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Campbell K, Stewart LD, Doucette GJ, Fodey TL, Haughey SA, Vilariño N, Kawatsu K, Elliott CT. Assessment of Specific Binding Proteins Suitable for the Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Poisons Using Optical Biosensor Technology. Anal Chem 2007; 79:5906-14. [PMID: 17580984 DOI: 10.1021/ac070342o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxin monitoring in shellfish is currently performed using the internationally accredited AOAC mouse bioassay. Due to ethical and performance-related issues associated with this bioassay, the European Commission has recently published directives extending procedures that may be used for official PSP control. The feasibility of using a surface plasmon resonance optical biosensor to detect PSP toxins in shellfish tissue below regulatory levels was examined. Three different PSP toxin protein binders were investigated: a sodium channel receptor (SCR) preparation derived from rat brains, a monoclonal antibody (GT13-A) raised to gonyautoxin 2/3, and a rabbit polyclonal antibody (R895) raised to saxitoxin (STX). Inhibition assay formats were used throughout. Immobilization of STX to the biosensor chip surface was achieved via amino-coupling. Specific binding and inhibition of binding to this surface was achieved using all proteins tested. For STX calibration curves, 0-1000 ng/mL, IC50 values for each binder were as follows: SCR 8.11 ng/mL; GT13-A 5.77 ng/mL; and R895 1.56 ng/mL. Each binder demonstrated a different cross-reactivity profile against a range of STX analogues. R895 delivered a profile that was most likely to detect the widest range of PSP toxins at or below the internationally adopted regulatory limits.
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77
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Diener M, Erler K, Christian B, Luckas B. Application of a new zwitterionic hydrophilic interaction chromatography column for determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins. J Sep Sci 2007; 30:1821-6. [PMID: 17638360 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200700025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A novel method for paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins which is based on the chromatographic separation of the toxins using a zwitterionic (ZIC) hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) column is presented. Efficient retention of the polar PSP toxins on the ZIC-HILIC column allowed their selective and sensitive determination by the application of mass spectrometric (MS/MS) detection or as derivatives after oxidation prior to fluorescence detection (FD). Low buffer concentrations and the omission of ion-pair reagents decreased the limits of detection (LODs) by MS/MS analysis and showed a good linearity for both methods of detection. This method can be applied for the qualitative and quantitative determination of PSP toxins in various types of phytoplankton, and for the routine analysis of seafood.
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78
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Manger R, Woodle D, Berger A, Hungerford J. Flow cytometric detection of saxitoxins using fluorescent voltage-sensitive dyes. Anal Biochem 2007; 366:149-55. [PMID: 17512490 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2007.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2006] [Revised: 03/24/2007] [Accepted: 04/06/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
By virtue of their ability to block depolarization of nerve cells, the saxitoxins exert the toxic effects associated with paralytic shellfish poisoning and allow for their detection through various methodologies. When veratridine-induced depolarization is followed using voltage-sensitive fluorescent dyes, the presence of these toxic blocking agents can be observed as a decrease in fluorescence of dye-treated nerve cells. Detection using flow cytometry provides for selection of the most responsive population of cultured mouse neuroblastoma (Neuro 2a) cells thereby enhancing assay sensitivity and this approach can be accomplished in real time. The method is demonstrated in preliminary studies using saxitoxin and crude shellfish extracts.
