[Optimization of the mineral nutrition of plants constituting the phototrophic component of closed biological life support systems]

Applicability of a new substrate for crops cultivation in bioregenerative LSSs with a high degree of mass-exchange closure was tested. Optimization of leaf cabbage nutrition by supplementing the basic substrate fabricated of plant and animal residues with ion-exchange resins proved to have a success.

Insect food for astronauts: gas exchange in silkworms fed on mulberry and lettuce and the nutritional value of these insects for human consumption during deep space flights

In this study, silkworm moth (Bombyx mori L.) larvae were regarded as an animal protein source for astronauts in the bioregenerative life support system during long-term deep space exploration in the future. They were fed with mulberry and stem lettuce leaves during the first three instars and the last two instars, respectively. In addition, this kind of environmental approach, which utilised inedible biomass of plants to produce animal protein of high quality, can likewise be applied terrestrially to provide food for people living in extreme environments and/or impoverished agro-ecosystems, such as in polar regions, isolated military bases, ships, submarines, etc. Respiration characteristics of the larvae during development under two main physiological conditions, namely eating and not-eating of leaves, were studied. Nutrient compositions of silkworm powder (SP), ground and freeze-dried silkworms on the 3rd day of the 5th instar larvae, including protein, fat, vitamins, minerals and fatty acids, were measured using international standard methods. Silkworms' respiration rates, measured when larvae were eating mulberry leaves, were higher than those of similar larvae that hadn't eaten such leaves. There was a significant difference between silkworms fed on mulberry leaves and those fed on stem lettuce in the 4th and 5th instars (P<0.01). Amounts of CO2 exhaled by the silkworms under the two physiological regimes differed from each other (P<0.01). There was also a significant difference between the amount of O2 inhaled when the insects were under the two physiological statuses (P<0.01). Moreover, silkworms' respiration quotient under the eating regime was larger than when under the not-eating regime. The SP was found to be rich in protein and amino acids in total; 12 essential vitamins, nine minerals and twelve fatty acids were detected. Moreover, 359 kcal could be generated per 100 gram of SP (dry weight).

[The cascade scheme as a methodical platform for analysis of health risks in space flight and partially and fully analog conditions]

Space anthropoecology, a subsection of human ecology, studies various aspects of physiological, psychological, social and professional adaptation to the extreme environment of space flight and human life and work in partially- and fully analogous conditions on Earth. Both SF and simulated extreme conditions are known for high human safety standards and a substantial analytic base that secures on-line analysis of torrent of information. Management evaluation and response to germing undesired developments aimed to curb their impact on the functioning of the crew-vehicle-environment system and human health involve the complete wealth of knowledge about risks to human health and performance. Spacecrew safety issues are tackled by experts of many specialties which emphasizes the importance of integral methodical approaches to risk estimation and mitigation, setting up barriers to adverse trends in human physiology and psychology in challenging conditions, and minimization of delayed effects on professional longevity and disorders in behavioral reactions.

[Hemostasis system indices in the course of a 105-day hermo chamber isolation experiment]

The present paper deals with studying of hemostasis system indices in the course of the experiment with a 105-day isolation in a hermo chamber. The following values were determined: activated partial thromboplastin time, prothrombin time (PT), prothrombin index (PI), international normalized ratio [relationship] (INR), thrombin time, fibrinogen concentration, soluble fibrin-monomer complexes, D-dimer, plasminogen (PG), activity of antithrombin III, protein C, alpha2-antiplasmin. According to the experiment results, isolation is accompanied by PT prolongation (PI decreasing, INR increasing) which conserves up to the 7th day of the aftereffect period, as well as by PG concentration decreasing. Changes are likely to be connected with peculiarities of reduced motion activity conditions, compensatory physical activity influence, protein and lipid metabolism characteristics changing.

