AGC1.5 Kinase Phosphorylates RopGEFs to Control Pollen Tube Growth

Double fertilization in angiosperms requires the targeted delivery of immotile sperm to the eggs through pollen tubes. The polarity of tip-growing pollen tubes is maintained through dynamic association of active Rho GTPases of plants (ROP-GTP) with the apical plasma membrane. Guanine nucleotide exchange factors for ROPs (RopGEFs) catalyze the activation of ROPs and thereby affect spatiotemporal ROP signaling. Whereas RopGEFs have been found to be phosphorylated proteins, the kinases responsible for their phosphorylation in vivo and biological consequences of RopGEF phosphorylation in pollen tube growth remain unclear. We report here that the Arabidopsis AGC1.5 subfamily of cytoplasmic kinases is critical for the restricted localization of ROP-GTP during pollen tube growth. Loss of AGC1.5 and AGC1.7 functions resulted in the mistargeting of active ROPs and defective events downstream of ROP signaling in pollen tubes. AGC1.5 interacts with RopGEFs via their catalytic PRONE domain and phosphorylates RopGEFs at a conserved Ser residue of PRONE domain. Loss of AGC1.5 and AGC1.7 functions resulted in the mistargeting of RopGEFs in pollen tubes, similar to the phenotype caused by the mutation that renders RopGEFs non-phosphorylatable by AGC1.5. Collectively, our results provide mechanistic insights into the spatiotemporal activation of ROPs during the polar growth of pollen tubes.

Morphological Type Identification of Self-Incompatibility in Dendrobium and Its Phylogenetic Evolution Pattern

Self-incompatibility (SI) is a type of reproductive barrier within plant species and is one of the mechanisms for the formation and maintenance of the high diversity and adaptation of angiosperm species. Approximately 40% of flowering plants are SI species, while only 10% of orchid species are self-incompatible. Intriguingly, as one of the largest genera in Orchidaceae, 72% of Dendrobium species are self-incompatible, accounting for nearly half of the reported SI species in orchids, suggesting that SI contributes to the high diversity of orchid species. However, few studies investigating SI in Dendrobium have been published. This study aimed to address the following questions: (1) How many SI phenotypes are in Dendrobium, and what are they? (2) What is their distribution pattern in the Dendrobium phylogenetic tree? We investigated the flowering time, the capsule set rate, and the pollen tube growth from the representative species of Dendrobium after artificial pollination and analysed their distribution in the Asian Dendrobium clade phylogenetic tree. The number of SI phenotypes exceeded our expectations. The SI type of Dendrobium chrysanthum was the primary type in the Dendrobium SI species. We speculate that there are many different SI determinants in Dendrobium that have evolved recently and might be specific to Dendrobium or Orchidaceae. Overall, this work provides new insights and a comprehensive understanding of Dendrobium SI.

Arabidopsis pollen tube germination and growth depend on the mitochondrial calcium uniporter complex

The mitochondrial calcium uniporter complex (MCUc) was recently characterized in details in metazoans and consists of pore-forming units (MCUs) and regulatory factors that channel calcium (Ca²⁺ ) ion into the mitochondria. MCUs participate in many stress and developmentally related processes involving Ca²⁺ . Although multiple homologues of MCUs and one regulatory subunit are usually present in plants, the first functional characterization and contribution to Ca²⁺ related processes of these proteins have been reported recently. Here, we focused on two predicted Arabidopsis MCUs and studied their role in the germination and the growth of pollen tube, a tip-growing cell type highly dependent on Ca²⁺ homeostasis. Heterologous expression of MCU1 or MCU2 in yeast is sufficient to generate a mitochondrial Ca²⁺ influx. MCU1 and MCU2 fluorescent reporters are co-expressed in the vegetative cell mitochondria of the pollen grain but are undetectable in the embryo sac. We demonstrate that MCU1 and MCU2 can form a heterotypic complex. Phenotypic analyses revealed an impaired pollen tube germination and growth in vitro only for the mcu2 mutants suggesting a predominant role of MCU2. Our results show that mitochondrial Ca²⁺ controlled by MCUs is an additional player in Arabidopsis pollen tube germination and growth.