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79
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Van Egmond HP, Jonker KM, Poelman M, Scherpenisse P, Stern AG, Wezenbeek P, Bergwerff AA, Van den Top HJ. Proficiency studies on the determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in shellfish. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 21:331-40. [PMID: 15204557 DOI: 10.1080/02652030410001662057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins are produced by dinoflagellates. Shellfish filtering these unicellular algae will accumulate the toxins and pose a health risk when consumed by man. In the European Union, paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in bivalve molluscs are regulated at a maximum content of 80 microg/100 g (91/492/EEC). The current reference method in the European Union is the mouse bioassay, but alternative methods including the liquid chromatography methodology are preferred for ethical reasons. Analyses of suspected shellfish batches revealed, however, unacceptable differences in results reported by a small group of Dutch laboratories all using liquid chromatography methods with precolumn derivatization, followed by fluorescence detection. Therefore, a series of proficiency studies were undertaken among these laboratories. In the first three studies, participants were more or less allowed their own choice of method execution details. This approach yielded unsatisfactory results. A fourth study was then initiated in which a standardized method was mandatory. Two types of test material were used in the fourth study: lyophilized Cardium tuberculatum material containing saxitoxin (STX) and decarbamoyl-saxitoxin (dc-STX), and lyophilized mussel material containing dc-STX. The latter material was investigated in an interlaboratory study involving 15 participants and was considered as the reference material. Among the four laboratories, coefficients of variation (ANOVA) for C. tuberculatum material were 10% (n = 11) and 9% (n = 12) for STX and dc-STX, respectively, and for the reference material was 8% (n = 12) for dc-STX. The joint efforts showed that variability in analysis results between laboratories that all apply more or less the same method can be drastically improved if the methodology is rigorously standardized.
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80
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Gawley RE, Mao H, Haque MM, Thorne JB, Pharr JS. Visible fluorescence chemosensor for saxitoxin. J Org Chem 2007; 72:2187-91. [PMID: 17298099 PMCID: PMC2527746 DOI: 10.1021/jo062506r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Absorption spectra of a number of shellfish extracts have been obtained and reveal prominent absorptions in all samples at 210 and 260 nm and at 325 nm in some of them. These absorptions preclude the use of chromophores with similar absorptions in testing of shellfish samples for paralytic shellfish toxins. Two crown ether chemosensors featuring a boron azadipyrrin chromophore have been synthesized; both have absorption maxima at 650 nm, where all the shellfish extracts are transparent. The synthetic sensors feature either 18- or 27-membered crown ether rings and have been evaluated as visible sensors for the paralytic shellfish toxin saxitoxin. The binding constant for one of them is in the range of 3-9x10(5) M-1 and exhibits a fluorescence enhancement of over 100% at 680 nm in the presence of 40 microM saxitoxin.
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81
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Kokhanova IA, Kiseleva TV, Khotimchenko SA. [Phycotoxins of ASP, PSP and DSP groups in aquaris organisms]. Vopr Pitan 2007; 76:54-7. [PMID: 17802777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
In this article the results of analysis of ASP, PSP and DSP phycotoxins content in aquatic organisms are presented. Methods of determination of toxins were ELISA and HPLS.
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82
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Jang J, Yotsu-Yamashita M. Distribution of tetrodotoxin, saxitoxin, and their analogs among tissues of the puffer fish Fugu pardalis. Toxicon 2006; 48:980-7. [PMID: 16997342 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.07.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2006] [Revised: 07/20/2006] [Accepted: 07/25/2006] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The anatomical distribution of tetrodotoxin (TTX), saxitoxin (STX) and their analogs (TTXs, STXs) in three female and three male specimens of the marine puffer fish Fugu pardalis from Miyagi Prefecture, 2005, Japan, were studied. 5-DeoxyTTX, 11-deoxyTTX, and 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX were quantified by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) for the first time, and other TTXs and STXs were determined by liquid chromatography-fluorescent detection (LC-FLD). As a result, 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX was found to be the major TTX analog in all tissues tested, whereas 5-deoxyTTX and 11-deoxyTTX were minor components. Especially, in female (n=3), the ratios of 5,6,11-trideoxyTTX to total of all TTX analogs (mole/mole) in ovaries (mean+/-SD, 0.42+/-0.055) were significantly larger than those in livers (0.17+/-0.025) (P<0.05). In contrary, the ratios of 4,9-anhydroTTX to total of all TTX analogs in livers (0.27+/-0.047) were significantly larger than those in ovaries (0.073+/-0.040) (P<0.01). The ratios of TTX to total of all TTX analogs were not significantly different between ovaries (0.47+/-0.078) and livers (0.55+/-0.067). In male (n=3), all these ratios were not significantly different between livers and testis. 4-S-CysteinylTTX was detected in liver, spleen, gall, and intestine in 1-6mole% of total of all TTX analogs, supporting our previous hypothesis that 4-S-cysteinylTTX is a metabolite of TTX.
