The distribution of tyrosine hydroxylase in the canary brain: demonstration of a specific and sexually dimorphic catecholaminergic innervation of the telencephalic song control nulcei

Singing and the processing of auditory information related to song can be affected by experimental manipulations of catecholamine activity in the brain of zebra finches. We investigated, by immunocytochemistry in the brain of male and female canaries, the distribution of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate-limiting step in the synthesis of catecholamines. Fibers immunoreactive for TH (TH-ir) were particularly abundant in the lobus parolfactorius, the paleostriatum primitivum, and the nucleus septalis lateralis. A high density of TH-ir basket-like structures was observed in the caudomedial neostriatum, an area involved in song perception and recognition. In most males, a high density of TH-ir fibers outlined the telencephalic song control nuclei including the high vocal center, the nucleus robustus archistriatalis, the nucleus interfascialis, the lateral and medial parts of the magnocellular nucleus of the anterior neostriatum, and area X of the lobus parolfactorius. The higher density of fibers immunoreactive for TH in these nuclei, compared with the surrounding telencephalon, supports the notion that the morphological evolution of the song control nuclei was accompanied by a neurochemical specialization. This specific innervation of the song control regions was, in general, not found in females. The specific presence of high densities of TH-ir fibers in the song system of male canaries and the sex difference of this innervation provide anatomical evidence in support of the claim that dopamine and/or norepinephrine play important roles in the modulation of song learning and production.

Expression of endo-oligopeptidase A in the rat central nervous system: a non-radioactive in situ hybridization study

Endo-oligopeptidase A (EOPA, formerly EC 3.4.22.19), a thiol-activated oligopeptidase, is able to degrade both bradykinin and neurotensin, and also to convert enkephalin-containing peptides into enkephalins. The expression of this enzyme was studied in the rat brain by in situ hybridization using non-radiotopic probes. The distribution of EOPA transcripts included many regions of the rat central nervous system, with higher expression in some regions, such as the hippocampus, cerebellum, and basal nucleus of Meynert. The marked EOPA expression in these areas could be anticipated, since they are rich in neuropeptides that are known to be EOPA substrates in vitro. The data characterize a widespread occurrence of EOPA in the rat brain and reinforce the suggestion of a critical role for EOPA in peptide processing.

Site-specific phosphorylation of tau accompanied by activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in brains of Niemann-Pick type C mice

Niemann-Pick type C (NPC) disease is characterized by an accumulation of cholesterol in most tissues and progressive neurodegeneration with the formation of neurofibrillary tangles. Neurofibrillary tangles are composed of paired helical filaments (PHF), a major component of which is the hyperphosphorylated tau. In this study we used NPC heterozygous and NPC homozygous mouse brains to investigate the molecular mechanism responsible for tauopathy in NPC. Immunoblot analysis using anti-tau antibodies (Tau-1, PHF-1, AT-180, and AT-100) revealed site-specific phosphorylation of tau at Ser-396 and Ser-404 in the brains of NPC homozygous mice. Mitogen-activated protein kinase, a potential serine kinase known to phosphorylate tau, was activated, whereas other serine kinases such as glycogen synthase kinase-3beta and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 were inactive. Morphological examination demonstrated that a number of neurons, the perikarya of which strongly immunostained with PHF-1, exhibited polymorphorous cytoplasmic inclusion bodies and multi-concentric lamellar-like bodies. Importantly, the accumulation of intracellular cholesterol in NPC mouse brains was determined to be a function of age. From these results we conclude that abnormal cholesterol metabolism due to the genetic mutation in NPC1 may be responsible for activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase-signaling pathway and site-specific phosphorylation of tau in vivo, leading to tauopathy in NPC.