Depletion of sucrose induces changes in the tip growth mechanism of tobacco pollen tubes

Background and Aims

Pollen tubes are rapidly growing, photosynthetically inactive cells that need high rates of energy to support growth. Energy can derive from internal and external storage sources. The lack of carbon sources can cause various problems during pollen tube growth, which in turn could affect the reproduction of plants.

Methods

We analysed the effects of energy deficiency on the development of Nicotiana tabacum pollen tubes by replacing sucrose with glycerol in the growth medium. We focused on cell growth and related processes, such as metabolite composition and cell wall synthesis.

Key Results

We found that the lack of sucrose affects pollen germination and pollen tube length during a specific growth period. Both sugar metabolism and ATP concentration were affected by sucrose shortage when pollen tubes were grown in glycerol-based media; this was related to decreases in the concentrations of glucose, fructose and UDP-glucose. The intracellular pH and ROS levels also showed a different distribution in pollen tubes grown in sucrose-depleted media. Changes were also observed at the cell wall level, particularly in the content and distribution of two enzymes related to cell wall synthesis (sucrose synthase and callose synthase). Furthermore, both callose and newly secreted cell wall material (mainly pectins) showed an altered distribution corresponding to the lack of oscillatory growth in pollen tubes. Growth in glycerol-based media also temporarily affected the movement of generative cells and, in parallel, the deposition of callose plugs.

Conclusion

Pollen tubes represent an ideal model system for studying metabolic pathways during the growth of plant cells. In our study, we found evidence that glycerol, a less energetic source for cell growth than sucrose, causes critical changes in cell wall deposition. The evidence that different aspects of pollen tube growth are affected is an indication that pollen tubes adapt to metabolic stress.

Transcriptome Analysis Provides Insight into the Molecular Mechanisms Underlying gametophyte factor 2-Mediated Cross-Incompatibility in Maize

In maize (Zea mays L.), unilateral cross-incompatibility (UCI) is controlled by Gametophyte factors (Ga), including Ga1, Ga2, and Tcb1; however, the molecular mechanisms underpinning this process remain unexplored. Here, we report the pollination phenotype of an inbred line, 511L, which carries a near-dominant Ga2-S allele. We performed a high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) analysis of the compatible and incompatible crosses between 511L and B73, to identify the transcriptomic differences associated with Ga2-mediated UCI. An in vivo kinetics analysis revealed that the growth of non-self pollen tubes was blocked at the early stages after pollination in 511L, maintaining the UCI barrier in Ga2. In total, 25,759 genes were expressed, of which, 2063 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were induced by pollination (G_GG, G_GB, B_BB, B_BG). A gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis revealed that these genes were specifically enriched in functions involved in cell wall strength and pectic product modification. Moreover, 1839, 4382, and 5041 genes were detected to differentially express under same pollination treatments, including B_G, BG_GG, and BB_GB, respectively. A total of 1467 DEGs were constitutively expressed between the two inbred lines following pollination treatments, which were enriched in metabolic processes, flavonoid biosynthesis, cysteine biosynthesis, and vacuole functions. Furthermore, we confirmed 14 DEGs related to cell wall modification and stress by qRT-PCR, which might be involved in Ga2-S-mediated UCI. Our results provide a comprehensive foundation for the molecular mechanisms involved in silks of UCI mediated by Ga2-S.

Optimizing Production in the New Generation of Apricot Cultivars: Self-incompatibility, S-RNase Allele Identification, and Incompatibility Group Assignment