[Variability of urine proteome of healthy persons during 105-daily isolation]

Human proteome is very plastic, it changes under the influence of various biological factors. It is of big interest to find out how specific factors of an environment, including a long-term isolation affect on urine proteome. The study was conducted during the experiment with 105-day isolation. In the present investigation we collected urine samples from 6 healthy volunteers (26-41 years old). The physical activity, daily rhythms and diet were controlled. Urine samples were fractionated on magnetic beads MB-HIC C8 (MB - hydrophobic-interaction chromatography) with ClinProt robot (Bruker Daltonics) prior to MALDI-TOF mass spectrometer analysis with Autoflex III TOF/TOF (Bruker Daltonics), working in a positive linear mode. 117 peaks have been obtained in each spectrum of urine. We have shown that even during isolation and under controlled conditions of life a high variability of urine proteome of healthy personas (36 protein MC-peaks in the urine, on average) are revealed.

[Investigation of mineral density and the bone structure following 105 day experiment in an isolated environment (MARS-105)]

Healthy volunteers' bone system investigation was performed before and after 105 days experiment in an isolated environment (MARS-105) using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT). Volumetric bone mineral density (VBMD), bone mineral density (BMD), structural parameters of radius and tibia were evaluated. There were no significant BMD changes revealed in skeletal parts critical in terms of biomechanical properties. pQCT examination noted microarchitecture deterioration of radius that was reflected in decreasing of trabecular number and increasing of bone tissue inhomogeneity. Decreasing VBMD both cortical and trabecular bone were revealed for tibia. Unexpectedly, increasing oftrabecular number and decreasing of inhomogeneity were revealed for tibia. Experiment showed that only the complex investigation including DXA and pQCT measurements gives an idea about bone system changes under simulated experiment conditions.

[Comparative evaluation of productivity of several green cultures as potential higher plant components of bio-regenerative systems of life support]

Purpose of the investigation was to select, analyze and evaluate green plant species known for assisting resistance to diseases and improving physiological functions in humans, and to test allelopathic compatibility of selected species with basic systems for life support. Nutrient substrates were freshly made soil-like substrate (SLS) and clayite. Green cultures were 6 spinach species, 2 lettuces, 2 leaf cabbage species and ruccola. The investigations showed that plant productivity was either equal to or better on freshly made SLS than on clayite; however, the greens accumulated large quantities of nitrate nitrogen. The highest productivity distinguished leaf cabbage; the best antiradical properties was demonstrated by lettuces and the worst, by some spinach species. None of the species displayed a negative allelopathic effect on productivity of the reddish test culture.

Inferring chemical effects on carbon flows in aquatic food webs: methodology and case study

The majority of ecotoxicological enclosure experiments monitor species abundances at different chemical concentrations. Here, we present a new modelling approach that estimates changes in food web flows from such data and show that population- and food web level effects are revealed that are not apparent from abundance data alone. For the case of cypermethrin in freshwater enclosures, photosynthesis and excretion (d(-1)) of phytoplankton at 3.643 microg L(-1) cypermethrin were 30% lower and 100% higher than in the control, respectively. The ingestion rate of mesozooplankton (d(-1)) was 6 times higher in the treated enclosures than in the control as food concentration increased with insecticide exposure. With increasing cypermethrin concentrations, nanoflagellates progressively relied on phytoplankton as their main food source, which rendered the food web less stable. We conclude that this tool has excellent potential to analyse the wealth of enclosure data as it only needs species abundance and general constraints.

[Retention of the skill to perform adaptive bio-control of bioelectrical activity synchronization in the human brain cortex in an argon-nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere with various oxygen content]

The best method to prevent fire incident in space vehicles and other habitable pressurized modules is reduction of atmospheric oxygen concentration (hypoxia). Atmosphere doping with argon may ease tolerance of this hypoxia by humans. Mental performance in Ag-N2-O2 atmosphere with various oxygen content was assed by: retention of the skill to perform adaptive biocontrol (ABC) of bioelectrical activity synchronization in the frontoparietal and parietooccipital cortex (EEG); emotional and mental state (Luscher test); work successfulness (completion of PC games "Miner"and "Tetris"). The Ag-N2-O2 atmosphere did not affect, despite the fluctuation of anxiety, simulated work completion and long-term (within 24 hours) retention of the relevant to ABC skills.