Increased oxidative stress in ataxia telangiectasia evidenced by alterations in redox state of brains from Atm-deficient mice

Ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) is a genetic disorder caused by mutational inactivation of the ATM gene. A-T patients display a pleiotropic phenotype and suffer primarily from progressive ataxia caused by degeneration of cerebellar Purkinje and granule neurons. Disruption of the mouse Atm locus creates a murine model of A-T that exhibits most of the clinical features of the human disease. We previously hypothesized that some aspects of A-T, such as the preferential loss of certain neurons, could result from a continuous state of increased oxidative stress (G. Rotman and Y. Shiloh, Cancer Surv., 29: 285-304, 1997; G. Rotman and Y. Shiloh, BioEssays, 19: 911-917, 1997). The present work tests this hypothesis by analyzing markers of redox state in brains of Atm-deficient mice. We found alterations in the levels of thiol-containing compounds in Atm (-/-) brains, as well as significant changes in the activities of thioredoxin, catalase, and manganese superoxide dismutase in Atm (-/-) cerebella. These changes are indicative of increased levels of reactive oxygen species, which are seen primarily in the cerebellum of Atm-deficient mice. Our findings support the hypothesis that the absence of functional ATM results in oxidative stress, which may be an important cause of the degeneration of cerebellar neurons in A-T.

Molecular cloning of mouse alpha-1,6-fucosyltransferase and expression of its mRNA in the developing cerebrum

Complementary DNA encoding mouse alpha-1,6-fucosyltransferase (FUT) was cloned. The deduced primary structure consisted of 575 amino acids and had 96.0% and 93.0% identity with alpha-1,6-FUT of human and porcine origin, respectively. Quantitative analysis of alpha-1,6-FUT mRNA expression during selected developmental stages of the cerebrum showed that the expression increased during later embryonic stages and was highest in the early postnatal stages (P1 to P7), after which it declined somewhat but still remained relatively high in the mature adult. The expression profile suggests important roles of FUT in the developing central nervous system.

Protein deimination in the rat brain after kainate administration: citrulline-containing proteins as a novel marker of neurodegeneration

Peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) are a group of enzymes that convert protein arginine residues to citrulline residues in a Ca2+-dependent manner. In the central nervous system, PAD type II localizes in glial cells, but its biological role is little understood. We examined the timing and region dependence of protein deimination in the rat cerebrum after a systemic injection of kainic acid (KA). Citrulline-containing proteins were consistently found in neurodegenerating regions. Western blot analyses showed deimination of numerous proteins in a broad-molecular-weight range. By immunocytochemical scrutiny, deiminated protein-positive astrocytes were found at 2 h after KA administration, and they increased in number until the 6 h. Furthermore, shrunken neurons became deiminated protein-positive at 12-24 h. These data suggest that PAD type II becomes activated in regions undergoing neurodegeneration and functions to deiminate various proteins. Therefore, citrulline-containing proteins seem to be a useful marker of acute neurodegeneration.

Immunohistochemical localization of Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase beta in the rat central nervous system

We examined regional and intracellular distribution of Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase beta (CaM-KK beta), which activated Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase I and IV (CaM-K I and IV) immunohistochemically in the central nervous system of the rat by light and electron microscopy. Although most neurons in the brain and spinal cord exhibited the immunoreactivity, no labeled neurons were observed in the globus pallidus or entopeduncular nucleus, and only a small number of neurons showed weak immunoreactivity in the substantia nigra pars reticulata. In general, the immunoreactivity was observed both in the cytoplasm and cellular nucleus, although the immunoreactivity was not found in the cellular nucleus in some large neurons such as in the mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus, lateral vestibular nucleus or gigant cellular reticular formation. As to motoneurons of the cranial nerve nuclei and the anterior horn of the spinal cord, they revealed the immunoreactivity both in the cytoplasm and nucleus. The reaction product appeared as fine granules in the cytoplasm and nucleus under light microscopy. Electron microscopic observations confirmed that the reaction product was localized mainly on the Golgi apparatus or on the nuclear chromatin. Immunolabeling for antibody against CaM-KK beta was discussed with the distribution of CaM-K I, IV and another CaM-KK, CaM-KK alpha, in the central nervous system.