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83
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Azanza MPV, Azanza RV, Vargas VMD, Hedreyda CT. Bacterial endosymbionts of Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2006; 52:756-64. [PMID: 16944340 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-006-9128-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2006] [Accepted: 06/18/2006] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The study presents evidence in support of the bacterial theory associated with the toxicity of Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum. Bacterial endosymbionts from Philippine P. bahamense var. compressum strain Pbc MZRVA 042595 were isolated and identified via 16S rDNA sequence analysis. Taxonomic diversity of the identified culturable intracellular microbiota associated with Philippine P. bahamense var. compressum was established to be limited to the Phyla Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes. Major endosymbionts identified included Moraxella spp., Erythrobacter spp., and Bacillus spp., whereas Pseudomonas putida, Micrococcus spp., and Dietzia maris were identified as minor isolates. All identified strains except D. maris, P. putida, and Micrococcus spp. were shown to contain either saxitoxin or neo saxitoxin or both at levels < or =73 ng/10(7) bacterial cells based on high-performance liquid chromatography analysis. Paralytic shellfish poisoning-like physiologic reactions in test animals used in the mouse assay were recorded for the endosymbionts except for P. putida. The study is the first to elucidate the possible contribution of bacterial endosymbionts in the toxicity of P. bahamense var. compressum isolated in the Philippines.
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84
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Oliveira JS, Fernandes SCR, Schwartz CA, Bloch C, Melo JAT, Rodrigues Pires O, de Freitas JC. Toxicity and toxin identification in Colomesus asellus, an Amazonian (Brazil) freshwater puffer fish. Toxicon 2006; 48:55-63. [PMID: 16822534 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2006] [Revised: 04/20/2006] [Accepted: 04/24/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Toxicity and toxin identification in Colomesus asellus, an Amazonian (Brazil) freshwater puffer fish. By using four different techniques--mouse bioassay, ELISA, HPLC and mass spectrometry-we evaluated the toxicity in the extracts of C. asellus, a freshwater puffer fish from the rivers of the Amazon, and identified for the first time the components responsible for its toxicity. The T20G10 monoclonal antibody raised against TTX, and employed in an indirect competitive enzyme immunoassay, showed very low affinity for the C. asellus extracts, indicating that TTX and its analogs are not the main toxic components of the extracts. This antibody was efficient in detecting presence of TTX in a total extract of Sphoeroides spengleri, which is one of the most toxic puffer fish found in the Atlantic coast. Extracts of C. asellus were toxic when administered intraperitonially into mice with an average toxicity of 38.6+/-12 mouse unit (MU)/g, while HPLC analysis indicated a lower toxin content (7.6+/-0 5MU/g). The HPLC profile showed no traces of TTX, but only the presence of PSPs (STX, GTX 2 and GTX 3). These toxins were also confirmed by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry.
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85
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Yang L, Yang WD, Liu JS, Jiang T. [Analysis of paralytic shellfish poisoning and diarrhetic shellfish poisoning of bivalves in seafood market of Guangzhou]. WEI SHENG YAN JIU = JOURNAL OF HYGIENE RESEARCH 2006; 35:435-8. [PMID: 16986518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) and diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) in 7 species of economical shellfishes were analyzed for 1 year, which collected from Huangsha seafood market of Guangzhou from Apr, 2004 to Mar, 2005. METHODS The levels of PSP and DSP in bivalves were determined with mouse bioassay of AOAC. The risk assessment of PSP and DSP in bivalves was conducted according to FAO and Chinese Administration Organization of Fish Culture and Seaport. RESULTS PSP was detected in 2 species of the shellfishes assayed and DSP was found out in 6 species. The content of PSP was lower than 4MU/g tissue, whereas the level of PSP in glands was higher than in muscles. DSP toxin was detected in 36 samples of 6 species, what is more, DSP level in 10 samples exceeded the safety threshold. The levels in PSP and DSP of bivalves were all higher in spring and winter with some characteristic of season. CONCLUSION The results suggested that PSP in economical shellfish in Guangzhou market was lower, and shellfish was safe to eat in term of the PSP level if glands were discarded, but DSP contamination in bivalves was severe. It is essential to detect and assess the risk of DSP and PSP in bivalves from seafood market in the future.