[Handling and maintenance of gerbils during the spacecraft Foton-M3 mission]

Pressurized low-sized module Kontur with an independent life support system (LSS) was developed by the Institute of Biomedical Problems cooperatively with the Special Design Bureau of Experimental Equipment to house gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) aboard robotic technology-purpose spacecraft. Design of the module precludes pollution of the environment The fully equipped module weighs 69 kg; average daily power consumption is 62 watts. The environmental parameters for 12 animals flown on Foton-M3 in the period of September 14-26, 2007 were controlled within the following ranges: pO2 - 143-156 mm Hg, (mean 150 mm Hg), pCO2 - 0.76 mm Hg maximum (mean 0.64 mm Hg), temperature - 23-28 degrees C (mean 26.7 degrees C), relative humidity - 29% and 57% at the beginning and end of the flight, respectively (mean 39%). The animals consumed the palletized food prepared of natural products with a moisture content of approx. 20%. The day-night periods were 12 hrs. long. The daytime video recording of the animals went on continuously in the throughout the flight. The experiment showed that the module meets the requirements of experiments with mammals aboard returnable robotic spacecraft and piloted space stations. At the moment, the model is being redesigned for a 30-day BION-M1 mission.

Nitrate removal in a closed marine system through the ion exchange membrane bioreactor

The accumulation of nitrate in closed marine systems presents a problem for both the marine life and the environment. The present study, proposes the application of the ion exchange membrane bioreactor (IEMB) concept for removing nitrate from marine systems, such as aquaculture tanks or marine aquariums. The results obtained demonstrate that the IEMB was able to remove naturally accumulated nitrate from water taken from a public marine aquarium (Oceanário de Lisboa) and bioconvert it, in an isolated compartment (biocompartment), to molecular nitrogen, thus preventing secondary contamination of the treated water by microbial cells, metabolic by-products and excess of carbon source (ethanol). This system allowed for the removal of nitrate at concentrations of 251 and 380 mg/l down to below 27 mg/l exchanging it for chloride. Under the studied operating conditions, the IEMB proves to be a selective nitrate removing technology preserving the initial water composition with respect to cations, due to the Donnan exclusion effect from the membrane, and minimizing the counter diffusion of anions other than nitrate and chloride, due to the use of water with the same ionic composition in the biocompartment. This is an advantage of the IEMB concept, since the quality of the water produced would allow for the reutilisation of the treated water in the aquarium, thereby reducing both the wastewater volume and the use of fresh water.

Life history parameters of Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) at different environmental conditions on two bean cultivars

Life-history parameters of the greenhouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood), an important pest of bean crops in Colombia, were determined in environmental control chambers on two dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) cultivars (cv.). Trialeurodes vaporariorum longevity on cv. Chocho decreased as temperature increased from 22.6 d at 19 degrees C to 5.9 d at 26 degrees C. Fecundity was significantly lower at 19 degrees C (8.6 eggs/female), as compared to 22 degrees C (32.6 eggs/female) and 26 degrees C (33.3 eggs/female) on cv. Chocho. Fecundity on cv. ICA-Pijao was much higher (127.2 eggs/female) than on cv. Chocho (32.6 eggs/female) at 19 degrees C. The intrinsic rate of population increase (r m) was highest at 22 degrees C (0.061), intermediate at 19 degrees C (0.044) and lowest at 26 degrees C (0.035) on cv. Chocho, and was 0.072 on cv. ICA-Pijao at 19 degrees C. Life history parameters of T. vaporariorum are compared to those of one of its natural enemies, the parasitoid Amitus fuscipennis MacGown & Nebeker. Finally, data are presented on the distribution of the parasitoid related to the altitude for the Valle del Cauca, Colombia.