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) is a species of the Rosaceae that was originated in Central Asia, from where it entered Europe through Armenia. The release of an increasing number of new cultivars from different breeding programs is resulting in an important renewal of plant material worldwide. Although most traditional apricot cultivars in Europe are self-compatible, the use of self-incompatible cultivars as parental genotypes for breeding purposes is leading to the introduction of a number of new cultivars that behave as self-incompatible. As a consequence, there is an increasing need to interplant those new cultivars with cross-compatible cultivars to ensure fruit set in commercial orchards. However, the pollination requirements of many of these new cultivars are unknown. In this work, we analyze the pollination requirements of a group of 92 apricot cultivars, including traditional and newly-released cultivars from different breeding programs and countries. Self-compatibility was established by the observation of pollen tube behavior in self-pollinated flowers under the microscope. Incompatibility relationships between cultivars were established by the identification of S-alleles by PCR analysis. The self-(in)compatibility of 68 cultivars and the S-RNase genotype of 74 cultivars are reported herein for the first time. Approximately half of the cultivars (47) behaved as self-compatible and the other 45 as self-incompatible. Identification of S-alleles in self-incompatible cultivars allowed allocating them in 11 incompatibility groups, six of them reported here for the first time. The determination of pollination requirements and the incompatibility relationships between cultivars is highly valuable for the appropriate selection of apricot cultivars in commercial orchards and of parental genotypes in breeding programs. The approach described can be transferred to other woody perennial crops with similar problems.

On the ecological significance of pollen color: a case study in American trout lily (Erythronium americanum)

Evolutionary ecologists seek to explain the processes that maintain variation within populations. In plants, petal color variation can affect pollinator visitation, environmental tolerance, and herbivore deterrence. Variation in sexual organs may similarly affect plant performance. Within-population variation in pollen color, as occurs in the eastern North American spring ephemeral Erythronium americanum, provides an excellent opportunity to investigate the maintenance of variation in this trait. Although the red/yellow pollen-color polymorphism of E. americanum is widely recognized, it has been poorly documented. Our goals were thus (1) to determine the geographic distribution of the color morphs and (2) to test the effects of pollen color on components of pollen performance. Data provided by citizen scientists indicated that populations range from monomorphic red, to polymorphic, to monomorphic yellow, but there was no detectable geographic pattern in morph distribution, suggesting morph occurrence cannot be explained by a broad-scale ecological cline. In field experiments, we found no effect of pollen color on the probability of predation by the pollen-feeding beetle Asclera ruficollis, on the ability of pollen to tolerate UV-B radiation, or on siring success (as measured by the fruit set of hand-pollinated flowers). Pollinators, however, exhibited site-specific pollen-color preferences, suggesting they may act as agents of selection on this trait, and, depending on the constancy of their preferences, could contribute to the maintenance of variation. Collectively, our results eliminate some hypothesized ecological effects of pollen color in E. americanum, and identify effects of pollen color on pollinator attraction as a promising direction for future investigation.

Characterization of the enzymatic activity and physiological function of the lipid droplet-associated triacylglycerol lipase AtOBL1

Similar to seeds, pollen tubes contain lipid droplets that store triacylglycerol (TAG), but the fate of this TAG as well as the enzymes involved in its breakdown are unknown. Therefore, two potential TAG lipases from tobacco and Arabidopsis, NtOBL1 (Oil body lipase 1) and AtOBL1, were investigated, especially with respect to their importance for pollen tube growth. We expressed NtOBL1 and AtOBL1 as fluorescent fusion proteins to study their localization by confocal microscopy. Furthermore, we overexpressed AtOBL1 in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves to characterize it enzymatically. The obl1 mutant was studied in respect to its pollen tube growth in vivo and its seed germination. Both NtOBL1 and AtOBL1 localized to lipid droplets. AtOBL1 was abundant in pollen tubes and seedlings, and acted as a lipase on TAG, diacylglycerol and 1-monoacylglycerol at a pH optimum of 5.5. The obl1 mutant was hampered in pollen tube growth, whereas seedling establishment was not affected under optimal conditions, even though AtOBL1 accounted for a major lipase activity in seeds. TAG could be a direct precursor for the synthesis of membrane lipids in pollen tubes and proteins of the OBL family involved in the flux of acyl groups.

Arabidopsis pollen extensins LRX are required for cell wall integrity during pollen tube growth

Proper cell wall assembly is crucial during pollen tube growth. Leucine-rich repeat extensins (LRXs) are extracellular glycoproteins which belong to the hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein (HRGP) family. They contain a conserved N-terminal leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain and a highly variable C-terminal extensin domain. Here, we characterized four LRX proteins (LRX8 through LRX11) from pollen of Arabidopsis thaliana. To investigate the role of LRX8-LRX11 in pollen germination and pollen tube growth, multiple T-DNA lrx mutants were obtained. The lrx mutants display abnormal pollen tubes with an irregular deposition of callose and pectin. They also show serious alterations in pollen germination and segregation ratio. Our results suggest that LRXs are involved in ensuring proper cell wall assembly during pollen tube growth.