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86
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Vale P, Taleb H. Assessment of the quantitative determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins by pre-column derivatization and elimination of interfering compounds by solid-phase extraction. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 22:838-46. [PMID: 16192070 DOI: 10.1080/02652030500195247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Monitoring programmes for paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in bivalve molluscs still rely heavily on the use of mouse bioassays (MBA) for consumer protection. A high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methodology (Lawrence method) was implemented in 1996 in the Portuguese monitoring programme as a complementary means of analysis. Comparison between MBA and HPLC was done at the time only by a qualitative approach due to the scarce number of positive samples tested. More quantitative data were obtained recently when studying toxin profiles in Moroccan shellfish, and the correlation found between these two methodologies is reported here for the first time. Two different matrices were studied: blue mussel and the giant cockle Acanthocardia tuberculatum. A good linear correlation was obtained for both matrices. However, a second-degree polynomial best fitted the data at both low and high extremes of toxicity. According to the HPLC quantitative results, 13% of false-negatives could be obtained by MBA due to an underestimation of toxicity near the limit of detection of the MBA. Difficulties on relying solely on HPLC for consumer protection have been aroused with uncommon matrices, such as imported clams or crustaceans, due to the presence of high concentrations of interfering compounds. The solid-phase extraction step of the Lawrence method was implemented to eliminate an unknown compound that could be mistaken for saxitoxin, and an 80% reduction of another common unknown compound eluting close to decarbamoylsaxitoxin. The implementation of the HPLC methodology achieved so far allows a high degree of consumer protection without the need to resource to animal sacrifice.
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87
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Kulagina NV, Mikulski CM, Gray S, Ma W, Doucette GJ, Ramsdell JS, Pancrazio JJ. Detection of marine toxins, brevetoxin-3 and saxitoxin, in seawater using neuronal networks. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2006; 40:578-83. [PMID: 16468405 DOI: 10.1021/es051272a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
There is a need for assay systems that can detect known and unanticipated neurotoxins associated with harmful algal blooms. The present work describes our attempt to monitor the presence of brevetoxin-3 (PbTx-3) and saxitoxin (STX) in a seawater matrix using the neuronal network biosensor (NNB). The NNB relies on cultured mammalian neurons grown over microelectrode arrays, where the inherent bioelectrical activity of the network manifested as extracellular action potentials can be monitored noninvasively. Spinal cord neuronal networks were prepared from embryonic mice and the mean spike rate across the network was analyzed before and during exposure to the toxins. Extracellular action potentials from the network are highly sensitive not only to purified STX and PbTx-3, but also when in combination with matrixes such as natural seawater and algal growth medium. Detection limits for STX and PbTx-3, respectively, are 0.031 and 0.33 nM in recording buffer and 0.076 and 0.48 nM in the presence of 25-fold-diluted seawater. Our results demonstrated that neuronal networks could be used for analysis of Alexandrium fundyense (STX-producer) and Karenia brevis (PbTx-producer) algal samples lysed directly in the seawater-based growth medium and appropriately diluted with HEPES-buffered recording medium. The cultured network responded by changes in mean spike rate to the presence of STX-or PbTx-producing algae but not to the samples of two non-STX and non-PbTx isolates of the same algal genera. This work provides evidence that the NNB has the capacity to rapidly detect toxins associated with cells of toxic algal species or as dissolved forms present in seawater and hasthe potential for monitoring toxin levels during harmful algal blooms.
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88
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Kele P, Orbulescu J, Gawley RE, Leblanc RM. Spectroscopic detection of Saxitoxin: an alternative to mouse bioassay. Chem Commun (Camb) 2006:1494-6. [PMID: 16575438 DOI: 10.1039/b600383d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we report the surface modification of quartz with a coumaryl-aza-crown-6 derivative to detect Saxitoxin using fluorescence enhancement through Photoinduced Electron Transfer and the sensitivity with this system approaches the limit of the mouse bioassay which is the current benchmark for Saxitoxin detection.