Apoptosis in the central nervous system of cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy patients

The childhood cerebral form of adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) is a fatal demyelinating disease, yet mice deficient in the ALD gene do not show such clinicopathological phenotype. We have therefore investigated in human autopsy tissues whether the ALD gene mutation results in apoptosis of CNS cells. Specimens from telencephalic and brainstem regions of four patients, and three controls were examined for internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, in situ detection of DNA breaks by the TUNEL method, and caspase-3 immunostaining. None of the controls showed significant apoptosis in white matter, while apoptotic nuclei with chromatin alterations were detected in areas of active demyelination in three ALD patients. A large proportion of apoptotic cells were oligodendrocytes and some express activated caspase-3. TUNEL-positive nuclei and/or caspase-3 staining were also detected in perivascular infiltrates and, occasionally, in neurons. We conclude that apoptosis of oligodendrocytes may account, at least in part, for the demyelinating process in the ALD brain.

Identification and distribution of nitric oxide synthase in the brain of adult zebrafish

Nitric oxide (NO) is proposed to be involved in developmental and plastic processes. We investigated the presence and distribution of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in the zebrafish (Danio rerio) using molecular and histochemical techniques. A partial gene sequence corresponding to the neuronal NOS isoform (nNOS) was identified, and in situ hybridization revealed cellular nNOS mRNA expression throughout the brain of adult zebrafish, distributed in distinct central nuclei and in proliferation zones. NOS immunoreactivity and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase activity partly coincided with the nNOS mRNA expression, however was present also in additional neuronal and non-neuronal cell types. The results indicate the occurrence of different NOS isoforms in the adult brain, of which nNOS may participate in neurotransmission, and in mechanisms related to the continuous growth and neuronal plasticity of the teleost brain.

Maturation-dependent effects of chlorpyrifos and parathion and their oxygen analogs on acetylcholinesterase and neuronal and glial markers in aggregating brain cell cultures

An in vitro model, the aggregating brain cell culture of fetal rat telencephalon, has been used to study the maturation-dependent sensitivity of brain cells to two organophosphorus pesticides (OPs), chlorpyrifos and parathion, and to their oxon derivatives. Immature (DIV 5-15) or differentiated (DIV 25-35) brain cells were treated continuously for 10 days. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory potency for the OPs was compared to that of eserine (physostigmine), a reversible AChE inhibitor. Oxon derivatives were more potent AChE inhibitors than the parent compounds, and parathion was more potent than chlorpyrifos. No maturation-dependent differences for AChE inhibition were found for chlorpyrifos and eserine, whereas for parathion and paraoxon there was a tendency to be more effective in immature cultures, while the opposite was true for chlorpyrifos-oxon. Toxic effects, assessed by measuring protein content as an index of general cytotoxicity, and various enzyme activities as cell-type-specific neuronal and glial markers (ChAT and GAD, for cholinergic and GABAergic neurons, respectively, and GS and CNP, for astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, respectively) were only found at more than 70% of AChE inhibition. Immature compared to differentiated cholinergic neurons appeared to be more sensitive to OP treatments. The oxon derivates were found to be more toxic on neurons than the parent compounds, and chlorpyrifos was more toxic than parathion. Eserine was not neurotoxic. These results indicate that inhibition of AChE remains the most sensitive macromolecular target of OP exposure, since toxic effects were found at concentrations in which AChE was inhibited. Furthermore, the compound-specific reactions, the differential pattern of toxicity of OPs compared to eserine, and the higher sensitivity of immature brain cells suggest that the toxic effects and inhibition of AChE are unrelated.

Telencephalic aromatase but not a song circuit in a sub-oscine passerine, the golden collared manakin (Manacus vitellinus)

