extensive literature that has investigated the most important factors, such as working memory, that constrain cognition across the adult lifespan. In light of the multidirectional nature of cognitive change, increasing research has considered methods to leverage the often-overlooked benefits of getting older to ameliorate cognitive deficits.

Random fluctuations and synaptic plasticity enhance working memory activities in the neuron-astrocyte network

Random fluctuations are inescapable feature in biological systems, but appropriate intensity of randomness can effectively facilitate information transfer and memory encoding within the nervous system. In the study, a modified spiking neuron-astrocyte network model with excitatory-inhibitory balance and synaptic plasticity is established. This model considers external input noise, and allows investigating the effects of intrinsic random fluctuations on working memory tasks. It is found that the astrocyte network, acting as a low-pass filter, reduces the noise component of the total input currents and improves the recovered images. The memory performance is enhanced by selecting appropriate intensity of random fluctuations, while excessive intensity can inhibit signal transmission of network. As the intensity of random fluctuations gradually increases, there exists a maximum value of the working memory performance. The cued recall of the network markedly decreases excessive input noise relative to test images. Meanwhile, a greater contrast effect is observed as the external input noise increases. In addition, synaptic plasticity reduces the firing rates and firing peaks of neurons, thus stabilizing the working memory activity during the test. The outcomes of this study may provide some inspirations for comprehending the role of random fluctuations in working memory mechanisms and neural information processing within the cerebral cortex.

Predictability and Variation in Language Are Differentially Affected by Learning and Production

General principles of human cognition can help to explain why languages are more likely to have certain characteristics than others: structures that are difficult to process or produce will tend to be lost over time. One aspect of cognition that is implicated in language use is working memory-the component of short-term memory used for temporary storage and manipulation of information. In this study, we consider the relationship between working memory and regularization of linguistic variation. Regularization is a well-documented process whereby languages become less variable (on some dimension) over time. This process has been argued to be driven by the behavior of individual language users, but the specific mechanism is not agreed upon. Here, we use an artificial language learning experiment to investigate whether limitations in working memory during either language learning or language production drive regularization behavior. We find that taxing working memory during production results in the loss of all types of variation, but the process by which random variation becomes more predictable is better explained by learning biases. A computational model offers a potential explanation for the production effect using a simple self-priming mechanism.

Healthcare Cost of Cochlear Implantation in India

Making evidence-based policy decisions is challenging when there is a lack of information, especially when deciding provider payment rates for publicly funded health insurance plans. Therefore, the goal of this study was to estimate the cost of a cochlear implant operation in a tertiary care setting in India. We also looked at the patients' out-of-pocket (OOP) expenses for the cochlear implant surgery. From the perspectives of the patients and the healthcare systems, we assessed the financial costs of the cochlear implantation procedure. A bottom-up pricing model was used to assess the cost that the healthcare system would bear for a cochlear implant procedure. Information on all the resources (both capital and ongoing) required to offer cochlear implantation services for hearing loss was gathered over the course of a year. 120 individuals with hearing loss who had cochlear implantation surgery disclosed their out-of-pocket (OOP) costs, which included both direct medical and non-medical expenses. All costs for the budgetary year 2018-2019 were anticipated. The unit health system spent ₹ 151($2), ₹ 578($7.34) and ₹ 37,449($478) on ear exams, audiological evaluations, and cochlear implant surgeries, respectively. Per bed-day in the otolaryngology ward, hospitalization cost ₹ 202($2.6), or ₹ 1211($15.5). The estimated average out-of-pocket cost for a cochlear implant operation was ₹ 682,230($8710). Our research can be used to establish package rates for publicly funded insurance plans in India, plan the growth of public sector hearing care services, and do cost-effectiveness assessments on various hearing care models.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12070-023-04389-7.