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89
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Hungerford JM. Marine and freshwater toxins. J AOAC Int 2006; 89:248-69. [PMID: 16512256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In a very busy and exciting year, 2005 included First Action approval of a much needed official method for paralytic shellfish toxins and multiple international toxin symposia highlighted by groundbreaking research. These are the first-year milestones and activities of the Marine and Freshwater Toxins Task Force and Analytical Community. Inaugurated in 2004 and described in detail in last year's General Referee Report (1) this international toxins group has grown to 150 members from many regions and countries. Perhaps most important they are now making important and global contributions to food safety and to providing alternatives to animal-based assays. Official Method 2005.06 was first approved in late 2004 by the Task Force and subsequently Official First Action in 2005 (2) by the Methods Committee on Natural Toxins and Food Allergens and the Official Methods Board. This nonproprietary method (3) is a precolumn oxidation, liquid chromatographic method that makes good use of fluorescence detection to provide high sensitivity detection of the saxitoxins. It has also proven to be rugged enough for regulatory use and the highest level of validation. As pointed out in the report of method principle investigator and Study Director James Lawrence, approval of 2005.06 now provides the first official alternative to the mouse bioassay after many decades of shellfish monitoring. This past year in April 2005 the group also held their first international conference, "Marine and Freshwater Toxins Analysis: Ist Joint Symposium and AOAC Task Force Meeting," in Baiona, Spain. The 4-day conference consisted of research and stakeholder presentations and symposium-integrated subgroup sessions on ciguatoxins, saxitoxin assays and liquid chromatography (LC) methods for saxitoxins and domoic acids, okadaiates and azaspiracids, and yessotoxins. Many of these subgroups were recently formed in 2005 and are working towards their goals of producing officially validated analytical methods. (Abstracts from the Baiona 2005 meeting cited in this report can be found in the online version of the conference abstract book in the Files and Folders section of the Marine and Freshwater Toxins online community at www.aoac.org.) An active topic for discussion in Baiona and subsequent Task Force activities was the expert consultation for Codex which met in Oslo, Norway in 2004 (previously described and cited in last year's GR report, ref 1). The consultation group's executive summary report (http://www.fao.org/es/ESN/food/risk_biotoxin en.stm) describes suggested changes in action levels as well as methods, method validation, and other issues. September 2005 saw the AOAC Task Force efforts further supported by another symposium, "Marine and Freshwater Toxins: Quality Methods for Food Safety and International Trade," at the AOAC INTERNATIONAL Annual Conference in Orlando, Florida. The multidisciplinary talks at this full day symposium ranged from ciguatoxins to cyanobacterial toxins, and spanned toxicology, biochemistry, molecular biology and analytical chemistry. Again, the symposium preceded Task Force meetings. Toxin subgroups, including a new group on cyanobacterial toxins, met for engaging and productive subgroup discussions. All of these activities were preceded by a Wiley Award symposium for Task Force member Mike Quilliam of NRC Canada. These talks, presented at a half-day symposium on the first day of the Annual Meeting, focused on Quilliam's work with LC tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) and certified reference standards and materials, and included related presentations by some of his many research collaborators. To maintain flow and continuity between symposia and between Task Force meetings, the group now uses new electronic discussion forums. Individual subgroup areas, under the Marine and Freshwater Toxins Task Force, comprise this online community. First introduced by AOAC INTERNATIONAL in early 2005, these new resources are being used to distribute information and to supplement the in-person subgroup meetings and electronic mail in the group's validation efforts.
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90
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Papageorgiou J, Nicholson BC, Linke TA, Kapralos C. Analysis of cyanobacterial-derived saxitoxins using high-performance ion exchange chromatography with chemical oxidation/fluorescence detection. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2005; 20:549-59. [PMID: 16302175 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
A single run HPLC method utilizing ion exchange as the separation mode with a novel mobile phase system coupled to chemical postcolumn oxidation and fluorescence detection has been developed and demonstrated to be applicable to the quantitative analysis of paralytic shellfish poisons (PSPs) produced by Australian cyanobacteria (Anabaena circinalis) and other cyanobacteria. Both the cyanobacterial matrix and natural water constituents did not significantly affect the performance of this method. The daily precision of this method was adequate for it to be considered as a routine analytical tool for direct PSP analysis (prePSP concentration is not required) of cyanobacterial extracts and water bodies containing PSPs (C1, C2, GTX2, GTX3, NEO, STX) in the low parts per billion concentration range (10-70 ppb).