In oscine passerines, the telencephalon expresses high levels of the estrogen synthetic enzyme aromatase. In contrast, forebrain aromatase is limited to low levels at discrete limbic loci in non-passerines. The function of forebrain aromatase in oscines is unknown, however, estrogen-sensitive elements of the telencephalic song circuit (an oscine characteristic) may be influenced by local aromatization. Very few studies have investigated the neuroendocrine characteristics of sub-oscine passerines. Species of this passerine sub-order are taxonomically similar to oscines, but do not appear to learn how to sing as oscines, and show no evidence of a song circuit. The neural expression of aromatase in these birds is unknown. We asked whether the golden-collared manakin, a sub-oscine, (a) showed evidence of a song circuit, and (b) expressed aromatase in the telencephalon at high levels like the zebra finch (oscine passerine) or at low levels like the quail (non-passerine). Nissl stains and immunocytochemistry for microtubule associated proteins showed no evidence of a song circuit in manakins of either sex, whereas both techniques delineate all song nuclei in the zebra finch. However, biochemical and immunocytochemical measures reveal that in the manakin, several telencephalic loci, including the hippocampus, caudomedial neostriatum, nucleus taeniae, and the lateral neostriatum express aromatase. Assays run in parallel show low to undetectable levels of aromatase in the telencephalon of the quail (nonpasserine) and abundant levels in the zebra finch (oscine passerine), suggesting a dissociation between the presence of a song circuit and forebrain aromatase expression in this sub-oscine. These data suggest that forebrain aromatase may have evolved in sub-oscine songbirds before the evolution of a song circuit and singing behavior in oscines. Alternatively, forebrain aromatase may serve functions distinct from singing behavior.

Immunohistochemical localization of phospholipase D1 in rat central nervous system

Phospholipase D (PLD) is one of the intracellular signal transduction enzymes and plays an important role in a variety of cellular functions. We investigated the distribution of PLD isozyme, PLD1 in the rat brain and spinal cord using an immunological approach. Western blot analysis showed the presence of PLD1 protein in all tissues studied, with significantly higher levels in the brainstem and spinal cord, which was correlated with the results obtained from PLD activity assay. Prominent and specific signals of PLD1 were observed in many functionally diverse brain areas, including the olfactory bulb, medial septum-diagonal band complex, cerebral cortex, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord. In the brainstem, the red nucleus, substantia nigra, interpeduncular nucleus, cranial motor nuclei (trigeminal motor, abducent, facial, and hypoglossal), sensory cranial nerve nuclei (spinal trigeminal, vestibular, and cochlear), as well as nuclei of the reticular formation, all showed intense immunoreactivity. Purkinje cells and deep cerebellar nuclei of the cerebellum were also labeled intensely. However, no significant labeling was found in the thalamus, epithalamus, and basal ganglia. Although many of the PLD1 immunoreactive cells were neurons, PLD1 was also expressed in glial cells such as presumed astrocytes and tanycytes. These findings suggest that PLD1 may play an important role in the central nervous system of the adult rat.

Amyloid beta-induced neuronal death is bax-dependent but caspase-independent

Fibrillar amyloid beta (Abeta) peptides are major constituents of senile plaques in Alzheimer disease (AD) brain and cause neuronal apoptosis in vitro. Bax and caspase-3 have been implicated in the pathogenesis of AD and are components of a well-defined molecular pathway of neuronal apoptosis. To determine whether Abeta-induced neuronal apoptosis involves bax and/or caspase-3 activation, we examined the effect of Abeta on wild-type, bax-deficient, and caspase-3-deficient telencephalic neurons in vitro. In wild-type cultures, Abeta produced time- and concentration-dependent caspase-3 activation, apoptotic nuclear changes, and neuronal death. These neurotoxic effects of Abeta were not observed in bax-deficient cultures. Caspase-3 deficiency, or pharmacological inhibition of caspase activity, prevented caspase-3 activation and blocked the appearance of apoptotic nuclear features but not Abeta-induced neuronal death. Neither calpain inhibition nor microtubule stabilization with Taxol protected telencephalic neurons from Abeta-induced caspase activation or apoptosis. These results have potential implications regarding the underlying pathophysiology of AD and towards AD treatment strategies.