Cardinal bias interacts with the stimulus history bias in orientation working memory

Reports in a visual working memory(WM) task exhibit biases related to the categorical structure of the stimulus space (e.g., cardinal bias) as well as biases related to previously seen stumuli (e.g., serial bias). While these biases are common and can occur simultaneously, the extent to which they interact in WM remains unknown. In the present study, I used orientation delayed estimation tasks known to produce both cardinal and serial biases and found that the serial bias systematically varied based on the relative positions of the cardinal axis and the preceding stimulus in orientation space. When they were positioned in a way that generated cardinal and serial biases in the same direction (i.e., on the same side of the target orientation), reports for the target orientation exhibited a regular repulsive serial bias. However, when their positions resulted in the biases in the opposite directions (i.e., on the opposite side of the target orientation), no serial bias occurred. This absence of serial bias was replicated in a follow-up experiment where the locations of the stimulus orientation and the response probe were completely randomized, suggesting that the interaction occurs independently from location-based response preparation processes. Together, these results demonstrate that the prior stimulus and the cardinal axis impose interactive impact on the processing of new stimulus, producing differential patterns of serial bias depending on the specific stimulus being processed. These findings place significant implications on computational models addressing the nature of the stimulus history effect and its underlying mechanisms.

Training semantic long-term memory retrieval transfers to executive function and reading fluency

The retrieval of information from long-term memory is a fundamental cognitive ability, crucial for most aspects of successful human functioning. Whether and how long-term memory retrieval (LTMR) can be improved with training has clear societal importance but also theoretical value for furthering our understanding of underlying mechanisms. Here, we provide electrophysiological evidence for the plasticity of semantic LTMR. Thirty-five university students were randomly assigned to adaptive semantic LTMR training (using a Posner task) or to a non-adaptive version of the training. Before and after training they were assessed on measures of semantic LTMR, working memory, central executive function (interference control, switching), reading fluency, and fluid intelligence. Adaptive LTMR training (relative to non-adaptive training) led to significant improvements in semantic LTMR. The intervention group (in contrast to the control group) also showed a significant reduction in the mean amplitude of the N400 ERP component and 700-1000 ms measured during a semantic LTMR task, suggesting that changes in retrieval occurred at an early/automatic point and retrieval processing in semantic processing. Moreover, transfer effects were observed for switching, working memory and reading fluency, but not for interference control or fluid intelligence. These results point to the plasticity of semantic LTMR, and suggest that improvement in this ability can transfer to other domains for which LTMR is key.

Activated long-term memory and visual working memory during hybrid visual search: Effects on target memory search and distractor memory

In hybrid visual search, observers must maintain multiple target templates and subsequently search for any one of those targets. If the number of potential target templates exceeds visual working memory (VWM) capacity, then the target templates are assumed to be maintained in activated long-term memory (aLTM). Observers must search the array for potential targets (visual search), as well as search through memory (target memory search). Increasing the target memory set size reduces accuracy, increases search response times (RT), and increases dwell time on distractors. However, the extent of observers' memory for distractors during hybrid search is largely unknown. In the current study, the impact of hybrid search on target memory search (measured by dwell time on distractors, false alarms, and misses) and distractor memory (measured by distractor revisits and recognition memory of recently viewed distractors) was measured. Specifically, we aimed to better understand how changes in behavior during hybrid search impacts distractor memory. Increased target memory set size led to an increase in search RTs, distractor dwell times, false alarms, and target identification misses. Increasing target memory set size increased revisits to distractors, suggesting impaired distractor location memory, but had no effect on a two-alternative forced-choice (2AFC) distractor recognition memory test presented during the search trial. The results from the current study suggest a lack of interference between memory stores maintaining target template representations (aLTM) and distractor information (VWM). Loading aLTM with more target templates does not impact VWM for distracting information.

I remember it now, so I'll remember it later: Working memory strength guides predictions for long-term memory performance

Judgments of learning (JOLs) are assumed to be made inferentially, based on cues. This cue-utilization approach substituted the theory that memory strength guides JOLs. The rejection of this theory ignores the existence of two memory systems: working memory (WM), which holds representations immediately accessible, and long-term memory (LTM), which is a permanent store. By manipulating and measuring WM strength, we tested a revised version of the memory-strength theory in which JOLs are guided by WM representations. In Experiment 1, participants memorized sequences of two or four colored objects, then they provided JOLs for an LTM test of these objects, and performed a WM test on the objects' colors. After learning 200 objects, the LTM test followed. Sequence-length affected WM, but not LTM performance. JOLs, however, were higher for sequences of two than for four objects and correlated higher with WM than LTM performance. We replicated these results with a simultaneous presentation of the objects (Experiment 2), in the absence of a WM test (Experiment 3), and in a word-pair task (Experiment 4). Overall, our findings are consistent with the revised memory-strength theory. WM strength should therefore be considered when examining the factors guiding JOLs.