Arabidopsis pollen extensins LRX are required for cell wall integrity during pollen tube growth

Proper cell wall assembly is crucial during pollen tube growth. Leucine-rich repeat extensins (LRXs) are extracellular glycoproteins which belong to the hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein (HRGP) family. They contain a conserved N-terminal leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain and a highly variable C-terminal extensin domain. Here, we characterized four LRX proteins (LRX8 through LRX11) from pollen of Arabidopsis thaliana. To investigate the role of LRX8-LRX11 in pollen germination and pollen tube growth, multiple T-DNA lrx mutants were obtained. The lrx mutants display abnormal pollen tubes with an irregular deposition of callose and pectin. They also show serious alterations in pollen germination and segregation ratio. Our results suggest that LRXs are involved in ensuring proper cell wall assembly during pollen tube growth.

Arabidopsis PRK6 interacts specifically with AtRopGEF8/12 and induces depolarized growth of pollen tubes when overexpressed

The pollen receptor kinases (PRK) are critical regulators of pollen tube growth. The Arabidopsis genome encodes eight PRK genes, of which six are highly expressed in pollen tubes. The potential functions of AtPRK1 through AtPRK5, but not of AtPRK6, in pollen growth were analyzed in tobacco. Herein, AtPRK6 was cloned, and its function was identified. AtPRK6 was expressed specifically in pollen tubes. A yeast two-hybrid screen of AtPRK6 against 14 Arabidopsis Rop guanine nucleotide exchange factors (RopGEFs) showed that AtPRK6 interacted with AtRopGEF8 and AtRopGEF12. These interactions were confirmed in Arabidopsis mesophyll protoplasts. The interactions between AtPRK6 and AtRopGEF8/12 were mediated by the C-termini of AtRopGEF8/12 and by the juxtamembrane and kinase domain of AtPRK6, but were not dependent on the kinase activity. In addition, transient overexpression of AtPRK6::GFP in Arabidopsis protoplasts revealed that AtPRK6 was localized to the plasma membrane. Tobacco pollen tubes overexpressing AtPRK6 exhibited shorter tubes with enlarged tips. This depolarized tube growth required the kinase domain of AtPRK6 and was not dependent on kinase activity. Taken together, the results show that AtPRK6, through its juxtamembrane and kinase domains (KD), interacts with AtRopGEF8/12 and plays crucial roles in polarized growth of pollen tubes.

Pollen-pistil interaction in pawpaw (Asimina triloba), the northernmost species of the mainly tropical family Annonaceae

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

The pawpaw, Asimina triloba, is an underutilized fruit crop native to North America that belongs to the mainly tropical, early-divergent family Annonaceae. Asimina is the only genus within the Annonaceae with species adapted to cold climates. A thorough analysis of its reproductive biology, specifically pollen-pistil interaction during the progamic phase, is essential to understand both its adaptation to cold climates and how to optimize its fertilization and fruit set.

METHODS

We characterized pollen-pistil interaction in Asimina triloba, including the floral cycle and anatomy, stigmatic receptivity, and the pollen tube pathway. We used a combination of histological, cytological, and immunolocalization approaches.

KEY RESULTS

Asimina triloba has a gynoecium formed by plicate carpels with a short stylar canal. Unicellular papillae form a continuous tissue covered by a copious secretion from the stigma to the ovary, which is most prominent on the stigma surface where it forms an extragynoecial compitum. Compared to the stigmas of other species in the Annonaceae, the stigmas of A. triloba show a long stigmatic receptivity associated with a long flowering cycle. Stigmatic receptivity is concomitant with the secretion of cell-wall-related arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs).

CONCLUSIONS

A long female phase with a long period of stigmatic receptivity is unusual among protogynous flowers of the magnoliid clade, suggesting a derived condition of A. triloba within the Annonaceae. This phase further correlates with the presence of cell-wall-related arabinogalactan proteins in the secretion, which may indicate the conservation of these glycoproteins during stigmatic receptivity and pollen tube growth in angiosperms.