Identification of the origin of catecholaminergic inputs to HVc in canaries by retrograde tract tracing combined with tyrosine hydroxylase immunocytochemistry

The telencephalic nucleus HVc (sometimes referred to as the high vocal center) plays a key role in the production and perception of birdsong. Although many afferent and efferent connections to this nucleus have been described, it has been clear for many years, based on chemical neuroanatomical criteria, that there are projections to this nucleus that remain undescribed. A variety of methods including high performance liquid chromatography, immunohistochemistry and receptor autoradiography have identified high levels of catecholamine transmitters, the presence of enzymes involved in the synthesis of catecholamines such as tyrosine hydroxylase and a variety of catecholamine receptor sub-types in the HVc of several songbird species. However, no definitive projections to HVc have been described from cells groups known to synthesize catecholamines. These projections were analyzed in the present study by retrograde tract tracing combined with immunocytochemistry for tyrosine hydroxylase. The origin of the catecholaminergic inputs to HVc were determined based exclusively on birds in which injections of the retrograde tracer (latex fluospheres) were confined within the cytoarchitectonic boundaries of the nucleus. Retrogradely transported latex fluospheres were found mainly in cells of two dopaminergic nuclei, the mesencephalic central gray (A11) and, to a lesser extend, the area ventralis of Tsai (A10; homologous to the ventral tegmental area of mammals). A few retrogradely-labelled cells were also found in the noradrenergic nucleus subceruleus (A6). Most of these retrogradely-labelled cells were also tyrosine hydroxylase-positive. Other catecholaminergic nuclei were devoid of retrograde label. These data converge with others studies to indicate that HVc receives discrete dopaminergic and noradrenergic inputs. These inputs may influence the steroid regulation of HVc, attentional processes related to song and modulate sensory inputs to the song system.

Distribution of aromatase activity in the brain and peripheral tissues of passerine and nonpasserine avian species

Many behavioral effects of testosterone on hypothalamic and limbic brain areas are mediated by the action, at the cellular level, of estrogens derived from local testosterone aromatization. Aromatase activity and cells containing the aromatase protein and mRNA have accordingly been identified in the brain areas involved in the control of behavior. The presence of an unusually high level of aromatase activity has been detected in the telencephalon of one songbird species, the zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata), and it is suspected that this high telencephalic aromatase may be a specific feature of songbirds but this idea is supported only by few experimental data. The distribution of aromatase activity in the brain of zebra finches and of one nonsongbird species, the Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica), was compared with the distribution of aromatase activity in the brain of four species of free-living European songbirds, the chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs, Fringillidae), willow warbler (Phylloscopus trochilus, Sylviidae), great tit (Parus major, Paridae), and pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca, Muscicapidae). High levels of enzyme activity were observed in the diencephalon of all species. The high levels of aromatase activity that had been observed in the zebra finch telencephalon and were thought to be typical of songbirds were also present in the four wild oscine species but not in quail. None of these songbird species had, however, a telencephalic aromatase activity as high as that in the zebra finch, which may represent an extreme as far as the activity of this enzyme in the telencephalon is concerned. Measurable levels of aromatase activity were also detected in all songbird species in the liver and in the three other brain areas that were assayed, the optic lobes, cerebellum, and brain stem, with the exception of the cerebellum in willow warblers and quail, but no detectable activity was observed in the testes, muscle, and adrenals of all species. Additional studies will be needed to identify the functional significance of estrogen synthesis in areas that are not classically known to be implicated in the control of reproduction. Within a given species, the birds that had the highest plasma testosterone levels also displayed the highest levels of diencephalic aromatase activity and the interspecies differences in the two variables were positively related. This raises the possibility that the absolute level of diencephalic aromatase represents a species-specific characteristic under the control of plasma testosterone levels. There was, in contrast, no correlation between the aromatase activity in the telencephalon and the plasma testosterone levels but the enzyme activity was correlated with the plasma levels of luteinizing hormone. These data bring additional support to the idea that the diencephalic and telencephalic aromatases are controlled by independent mechanisms.