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91
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Lawrence JF, Niedzwiadek B, Menard C. Quantitative determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in shellfish using prechromatographic oxidation and liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection: collaborative study. J AOAC Int 2005; 88:1714-32. [PMID: 16526455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
A collaborative study was conducted for the determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins in shellfish. The method used liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection after prechromatographic oxidation of the toxins with hydrogen peroxide and periodate. The PSP toxins studied were saxitoxin (STX), neosaxitoxin (NEO), gonyautoxins 2 and 3 (GTX2,3; together), gonyautoxins 1 and 4 (GTX1,4; together), decarbamoyl saxitoxin (dcSTX), B-1 (GTX5), C-1 and C-2 (C1,2; together), and C-3 and C-4 (C3,4; together). B-2 (GTX6) toxin was also included, but for qualitative identification only. Mussels, both blank and naturally contaminated, were mixed and homogenized to provide a variety of PSP toxin mixtures and concentration levels. The same procedure was followed with clams, oysters, and scallops. Twenty-one test samples in total were sent to 21 collaborators who agreed to participate in the study. Results were obtained from 18 laboratories representing 14 different countries. It is recommended that the method be adopted First Action by AOAC INTERNATIONAL.
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92
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Wu JY, Zheng L, Wang JH. Contamination of shellfish from Shanghai seafood markets with paralytic shellfish poisoning and diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins determined by mouse bioassay and HPLC. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 22:647-51. [PMID: 16019840 DOI: 10.1080/02652030500137017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
This paper reports the results of investigations of shellfish toxin contamination of products obtained from Shanghai seafood markets. From May to October 2003, 66 samples were collected from several major seafood markets. Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) and diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins in shellfish samples were monitored primarily by a mouse bioassay, then analysed by HPLC for the chemical contents of the toxins. According to the mouse bioassay, eight samples were detected to be contaminated by PSP toxins and seven samples were contaminated by DSP toxins. Subsequent HPLC analysis indicated that the concentrations of the PSP toxins ranged from 0.2 to 1.9 microg/100 g tissues and the main components were gonyautoxins 2/3 (GTX2/3). As for DSP, okadaic acid was detected in three samples, and its concentration ranged from 3.2 to 17.5 microg/100 g tissues. Beside okadaic acid, its analogues, dinophysistoxins (DTX1), were found in one sample. According to the results, gastropod (Neverita didyma) and scallop (Argopecten irradians) were more likely contaminated with PSP and DSP toxins, and most of the contaminated samples were collected from Tongchuan and Fuxi markets. In addition, the contaminated samples were always found in May, June and July. Therefore, consumers should be cautious about eating the potential toxic shellfish during this specific period.
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93
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Dell'Aversano C, Hess P, Quilliam MA. Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry for the analysis of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins. J Chromatogr A 2005; 1081:190-201. [PMID: 16038209 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2005.05.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) was examined for the separation of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins using the stationary phase TSK-gel Amide-80. The parameters tested included type of organic modifier and percentage in the mobile phase, buffer concentration, pH, flow rate and column temperature. Using mass spectrometric (MS) detection, the HILIC column allowed the determination of all the major PSP toxins in one 30 min analysis with a high degree of selectivity and sensitivity. The high percentage of organic modifier in the mobile phase and the omission of ion pairing reagents, both favored in HILIC, provided limits of detection (LOD) in the range 50-100 nM in selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode on a single quadrupole LC-MS system. LOD in selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode on a sensitive triple quadrupole system were as low as 5-30 nM. Excellent linearity of response was observed.