[Characteristic of toxic risks of air pollution by chemical admixtures aboard the piloted orbital stations]

Trends in the chemical composition of air revealed by the sanitary-chemical and toxicological investigations in multifactorial ground-based tests and long-term space flights aboard the Salyut- 6, 7, Mir and the International space station have been used to deduce the chemical characteristic and to substantiate methods to and criteria for evaluation of toxic risks to space crews from air chemical pollution. Of particular concern were the toxic risks and crew protection during the first ingress to modules on the stage of station assembly in orbit, in the course of long-term missions, and in the event of acute exposure in off-nominal and emergency conditions.

[A promising method of hygienic evaluation of air pollution inside the modules of the international space station by hydrazine derivatives]

The increasing frequency of ISS egress operations resulted in ISS air pollution by an uncharacteristic group of toxic compounds, i. e. propellant residues and products of propellant incomplete burning. High reactivity and toxicity of these compounds necessitated the development of a method of sanitary-chemical evaluation of ISS air safety given penetration of the new pollutants. The method is fulfilled in two stages. First is air sampling and then--sample analysis in ground laboratory by chromatography-mass spectrometry. Air sampling, as well as sample handling and analysis procedures were refined with the use of artificial gas mixtures. The proposed method shows promise as an instrument for the hygienic evaluation of ISS air pollution by hydrazine derivatives.

[Life support of the Mars exploration crew. Control of a zeolite system for carbon dioxide removal from space cabin air within a closed air regeneration cycle]

The author describes a zeolite system for carbon dioxide removal integrated into a closed air regeneration cycle aboard spacecraft. The continuous operation of a double-adsorbent regeneration system with pCO2-dependable productivity is maintained through programmable setting of adsorption (desorption) semicycle time. The optimal system regulation curve is presented within the space of statistical performance family obtained in quasi-steady operating modes with controlled parameters of the recurrent adsorption-desorption cycle. The automatically changing system productivity ensures continuous intake of concentrated CO2. Control of the adsorption-desorption process is based on calculation of the differential adsorption (desorption) heat from gradient of adsorbent and test inert substance temperatures. The adaptive algorithm of digital control is implemented through the standard spacecraft interface with the board computer system and programmable microprocessor-based controllers.

[Possible ways to include human exometabolites in the turnover of biological life support system]

Purpose of the investigation was to study feasibility to include solid and liquid human discharges in the turnover of bioregenerative life support systems for physical/chemical and biological treatment. Human exometabolites were mineralized by way of wet process in hydrogen peroxide in alternating electromagnetic field. The resultant solutions were used to water plants cultivated on a soil-like substrate or haydite. Given that urea as a source of nitrogen for BLSS is undesirable, in one of the experiments mineralization was followed by enzymatic urea decomposition with soybean flour urease. The experiments showed no difference in the productivity of plants cultivated on a standard mineral medium and with the use of mineralized exometabolites.

[Current status of life support systems for cosmonauts and ways of their enhancement in near future]

The paper reviews the results of efforts undertaken so far to develop three types of life support systems: fill-and-draw and physicochemical reclamation systems for space flights of up to one year in duration, and systems for more extended missions. The authors point to the engineering and logistical issues that should be given the highest priority in the next decades.

Pollutants removal and simulation model of combined membrane process for wastewater treatment and reuse in submarine cabin for long voyage