Acute Administration of HIV-1 Tat Protein Drives Glutamatergic Alterations in a Rodent Model of HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorders

HIV-1-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) are a major comorbidity of HIV-1 infection, marked by impairment of executive function varying in severity. HAND affects nearly half of people living with HIV (PLWH), with mild forms predominating since the use of anti-retroviral therapies (ART). The HIV-1 transactivator of transcription (Tat) protein is found in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients adherent to ART, and its administration or expression in animals causes cognitive symptoms. Studies of Tat interaction with the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) suggest that glutamate toxicity contributes to Tat-induced impairments. To identify changes in regional glutamatergic circuitry underlying cognitive impairment, we injected recombinant Tat86 or saline to medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of male Sprague-Dawley rats. Rats were assessed with behavioral tasks that involve intact functioning of mPFC including the novel object recognition (NOR), spatial object recognition (SOR), and temporal order (TO) tasks at 1 and 2 postoperative weeks. Following testing, mPFC tissue was collected and analyzed by RT-PCR. Results showed Tat86 in mPFC-induced impairment in SOR, and upregulation of Grin1 and Grin2a transcripts. To further understand the mechanism of Tat toxicity, we assessed the effects of full-length Tat101 on gene expression in mPFC by RNA sequencing. The results of RNAseq suggest that glutamatergic effects of Tat86 are maintained with Tat101, as Grin2a was upregulated in Tat101-injected tissue, among other differentially expressed genes. Spatial learning and memory impairment and Grin2a upregulation suggest that exposure to Tat protein drives adaptation in mPFC, altering the function of circuitry supporting spatial learning and memory.

Quantifying resource sharing in working memory

Several models of working memory (WM), the cognitive system devoted to the temporary maintenance of a small amount of information in view of its treatment, assume that these two functions of storage and processing share a common and limited resource. However, the predictions issued from these models concerning this resource-sharing remain usually qualitative, and at which precise extent these functions are affected by their concurrent implementation remains undecided. The aim of the present study was to quantify this resource sharing by expressing storage and processing performance during a complex span task in terms of the proportion of the highest level of performance each participant was able to reach (i.e., their span) in each component when performed in isolation. Two experiments demonstrated that, despite substantial dual-task decrements, participants managed to preserve half or more of their best performance in both components, testifying for a remarkable robustness of the human cognitive system. The implications of these results for the main WM models are discussed.

The visual familiarity effect on attentional working memory maintenance

Attentional refreshing has been described as an attention-based, domain-general maintenance mechanism in working memory. It is thought to operate via focusing executive attention on information held in working memory, protecting it from temporal decay and interference. Although attentional refreshing has attracted a lot of research, its functioning is still debated. At least one conception of refreshing supposes that it relies on semantic long-term memory representations to reconstruct working memory traces. Although investigations in the verbal domain found evidence against this hypothesis, a different pattern could emerge in visuospatial working memory in which absence of refreshing evidence has been observed for stimuli with minimal associated long-term knowledge. In a series of four experiments, the current study investigated the hypothesis of an involvement of semantic long-term representations in the functioning of attentional refreshing in the visuospatial domain. Both cognitive and memory load effects have been proposed as indexes of attentional refreshing. Therefore, we investigated the interaction between the effects of visual familiarity (a long-term memory effect) and cognitive load on recall performance (Experiments 1A and 1B), as well as the interaction between the effects of visual familiarity and memory load on the response times in a concurrent processing task (Experiments 2A and 2B). Results were consistent across experiments and go against the hypothesis of the involvement of semantic long-term memory in the functioning of attentional refreshing in visuospatial working memory. As such, this study corroborates the results found in the verbal domain. Implications for attentional refreshing and working memory are discussed.