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94
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Okumura M, Tsuzuki H, Tomita BI. A rapid detection method for paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins by cell bioassay. Toxicon 2005; 46:93-8. [PMID: 15922387 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2004] [Revised: 03/22/2005] [Accepted: 03/23/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We report here a rapid detection method for paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins using a cultured neuroblastoma cell line, modified from the bioassay system previously established by Manger et al. [Manger, R.L., Leja, L.S., Lee, S.Y., Hungerford, J.M., Kirkpatrick, M.A., Yasumoto, T., Wekell, M.M., 2003. Detection of paralytic shellfish poison by rapid cell bioassay: antagonism of voltage-gated sodium channel active toxins in vitro. J. AOAC Int. 86 (3), 540-543]. In the present study, we made two major modifications to the previous method. The first is the use of maitotoxin, a marine toxin of ciguatera fish poisoning, which enables the incubation period to be reduced to 6 h when applied to the microplate 15 min prior to the end of the incubation. The second is the use of WST-8, a dehydrogenase detecting water-soluble tetrazolium salt for determining the target cell viability, which permits the omission of a washing step and simplifies the counting process. In addition, we attempted to reduce the required materials as much as possible. Thus, our modified method should be useful for screening the PSP-toxins from shellfish.
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95
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Rapala J, Robertson A, Negri AP, Berg KA, Tuomi P, Lyra C, Erkomaa K, Lahti K, Hoppu K, Lepistö L. First report of saxitoxin in Finnish lakes and possible associated effects on human health. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2005; 20:331-40. [PMID: 15892061 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
This study is the first report of saxitoxin in cyanobacterial blooms in Finland. Bloom samples (n = 50) were collected from Finnish freshwater sites during summer months of 2002 and 2003. These samples were screened for the presence of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) using the Jellett rapid PSP screening test. Samples testing positive for PSTs (n = 7) were further analyzed with saxiphilin- and voltage-gated sodium channel [(3)H]-STX-binding radioreceptor assays and liquid chromatography using fluorescence and mass spectrometric analysis. The results indicated that saxitoxin (STX) was the only PST analogue in the samples and that it was present in high concentrations, as much as 1 mg L(-1). Microscopic analysis revealed that 95%-100% of the phytoplankton in the positive samples consisted of Anabaena lemmermannii. The trophic status of lakes in which STX-containing blooms were found varied from oligotrophic to hypertrophic. All the lakes had high nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratios. In some instances, samples had been collected from sites where swimmers had reported adverse health effects, and in three such cases, reported adverse health effects were associated with sites from which samples testing positive for STX had been received. Symptoms of fever, eye irritation, abdominal pains, and skin rash were reported in children aged 2-10 years after exposure to the water. These were not the adverse human symptoms typical of STX poisoning; rather, they represented acute effects often reported following recreational exposure to cyanobacterial blooms.
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96
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Gugger M, Lenoir S, Berger C, Ledreux A, Druart JC, Humbert JF, Guette C, Bernard C. First report in a river in France of the benthic cyanobacterium Phormidium favosum producing anatoxin-a associated with dog neurotoxicosis. Toxicon 2005; 45:919-28. [PMID: 15904687 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2004] [Revised: 02/12/2005] [Accepted: 02/15/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The first identification of anatoxin-a in a French lotic system is reported. Rapid deaths of dogs occurred in 2003 after the animals drank water from the shoreline of the La Loue River in eastern France. Sediments, stones and macrophytes surfaces at the margin of the river were covered by a thick biofilm containing large quantities of several benthic species of filamentous, non-heterocystous cyanobacteria. Known cyanotoxins, such as microcystins, saxitoxins and anatoxins were screened from biofilm samples by biochemical and analytical assays. A compound with similar UV spectra to the anatoxin-a standard was detected by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with photo-diode array detector. This toxin was further identified by HPLC coupled with a UV detector and by electrospray ionisation-Quadrupole-Time-Of-Flight mass spectrometer, and confirmed by tandem mass spectrometry. These two techniques were necessary to discriminate anatoxin-a in phenylalanine-containing matrices such as liver samples of poisoned dogs. The toxin and the aromatic amino acid, phenylalanine, present the same pseudomolecular ion at m/z 166, but have differing fragmentation patterns, retention times and UV spectra. Finally, several cyanobacterial strains were isolated from the green biofilm and tested for anatoxin-a production. Phormidium favosum was identified as a new anatoxin-a producing species.
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97
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Gawley RE, Shanmugasundaram M, Thorne JB, Tarkka RM. Selective detection of saxitoxin over tetrodotoxin using acridinylmethyl crown ether chemosensor. Toxicon 2005; 45:783-7. [PMID: 15804528 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2004] [Accepted: 01/28/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
At pH 7.1, saxitoxin decomposes to produce a trace impurity that can interfere with fluorescence sensing when using irradiation wavelengths near 325 nm. The fluorophore acridine is found to be a suitable component of arylmethyl crown ether chemosensors for the fluorescent detection of saxitoxin. These sensors are selective for the detection of saxitoxin over tetrodotoxin.