A laboratory scale test was conducted in a combined membrane process (CMP) with a capacity of 2.91 m3/d for 240 d to treat the mixed wastewater of humidity condensate, hygiene wastewater and urine in submarine cabin during prolonged voyage. Removal performance of chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonia nitrogen (NH(4+)-N), turbidity and anionic surfactants (LAS) was investigated under different conditions. It was observed that the effluent COD, NH(4+)-N, turbidity and LAS flocculated in ranges of 0.19-0.85 mg/L, 0.03-0.18 mg/L, 0.0-0.15 NTU and 0.0-0.05 mg/L, respectively in spite of considerable fluctuation in corresponding influent of 2120-5350 mg/L, 79.5-129.3 mg/L, 110-181.1NTU and 4.9-5.4 mg/L. The effluent quality of the CMP could meet the requirements of mechanical water and hygiene water according to the class I water quality standards in China (GB3838-2002). The removal rates of COD, NH(4+)-N, turbidity and LAS removed in the MBR were more than 90%, which indicated that biodegradation is indispensable and plays a major role in the wastewater treatment and reuse. A model, built on the back propagation neural network (BPNN) theory, was developed for the simulation of CMP and produced high reliability. The average error of COD and NH(4+)-N was 5.14% and 6.20%, respectively, and the root mean squared error of turbidity and LAS was 2.76% and 1.41%, respectively. The results indicated that the model well fitted the laboratory data, and was able to simulate the removal of COD, NH(4+)-N, turbidity and LAS. It also suggested that the model proposed could reflect and manage the operation of CMP for the treatment of the mixed wastewaters in submarine.

Application of membrane bioreactors in the preliminary treatment of early planetary base wastewater for long-duration space missions

Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) are the preferred technology for the preliminary treatment of Early Planetary Base Wastewater (EPBW) because of their compact configuration and promising treatment performance. For long-duration space missions, irreversible membrane biofouling resulting from the strong attachment of biomass and the formation of biofilms are major concerns for the MBR process. In this study, a MBR was operated for 230 days treating synthetic EPBW. The reactor demonstrated excellent treatment performance, in terms of chemical oxygen demand removal and nitrification. Filtration resistance is mainly caused by concentration polarization, reversible fouling, and irreversible fouling. Analysis of the microbial communities in the planktonic and corresponding sessile biomass suggested that the microbial community of the planktonic biomass was significantly different from the one of the sessile biomass. This study provides valuable information for the development of the water reuse component in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (Washington, D.C.) Advanced Life Support system for long-term space missions.

Pollination of cucumber, Cucumis sativus L. (Cucurbitales: Cucurbitaceae), by the stingless bees Scaptotrigona aff. depilis moure and Nannotrigona testaceicornis Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Meliponini) in greenhouses

When for a successful fruit development the fertilization of flowers is necessary, bees can be used as crop-pollinators in greenhouses. In the present study, we investigated the effectiveness of the stingless bees Scaptotrigona aff. depilis Moure and Nannotrigona testaceicornis Lepeletier as pollinators of cucumber plants (Cucumus sativus var. caipira) in greenhouses during the Brazilian winter season. The study was conducted in four greenhouses (GH), of which two greenhouses contained bee colonies to ascertain pollination of the cucumber plants (GH I, with S. aff. depilis, GH II, with N. testaceicornis), whereas the other two greenhouses (GH III, GH IV) had no bee colonies and served as control groups. Furthermore, we planted cucumbers in an open field plot (OA) where pollination by any/various visiting insects could occur. Each of the experimental areas measured 87.5 m2. Without pollination (GH III, GH IV), the plants produced a low number of cucumbers, and the fruits were smaller and less heavy than in those experimental areas where pollination occurred. In the open field area, not protected against unfavorable climatic conditions, the plants produced fewer flowers than the plants in the greenhouses. The highest cucumber yield (with the highest amount of perfect fruits) was found in those greenhouses which housed the stingless bees as pollinators (GH I, GH II). Our results demonstrate that stingless bees can be successfully and efficiently used as pollinators of greenhouse cucumbers during the winter season.

[Choice of a method and a type of device for water decontamination and warming within physical-chemical life support systems]

The review has been undertaken within project Mars-500 supported by the Russian Academy of Sciences and aimed to make choice of a method and associated device for effective decontamination and warming potable water for humans during long confinement and isolation. Analysis of the literary data and patent specifications of chemical, physical and hybrid methods of water decontamination and warming guided the choice of energy of ultrahigh frequencies (UHF). Also, a waveguide-coaxial UHF-device implementing this method was proposed. Ease of the UHF energy transformation to heat, reliability, friendliness and impart attractiveness to the method in the eye of developers of long-operating physical-chemical life support systems.