Self-prioritization in working memory gating

Working memory (WM) involves a dynamic interplay between temporary maintenance and updating of goal-relevant information. The balance between maintenance and updating is regulated by an input-gating mechanism that determines which information should enter WM (gate opening) and which should be kept out (gate closing). We investigated whether updating and gate opening/closing are differentially sensitive to the kind of information to be encoded and maintained in WM. Specifically, since the social salience of a stimulus is known to affect cognitive performance, we investigated if self-relevant information differentially impacts maintenance, updating, or gate opening/closing. Participants first learned to associate two neutral shapes with two social labels (i.e., "you" vs. "stranger"), respectively. Subsequently they performed the reference-back paradigm, a well-established WM task that disentangles WM updating, gate opening, and gate closing. Crucially, the shapes previously associated with the self or a stranger served as target stimuli in the reference-back task. We replicated the typical finding of a repetition benefit when consecutive trials require opening the gate to WM. In Study 1 (N = 45) this advantage disappeared when self-associated stimuli were recently gated into WM and immediately needed to be replaced by stranger-associated stimuli. However, this was not replicated in a larger sample (Study 2; N = 90), where a repetition benefit always occurred on consecutive gate-opening trials. Overall, our results do not provide evidence that the self-relevance of stimuli modulates component processes of WM. We discuss possible reasons for this null finding, including the importance of continuous reinstatement and task-relevance of the shape-label associations.

The effect of planning time on vocabulary acquisition in a task-based environment: the mediating roles of working memory and field (in)dependence

This research investigated the impact of planning time, working memory (WM), and cognitive styles on language learning outcomes within the framework of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT). Drawing on a diverse sample of language learners, the study employed a pretest-posttest control group quasi-experiment to examine the effects of providing pre-task planning time on language performance. Participants engaged in communicative tasks, with a focus on vocabulary acquisition and task complexity, while their cognitive processes were assessed through measures of WM and cognitive styles. The findings revealed significant interactions between planning time and cognitive styles, particularly field dependence, influencing language production and proficiency such that learners with planning time outperformed learners without planning time; high-WM learners outperformed their low-WM peers, and field independent learners outstripped their field-dependent counterparts. Moreover, the study contributes to the broader understanding of the nuanced relationship between planning time, WM, and cognitive styles in the context of TBLT. The implications of these findings for language teachers, materials developers, syllabus designers, curriculum developers, and policymakers are discussed, offering insights into the design of effective language learning environments. Despite certain limitations, the study provides a foundation for further research exploring cross-cultural variations, longitudinal effects, and the integration of technology in language education, with the aim of advancing pedagogical practices tailored to diverse learner profiles.

Short-term retention of words as a function of encoding depth

The traditional short- and long-term storage view of information processing and the levels-of-processing view both discuss the forgetting of information over time. In the traditional stage view, there is loss of at least poorly encoded information across several seconds when the information cannot be rehearsed (e.g., Ricker et al., 2020, Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 46, 60-76). In the levels-of-processing approach, information that is encoded in a shallow manner is lost more quickly over time than deeply-encoded information (Craik & Lockhart, 1972, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.). Previous studies of the depth of encoding, however, have mostly been conducted using delayed tests, so there are few studies directly comparing the rate of forgetting over time for information as a function of different depths of encoding. We manipulated the level of processing with immediate recall in a modified Brown-Peterson task. An effect of the level of processing was robust, but evidence of forgetting across retention intervals was not always observed. When encoding time was curtailed (in Experiments 3 and 4), we found main effects of both the level of processing and the retention interval, but no interaction between the two variables. The results suggest that the depth-of-encoding effect may occur during the initial encoding of items, but without differential forgetting within the range of retention intervals that we examined (0-18 s), in contrast to the suggestion by Craik and Lockhart. Further work is needed to determine whether the depth-of-processing effect would grow over longer intervals.

The reading-attention relationship: Variations in working memory network activity during single word decoding in children with and without dyslexia

This study utilized a neuroimaging task to assess working memory (WM) network recruitment during single word reading. Associations between WM and reading comprehension skills are well documented. Several converging models suggest WM may also contribute to foundational reading skills, but few studies have assessed this contribution directly. Two groups of children (77 developmental dyslexia (DD), 22 controls) completed a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) task to identify activation of a priori defined regions of the WM network. fMRI trials consisted of familiar word, pseudoword, and false font stimuli within a 1-back oddball task to assess how activation in the WM network differs in response to stimuli that can respectively be processed using word recognition, phonological decoding, or non-word strategies. Results showed children with DD recruited WM regions bilaterally in response to all stimulus types, whereas control children recruited left-lateralized WM regions during the pseudoword condition only. Group-level comparisons revealed activation differences in the defined WM network regions for false font and familiar word, but not pseudoword conditions. This effect was driven by increased activity in participants with DD in right hemisphere frontal, parietal, and motor regions despite poorer task performance. Findings suggest the WM network may contribute to inefficient decoding and word recognition strategies in children with DD.