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98
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Bricelj VM, Connell L, Konoki K, Macquarrie SP, Scheuer T, Catterall WA, Trainer VL. Sodium channel mutation leading to saxitoxin resistance in clams increases risk of PSP. Nature 2005; 434:763-7. [PMID: 15815630 DOI: 10.1038/nature03415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2004] [Accepted: 02/04/2005] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Bivalve molluscs, the primary vectors of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) in humans, show marked inter-species variation in their capacity to accumulate PSP toxins (PSTs) which has a neural basis. PSTs cause human fatalities by blocking sodium conductance in nerve fibres. Here we identify a molecular basis for inter-population variation in PSP resistance within a species, consistent with genetic adaptation to PSTs. Softshell clams (Mya arenaria) from areas exposed to 'red tides' are more resistant to PSTs, as demonstrated by whole-nerve assays, and accumulate toxins at greater rates than sensitive clams from unexposed areas. PSTs lead to selective mortality of sensitive clams. Resistance is caused by natural mutation of a single amino acid residue, which causes a 1,000-fold decrease in affinity at the saxitoxin-binding site in the sodium channel pore of resistant, but not sensitive, clams. Thus PSTs might act as potent natural selection agents, leading to greater toxin resistance in clam populations and increased risk of PSP in humans. Furthermore, global expansion of PSP to previously unaffected coastal areas might result in long-term changes to communities and ecosystems.
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Oikawa H, Satomi M, Watabe S, Yano Y. Accumulation and depuration rates of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in the shore crab Telmessus acutidens by feeding toxic mussels under laboratory controlled conditions. Toxicon 2005; 45:163-9. [PMID: 15626365 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2004] [Revised: 10/07/2004] [Accepted: 10/07/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Accumulation and depuration rates of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (PSP) in the crab Telmessus acutidens were investigated by feeding toxic and non-toxic mussels under laboratory controlled conditions. The crab accumulated toxins in the hepatopancreas in proportion to the amount of toxic mussels they ingested, and the toxicity in the crab hepatopancreas became 3.2 fold of that in the prey mussels after 20 days of feeding. During depuration, a fast reduction of the total toxicity was observed in the crab, and the retention rate of the toxicity after 5 days depuration with feeding of non-toxic mussels was 45.8+/-18.7%. The reduction of the toxicity was moderated in the later period of depuration, and the retention rates of the total toxicity after 10 and 20 days were 54.1+/-29.8% and 14.5+/-9.0%, respectively. The toxin profiles in the crab and mussel were investigated by high performance liquid chromatography, and reductive conversions of the toxins were observed when the toxins were transferred from the mussel to the crab. Consequently, high concentrations of GTX2 and GTX3, and STX that were not detected in the prey mussels, were found in the crab.
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100
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Burton IW, Quilliam MA, Walter JA. Quantitative 1H NMR with External Standards: Use in Preparation of Calibration Solutions for Algal Toxins and Other Natural Products. Anal Chem 2005; 77:3123-31. [PMID: 15889900 DOI: 10.1021/ac048385h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We examine the use of external standards for quantitative measurement by 1H NMR of solution concentrations of natural products and other low molecular weight, hydrogen-containing compounds and show that precision and accuracy ca. 1% is obtainable with a commercial 11.7 T spectrometer when standards and analytes are contained in separate but identical sealed precision glass NMR tubes. Numerous factors contributing to the intensity of the NMR signals are evaluated. Precise measurements of 360 degrees pulse lengths for each sample provide direct corrections for variations in probe Q-factor that enable samples in different solvents to be compared, provided single-coil excitation and detection is used throughout. Samples need not be prepared in deuterated solvents if the 1H spectra of the solvents are simple enough for peak suppression by presaturation. The approach is particularly suitable for hazardous materials kept in sealed tubes and for the preparation of certified calibration solution reference materials for use with LC-MS and other techniques where deuterated solvents should be avoided.
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