Monomeric G-actin is uniformly distributed in pollen tubes and is rapidly redistributed via cytoplasmic streaming during pollen tube growth

Dynamic assembly and disassembly of the actin cytoskeleton has been implicated in the regulation of pollen germination and subsequent tube growth. It is widely accepted that actin filaments are arrayed into distinct structures within different regions of the pollen tube. Maintenance of the equilibrium between monomeric globular actin (G-actin) and filamentous actin (F-actin) is crucial for actin assembly and array construction, and the local concentration of G-actin thus directly impacts actin assembly. The localization and dynamics of G-actin in the pollen tube, however, remain to be determined conclusively. To address this question, we created a series of fusion proteins between green fluorescent protein (GFP) and the Arabidopsis reproductive actin ACT11. Expression of a fusion protein with GFP inserted after methionine at position 49 within the DNase I-binding loop of ACT11 (GFP_Met49 -ACT11) rescued the phenotypes in act11 mutants. Consistent with the notion that the majority of actin is in its monomeric form, GFP_Met49 -ACT11 and GFP fusion proteins of four other reproductive actins generated with the same strategy do not obviously label filamentous structures. In further support of the functionality of these fusion proteins, we found that they can be incorporated into filamentous structures in jasplakinolide (Jasp)-treated pollen tubes. Careful observations showed that G-actin is distributed uniformly in the pollen tube and is rapidly redistributed via cytoplasmic streaming during pollen tube growth. Our study suggests that G-actin is readily available in the cytoplasm to support continuous actin polymerization during rapid pollen tube growth.

Central metabolite and sterol profiling divides tobacco male gametophyte development and pollen tube growth into eight metabolic phases

While changes in the transcriptome and proteome of developing pollen have been investigated in tobacco and other species, the metabolic consequences remain rather unclear. Here, a broad range of metabolites was investigated in close succession of developmental stages. Thirteen stages of tobacco male gametophyte development were collected, ranging from tetrads to pollen tubes. Subsequently, the central metabolome and sterol composition were analyzed by GC-mass spectrometry (MS), monitoring 77 metabolites and 29 non-identified analytes. The overall results showed that development and tube growth could be divided into eight metabolic phases with the phase including mitosis I being most distinct. During maturation, compounds such as sucrose and proline accumulated. These were degraded after rehydration, while γ-aminobutyrate transiently increased, possibly deriving from proline breakdown. Sterol analysis revealed that tetrads harbor similar sterols as leaves, but throughout maturation unusual sterols increased. Lastly, two further sterols exclusively accumulated in pollen tubes. This study allows a deeper look into metabolic changes during the development of a quasi-single cell type. Metabolites accumulating during maturation might accelerate pollen germination and tube growth, protect from desiccation, and feed pollinators. Future studies of the underlying processes orchestrating the changes in metabolite levels might give valuable insights into cellular regulation of plant metabolism.

PLC-Mediated Signaling Pathway in Pollen Tubes Regulates the Gametophytic Self-incompatibility of Pyrus Species

Among the Rosaceae species, the gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI) is controlled by a single multi-allelic S locus, which is composed of the pistil-S and pollen-S genes. The pistil-S gene encodes a polymorphic ribonuclease (S-RNase), which is essential for identifying self-pollen. However, the S-RNase system has not been fully characterized. In this study, the self-S-RNase inhibited the Ca²⁺-permeable channel activity at pollen tube apices and the selectively decreased phospholipase C (PLC) activity in the plasma membrane of Pyrus pyrifolia pollen tubes. Self-S-RNase decreased the Ca²⁺ influx through a PLC-mediated signaling pathway. Phosphatidylinositol-specific PLC has a 26-amino acid insertion in pollen tubes of the 'Jinzhuili' cultivar, which is a spontaneous self-compatible mutant of the 'Yali' cultivar. 'Yali' plants exhibit a typical S-RNase-based GSI. Upon self-pollination, PLC gene expression is significantly higher in 'Jinzhuili' pollen tubes than that in 'Yali' pollen tubes. Moreover, the PLC in pollen tubes can only interact with one of the two types of S-RNase from the style. In the Pyrus x bretschneideri Rehd, the PLC directly interacted with the S₇-RNase in the pollen tube, but not with the S₃₄-RNase. Collectively, our results reveal that the effects of S-RNase on PLC activity are required for S-specific pollen rejection, and that PLC-IP₃ participates in the self-incompatibility reaction of Pyrus species.