Be prepared for interruptions: EEG correlates of anticipation when dealing with task interruptions and the role of aging

Dealing with task interruptions requires the flexible use of working memory and attentional control mechanisms, which are prone to age-related changes. We investigated effects of age on dealing with task interruptions and potential advantages of anticipating an interruption using EEG and a retrospective cueing (retro-cue) paradigm. Thirty-two young (18-30 years) and 28 older (55-70 years) participants performed a visual working memory task, where they had to report the orientation of a target following a retro-cue. Within blocks of 10 trials, they were always, never, or randomly interrupted with an arithmetic task before the onset of the retro-cue. The interruption-induced decline in primary task performance was more pronounced in older participants, while only these benefited from anticipation. The EEG analysis revealed reduced theta and alpha/beta response to the retro-cue following interruptions, especially for the older participants. In both groups, anticipated interruptions were associated with increased theta and alpha/beta power prior and during the interruption, and stronger beta suppression to the retro-cue. The results indicate that interruptions impede the refocusing of attention on the task-relevant representation of the primary task, especially in older people, while anticipation facilitates preparation for the interruption task and resumption of the primary task.

Rehabilitation of working memory after acquired brain injury and multiple sclerosis: A systematic review

The objective is to study the effectiveness of working memory (WM) rehabilitation after Acquired brain injury (ABI) and multiple sclerosis (MS). A systematic database search of published studies, following PRISMA recommendations, with assessment of methodological quality and risk of bias, was conducted. The results were analysed according to the rehabilitation method used. 31 studies (including 14 class I) were included, and 11 different training programs were identified. Despite great variability in training methodology and outcome measures, the results were positive overall. However, only three rehabilitation programs showed a transfer effect to WM (near) and daily life with long-term maintenance. The results were more variable for protocols limited to the use of computerized n-back training tasks. Overall, the current evidence supports multi-task WM training rather than single-task-limited program. It also supports early and long duration training, with some therapist support. However, it is not possible, to date, to make strong recommendations regarding the rehabilitation program to be used preferentially. Although results are encouraging, level of evidence remains modest, particularly regarding the maintenance of the therapeutic effect after the end of training, and the transfer to everyday life skills. The influence of rehabilitation parameters (training duration, therapist involvement … ) remains difficult to assess.

Cognitive development in children with new-onset Rolandic epilepsy and Rolandic discharges without seizures: Focusing on intelligence, visual perception, working memory and the role of parents' education

PURPOSE

Our aim was to assess intelligence, visual perception and working memory in children with new-onset Rolandic epilepsy (RE) and children with Rolandic discharges without seizures (RD).

METHODS

The participants in the study were 12 children with RE and 26 children with RD aged 4 to 10 years (all without medication and shortly after diagnosis) and 31 healthy controls. Their cognitive performance was assessed using the German versions of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III), the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV), the Developmental Test of Visual Perception-2 (DTVP-2), the Developmental Test of Visual Perception-Adolescent and Adult (DTVP-A) (each according to age) and the Word Order, Hand Movements and Spatial Memory subtests of the German version of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC).

RESULTS

The comparison of the entire group of children with RE/RD and the control group conducted in the first step of our analysis revealed a weaker performance of the children with RE/RD in all cognitive domains. Significant deficits, however, were found exclusively in the RD group. Compared to the controls, they performed significantly weaker regarding IQ (full scale IQ: p < 0.001; verbal IQ: p < 0.001; performance IQ: p = 0.002; processing speed: p = 0.005), visual perception (general visual perception: p = 0.005; visual-motor integration: p = 0.002) and working memory (WISC working memory: p = 0.002 and K-ABC Word Order (p = 0.010) and Hand Movements (p = 0.001) subtests. Also, the children without seizures scored significantly lower than those with seizures on the WISC Working Memory Index (p = 0.010) and on the K-ABC Word Order (p = 0.021) and Hand Movements (p = 0.027) subtests. Further analysis of our data demonstrated the particular importance of the family context for child development. Significant cognitive deficits were found only in children with RD from parents with lower educational levels. This group consistently scored lower compared to the control group regarding IQ (full scale IQ: p < 0.001; verbal IQ: p < 0.001; performance IQ: p = 0.012; processing speed: p = 0.034), visual perception (general visual perception: p = 0.018; visual-motor integration: p = 0.010) and auditory working memory (WISC working memory: p = 0.014). Furthermore, compared to the children with RE, they performed significantly weaker on verbal IQ (p = 0.020), auditory working memory consistently (WISC working memory: p = 0.027; K-ABC: Word Order: p = 0.046) as well as in one of the K-ABC spatial working memory subtests (Hand Movements: p = 0.029). Although we did not find significant deficits in children with new-onset RE compared to healthy controls, the performance of this group tended to be weaker more often. No statistically significant associations were observed between selected clinical markers (focus types: centrotemporal/other foci/laterality of foci and spread of Rolandic discharges) and cognitive test results. Except for spatial working memory, we also found no evidence that the age of our patients at the time of study participation was of significant importance to their cognitive performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides some evidence that children with Rolandic discharges, with and without seizures, may be at higher risk of cognitive impairment. In addition to medical care, we emphasise early differentiated psychosocial diagnostics to provide these children and their families with targeted support if developmental problems are present.

Differences in brain activation during working memory tasks between badminton athletes and non-athletes: An fNIRS study

BACKGROUND

Working memory refers to our ability to temporarily store and process information, and it is crucial for efficient cognition and motor control. In the context of badminton matches, athletes need to make quick decisions and reactions in rapidly changing situations. Athletes with strong working memory capacity can better process this information and translate it into actual motor performance. Although previous research has demonstrated that exercise can improve brain function and structure, it remains unclear how the brain functions of athletes engaged in long-term professional training are specifically involved in performing working memory tasks.

METHOD

In this study, we assessed behavioral performance and cerebral oxygenation in the prefrontal lobe, using functional near-infrared spectroscopy, with 22 athletes and 30 non-athletes. Each participant was evaluated while performing 1-back, 2-back, and 3-back tasks. The area under the curve (AUC) of HbO (oxyhemoglobin) is used as an indicator of cortical brain oxygenation.

RESULTS

The behavioral performance results indicated no difference between badminton athletes and non-athletes in the n-back task. We observed significantly different activation in channels of left FPA, right DLPFC, and left VLPFC when performing 3-back tasks. Brain activation indicated that long-term training in badminton caused a better performance in high-load working memory tasks.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term professional training in badminton primarily activates the left frontal-parietal attention network (left FPA), right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (right DLPFC), and left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (left VLPFC) during working memory tasks.

The effect of reward expectation on working memory of emotional faces under different levels of cognitive load: an ERP study

Using event-related potentials (ERPs), this study examined the impact of reward expectations on working memory of emotional faces under different levels of cognitive load in a task combining the N-back paradigm and the reward expectation paradigm. The experiment involved presenting high- or low-reward cues followed by an N-back task for emotional faces with different loads. The accuracy results showed that under a high task load, both reward and emotion effects were significantly observed. However, these effects disappeared under a low task load. Analysis of the ERP data revealed that the early P2 and VPP components exhibited greater responses to fearful faces than to neutral faces. In the later stages, the P3 and LPP components showed greater reactions to high rewards than to low rewards. Additionally, the P2 component was found to be modulated by task load in relation to rewards, the EPN component demonstrated task load modulation with respect to emotions, and the N170 component showed an interaction effect between rewards and emotions. These findings imply that load regulates the reward effect and the emotional superiority effect in the process of working memory for emotional faces. In the cognitive processing of working memory, motivation and emotion jointly influence processing. Emotional factors have a greater impact in the early stage of processing, while motivation factors have a greater impact in the late stage of processing.

Enhancing cognitive control with transcranial magnetic stimulation in subject-specific frontoparietal networks

BACKGROUND

Cognitive control processes, including those involving frontoparietal networks, are highly variable between individuals, posing challenges to basic and clinical sciences. While distinct frontoparietal networks have been associated with specific cognitive control functions such as switching, inhibition, and working memory updating functions, there have been few basic tests of the role of these networks at the individual level.