Organizational Innovation of Apical Actin Filaments Drives Rapid Pollen Tube Growth and Turning

Polarized tip growth is a fundamental cellular process in many eukaryotes. In this study, we examined the dynamic restructuring of the actin cytoskeleton and its relationship to vesicle transport during pollen tip growth in Arabidopsis. We found that actin filaments originating from the apical membrane form a specialized structure consisting of longitudinally aligned actin bundles at the cortex and inner cytoplasmic filaments with a distinct distribution. Using actin-based pharmacological treatments and genetic mutants in combination with FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching) technology to visualize the transport of vesicles within the growth domain of pollen tubes, we demonstrated that cortical actin filaments facilitate tip-ward vesicle transport. We also discovered that the inner apical actin filaments prevent backward movement of vesicles, thus ensuring that sufficient vesicles accumulate at the pollen tube tip to support the rapid growth of the pollen tube. The combinatorial effect of cortical and internal apical actin filaments perfectly explains the generation of the inverted "V" cone-shaped vesicle distribution pattern at the pollen tube tip. When pollen tubes turn, apical actin filaments at the facing side undergo depolymerization and repolymerization to reorient the apical actin structure toward the new growth direction. This actin restructuring precedes vesicle accumulation and changes in tube morphology. Thus, our study provides new insights into the functional relationship between actin dynamics and vesicle transport during rapid and directional pollen tube growth.

The Arabidopsis GPR1 Gene Negatively Affects Pollen Germination, Pollen Tube Growth, and Gametophyte Senescence

Genes essential for gametophyte development and fertilization have been identified and studied in detail; however, genes that fine-tune these processes are largely unknown. Here, we characterized an unknown Arabidopsis gene, GTP-BINDING PROTEIN RELATED1 (GPR1). GPR1 is specifically expressed in ovule, pollen, and pollen tube. Enhanced green fluorescent protein-tagged GPR1 localizes to both nucleus and cytoplasm, and it also presents in punctate and ring-like structures. gpr1 mutants exhibit no defect in gametogenesis and seed setting, except that their pollen grains are pale in color. Scanning electron microscopy analyses revealed a normal patterned but thinner exine on gpr1 pollen surface. This may explain why gpr1 pollen grains are pale. We next examined whether GPR1 mutation affects post gametogenesis processes including pollen germination, pollen tube growth, and ovule senescence. We found that gpr1 pollen grains germinated earlier, and their pollen tubes elongated faster. Emasculation assay revealed that unfertilized gpr1 pistil expressed the senescence marker P_BFN1:GUS (GUS: a reporter gene that encodes β-glucuronidase) one-day earlier than the wild type pistil. Consistently, ovules and pollen grains of gpr1 mutants showed lower viability than those of the wild type at 4 to 5 days post anthesis. Together, these data suggest that GPR1 functions as a negative regulator of pollen germination, pollen tube growth, and gametophyte senescence to fine-tune the fertilization process.

Pollen tube vs CHUKNORRIS: the action is pulsatile

This article comments on: Damineli SC, Portes MT, Feijo JA. 2017. Oscillatory signatures underlie growth regimes in Arabidopsis pollen tubes: computational methods to estimate tip location, periodicity, and synchronization in growing cells. Journal of Experimental Botany 68, 3267–3281.