METHODS

To examine the role of cognitive control at the individual level, we conducted a within-subject excitatory transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) study in 19 healthy individuals that targeted intrinsic ("resting") frontoparietal networks. Person-specific intrinsic networks were identified with resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging scans to determine TMS targets. The participants performed three cognitive control tasks: an adapted Navon figure-ground task (requiring set switching), n-back (working memory), and Stroop color-word (inhibition).

OBJECTIVE

Hypothesis: We predicted that stimulating a network associated with externally oriented control [the "FPCN-B" (fronto-parietal control network)] would improve performance on the set switching and working memory task relative to a network associated with attention (the Dorsal Attention Network, DAN) and cranial vertex in a full within-subjects crossover design.

RESULTS

We found that set switching performance was enhanced by FPCN-B stimulation along with some evidence of enhancement in the higher-demand n-back conditions.

CONCLUSION

Higher task demands or proactive control might be a distinguishing role of the FPCN-B, and personalized intrinsic network targeting is feasible in TMS designs.

On some statistical and cerebral aspects of the limits of working memory capacity in anthropoid primates, with particular reference to Pan and Homo, and their significance for human evolution

Some comparative ontogenetic data imply that effective working-memory capacity develops in ways that are independent of brain size in humans. These are interpreted better from neuroscientific considerations about the continuing development of neuronal architecture in adolescents and young adults, than from one about gross brain mass which already is reached in childhood. By contrast, working-memory capacity in Pan never develops beyond that of three- or four-year-old children. The phylogenetic divergence begs the question of whether it is any longer plausible to infer from the fossil record, that over the past two million years, an ostensibly gradual increase in endocranial volumes, assigned to the genus Homo, can be correlated in a scientifically-meaningful manner with the gradual evolution of our effective executive working memory. It is argued that whereas Pan's effective working-memory capacity is relatively similar to that of its storage working-memory, our working memory is relatively larger with deeper executive control.

Evolution of neuropsychological and behavioral profile in a cohort of pediatric patients with Becker muscular dystrophy in a longitudinal study

It has long been reported that neuropsychological deficits may be present in dystrophinopathies, specifically non-progressive cognitive impairment and a global deficit in executive functions; this neurocognitive profile has been less explored in patients with Becker than Duchenne muscular dystrophy (BMD/DMD). We conducted a longitudinal study to explore the evolution of neuropsychological and behavioural profile in a cohort of paediatric BMD. Seventeen patients with BMD without intellectual disability were assessed using a full battery of tests, including intellectual, adaptive and executive functioning, language and behavioral features. Tests were performed at baseline and after 12 months. The results showed adequate cognitive and adaptive profile with falls in Working Memory, as well as lower scores in executive functions. An improvement was observed in Processing Speed. Behavioral questionnaires confirmed a negative trend, while in normal ranges. We found a statistically significant difference between T0 and T1 in some items exploring executive functions. No statistically significant difference was observed stratifying patients by mutation site or IQ level. In conclusion, our study suggests that BMD patients have a stable neurocognitive profile, while a deflection in the executive functions may be observed. We recommend a careful monitoring to intercept learning disabilities and promptly start a multimodal rehabilitation.

The role of cognitive control and naming in aphasia

The classical aphasia literature has placed considerable emphasis on the language-centered understanding of aphasia and failed to consider the role of executive functions (EFs) regarding different aspects of patients' performance. Many current studies suggest deficits in EFs in individuals with aphasia, however, the available data is still limited. Here, our aim was to investigate the impairment of EFs and its potential negative effects on naming (slower performance, increased reaction time and/or decreased accuracy). We sought to determine whether the poor performance observed in word fluency task correlated with similar outcomes in naming. Our study involved five Hungarian post stroke aphasic patients (2 males and 3 females) between the ages of 60 and 70, as well as a control group matched for age and gender. The participants were diagnosed with different types of aphasia (global, Wernicke's, anomic and conduction). This study employed various neuropsychological and linguistic batteries. By comparing the patients' performance to that of the control group, we aimed to investigate the impacts of stroke. Within the aphasia group, we observed difficulties in following complex commands and a connection between general slowness and reduced accuracy in naming. We concluded that impairment of executive functions may have a negative impact on naming, comprehension, and fluency. Therefore, it is important to consider functional variations in neural networks, and to base our interpretations on the available psychophysiological data in literature. Our findings provide an alternative perspective to the traditional assessment of aphasia and highlight the importance of considering the role of executive functions.