LlFH1-mediated interaction between actin fringe and exocytic vesicles is involved in pollen tube tip growth

Pollen tube tip growth is an extreme form of polarized cell growth, which requires polarized exocytosis based on a dynamic actin cytoskeleton. However, the molecular basis for the connection between actin filaments and exocytic vesicles is unclear. Here, we identified a Lilium longiflorum pollen-specific formin (LlFH1) and found that it localized at the apical vesicles and plasma membrane (PM). Overexpression of LlFH1 induced excessive actin cables in the tube tip region, and downregulation of LlFH1 eliminated the actin fringe. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) analysis revealed that LlFH1-labeled exocytic vesicles exhibited an initial accumulation at the shoulder of the apex and coincided with the leading edge of the actin fringe. Time-lapse analysis suggested that nascent actin filaments followed the emergence of the apical vesicles, implying that LlFH1 at apical vesicles could initiate actin polymerization. Biochemical assays showed that LlFH1 FH1FH2 could nucleate actin polymerization, but then capped the actin filament at the barbed end and inhibited its elongation. However, in the presence of lily profilins, LlFH1 FH1FH2 could accelerate barbed-end actin elongation. In addition, LlFH1 FH1FH2 was able to bundle actin filaments. Thus, we propose that LlFH1 and profilin coordinate the interaction between the actin fringe and exocytic vesicle trafficking during pollen tube growth of lily.

Physiological influence of silica on germinating pollen as shown by Raman spectroscopy

The process of silicification in plants and the biochemical effects of silica in plant tissues are largely unknown. To study the molecular changes occurring in growing cells that are exposed to higher than normal concentration of silicic acid, Raman spectra of germinating pollen grains of three species (Pinus nigra, Picea omorika, and Camellia japonica) were analyzed in a multivariate classification approach that takes into account the variation of biochemical composition due to species, plant tissue structure, and germination condition. The results of principal component analyses of the Raman spectra indicate differences in the utilization of stored lipids, a changed mobilization of storage carbohydrates in the pollen grain bodies, and altered composition and/or structure of cellulose of the developing pollen tube cell walls. These biochemical changes vary in the different species.

Germline Development and Fertilization Mechanisms in Maize

Maize is the most important agricultural crop used for food, feed, and biofuel as well as a raw material for industrial products such as packaging material. To increase yield and to overcome hybridization barriers, studies of maize gamete development, the pollen tube journey, and fertilization mechanisms were initiated more than a century ago. In this review, we summarize and discuss our current understanding of the regulatory components for germline development including sporogenesis and gametogenesis, the progamic phase of pollen germination and pollen tube growth and guidance, as well as fertilization mechanisms consisting of pollen tube arrival and reception, sperm cell release, fusion with the female gametes, and egg cell activation. Mechanisms of asexual seed development are not considered here. While only a few molecular players involved in these processes have been described to date and the underlying mechanisms are far from being understood, maize now represents a spearhead of reproductive research for all grass species. Recent development of essentially improved transformation and gene-editing systems may boost research in this area in the near future.

Secretion and Endocytosis in Pollen Tubes: Models of Tip Growth in the Spot Light

Pollen tube tip growth is a widely used model ideally suited to study cellular processes underlying polarized cell expansion. Local secretion supplying material for plasma membrane (PM) and cell wall extension is essential for this process. Cell wall biogenesis requires fusion of secretory vesicles with the PM at an about 10× higher rate than PM extension. Excess material is therefore incorporated into the PM, which needs to be reinternalized through endocytosis. The classical model of tip growth proposes that exocytosis occurs at the apex and that newly incorporated PM material is transported to adjacent lateral regions, where excess material is endocytically recycled. This model was recently challenged based on studies indicating that lateral exocytosis may be balanced by apical endocytosis. This review provides an overview of published data pertaining to exocytosis, endocytosis and vesicular trafficking in pollen tubes. Its key aim is to present classical and alternative models of tip growth in the light of available experimental data. By necessity, the review focusses on pollen tubes of angiosperm models (Nicotiana tabacum, Arabidopsis, Lilium longiflorum), which have been studied far more extensively and grow much faster than structurally strikingly different gymnosperm pollen tubes. Only major transport pathways are considered, which substantially contribute to the mass-flow of membrane material at the pollen tube tip. Growth oscillation, which may be displayed in particular by fast-growing pollen tubes, are not discussed as their influence on the spatial organization of apical membrane traffic is not understood.

Direct Comparison of the Performance of Commonly Employed In Vivo F-actin Markers (Lifeact-YFP, YFP-mTn and YFP-FABD2) in Tobacco Pollen Tubes

In vivo markers for F-actin organization and dynamics are extensively used to investigate cellular functions of the actin cytoskeleton, which are essential for plant development and pathogen defense. The most widely employed markers are GFP variants fused to F-actin binding domains of mouse talin (GFP-mTn), Arabidopsis fimbrin1 (GFP-FABD2) or yeast Abp140 (Lifeact-GFP). Although numerous reports describing applications of one, or occasionally more, of these markers, are available in the literature, a direct quantitative comparison of the performance of all three markers at different expression levels has been missing. Here, we analyze F-actin organization and growth rate displayed by tobacco pollen tubes expressing YFP-mTn, YFP-FABD2 or Lifeact-YFP at different levels. Results obtained establish that: (1) all markers strongly affect F-actin organization and cell expansion at high expression levels, (2) YFP-mTn and Lifeact-YFP non-invasively label the same F-actin structures (longitudinally oriented filaments in the shank, a subapical fringe) at low expression levels, (3) Lifeact-YFP displays a somewhat lower potential to affect F-actin organization and cell expansion than YFP-mTn, and (4) YFP-FABD2 generally fails to label F-actin structures at the pollen tube tip and affects F-actin organization as well as cell expansion already at lowest expression levels. As pointed out in the discussion, these observations (1) are also meaningful for F-actin labeling in other cell types, which generally respond less sensitively to F-actin perturbation than pollen tubes, (2) help selecting suitable markers for future F-actin labeling experiments, and (3) support the assessment of a substantial amount of published data resulting from such experiments.

The Kinase ERULUS Controls Pollen Tube Targeting and Growth in Arabidopsis thaliana

In this paper, we describe the role of the receptor-like kinase ERULUS (ERU) in PT growth of Arabidopsis thaliana. In silico analysis and transcriptional reporter lines revealed that ERU is only expressed in pollen and root hairs (RHs), making it a tip growth-specific kinase. Deviations from Mendelian inheritance were observed in the offspring of self-pollinated heterozygous eru plants. We found that in vivo eru PT targeting was disturbed, providing a possible explanation for the observed decrease in eru fertilization competitiveness. Extracellular calcium perception and intracellular calcium dynamics lie at the basis of in vivo pollen tube (PT) tip growth and guidance. In vitro, ERU loss-of-function lines displayed no obvious PT phenotype, unless grown on low extracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]_ext) medium. When grown at 12 the normal [Ca²⁺]_ext, eru PTs grew 37% slower relative to WT PTs. Visualization of cytoplasmic [Ca²⁺]_cyt oscillations using the Yellow Cameleon 3.6 (YC3.6) calcium sensor showed that, unlike in WT PTs, eru apical [Ca²⁺]_cyt oscillations occur at a lower frequency when grown at lower [Ca²⁺]_ext, consistent with the observed reduced growth velocity. Our results show that the tip growth-specific kinase ERULUS is involved in regulating Ca²⁺-dependent PT growth, and most importantly, fertilization efficiency through successful PT targeting to the ovules.

MARIS plays important roles in Arabidopsis pollen tube and root hair growth

In flowering plants, male gametes are delivered to female gametes for double fertilization through pollen tubes. Therefore, pollen tube growth is crucial for double fertilization. Despite its importance to sexual reproduction, genetic mechanisms of pollen tube growth remain poorly understood. In this study, we characterized the receptor-like cytoplasmic protein kinase (RLCK) gene, MARIS (MRI) that plays critical roles in pollen tube growth. MRI is preferentially expressed in pollen grains, pollen tubes and roots. Mutation in MRI by a Ds insertion led to a burst of pollen tubes after pollen germination. Pollen-rescue assay by pollen and pollen tube-specific expression of MRI in the mri-4 mutant showed that loss of MRI function also severely affected root hair elongation. MRI protein interacted with the protein kinase OXIDATIVE SIGNAL INDUCIBLE1 (OXI1) in the in vitro and in vivo assays, which functions in plant defence and root hair development, and was phosphorylated by OXI1 in vitro. Our results suggest that MRI plays important roles in pollen tube growth and may function in root hair elongation through interaction with OXI1.