Succinic dehydrogenase histochemistry reveals the location of the putative primary visual and auditory areas within the dorsal ventricular ridge of Sphenodon punctatus

In turtles, crocodilians, lizards and snakes, the dorsal ventricular ridge (DVR) is a nuclear cell mass that contains distinct visual and auditory thalamorecipient cell groups. In the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus), the DVR is not organized into diverse cell groups but instead possesses a trilaminar cytoarchitecture resembling that characteristic of the telencephalic cortex in reptiles. To determine if visual and auditory fields might also be present in the DVR of Sphenodon punctatus, we used succinic dehydrogenase (SDH) histochemistry, which has been shown to delineate the visual and auditory fields of the DVR in turtles, crocodilians and lizards. We also used acetylcholinesterase (AChE) histochemistry to determine the boundary between the DVR and the basal ganglia in Sphenodon. We found an SDH-rich region in the neuropil ventral to the cell plate of the rostrolateral DVR and a slightly less intense SDH-rich zone in the neuropil deep to the cell plate of the ventromedial DVR. These SDH-rich zones appear to be located at the apical dendrites of the neurons of the adjacent cell plate. These SDH-rich zones were clearly located within the DVR and were distinct from the AChE-rich striatal part of the basal ganglia, which occupied the ventrolateral wall of the telencephalon. Based on findings in other reptiles, it seems likely that the SDH-rich zone in rostrolateral DVR represents the zone of termination of nucleus rotundus visual input to the DVR, whereas the zone in ventromedial DVR represents the zone of termination of nucleus reuniens auditory input. Because a trilaminar DVR such as that in Sphenodon might be the primitive DVR condition for reptiles, our results suggest that the cytoarchitecture of the DVR and the synaptic organization of its thalamic sensory input in the common ancestor of living reptiles might have been much like of the dorsal cortex.

Androgen-metabolizing enzymes show region-specific changes across the breeding season in the brain of a wild songbird

The Lapland longspur (Calcarius lapponicus) is an arctic-breeding songbird that shows rapid behavioral changes during a short breeding season. Changes in plasma testosterone (T) in the spring are correlated with singing but not territorial aggression in males. Also, T treatment increases song but not aggression in this species. In contrast, in temperate-zone breeders, song and aggression are highly correlated, and both increase after T treatment. We asked whether regional or temporal differences in androgen-metabolizing enzymes in the longspur brain explain hormone-behavior patterns in this species. We measured the activities of aromatase, 5alpha-reductase and 5beta-reductase in free-living longspur males. Aromatase and 5alpha-reductase convert T into the active steroids 17beta-estradiol (E(2)) and 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone (5alpha-DHT), respectively. 5beta-Reductase deactivates T via conversion to 5beta-DHT, an inactive steroid. We examined seven brain regions at three stages in the breeding season. Overall, aromatase activity was high in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and ventromedial telencephalon (containing nucleus taeniae, the avian homologue to the amygdala). 5beta-Reductase activity was high throughout the telencephalon. Activities of all three enzymes changed over time in a region-specific manner. In particular, aromatase activity in the rostral hypothalamus was decreased late in the breeding season, which may explain why T treatment at this time does not increase aggression. Changes in 5beta-reductase do not explain the effects of plasma T on aggressive behavior.

Functional organisation of the field-L-complex of adult male zebra finches

Functional maps of auditory response areas were established from multiunit recordings in the caudal telencephalon of male zebra finches. The response criterion was a difference of activity from the spontaneous discharge level. Pure tones and conspecific song were used as stimuli. The auditory part of the caudal telencephalon in zebra finches can be subdivided into six functionally separated centres. The definition of separate areas is based on the existence of tonotopic gradients in each single area and on differences in neural response behaviour between areas. The anatomical area L2a is functionally subdivided into two tonotopic centres. Other areas can be identified by anatomy and function. The borders vary slightly depending on the description method.

Dopamine and glutamate neurotoxicity in cultured chick telencephali cells: effects of NMDA antagonists, antioxidants and MAO inhibitors

In a recent study, it was found that the intrastriatal administration to rats of the organophosphorous compound soman and kainic acid produced a rapid release not only of glutamate but also of dopamine in this brain region. Dopamine is a potent source of free radicals and is known to produce cytotoxic effects, per se. This raises the possibility that the released glutamate and dopamine act synergistically to produce the neurotoxicity found after soman administration. In order to investigate the feasibility of this hypothesis in an in vitro system, the effects of dopamine and glutamate upon cell survival were investigated using chick neurons (7 DIV) in serum-free primary culture. The neurons were treated with dopamine and/or glutamate for up to 24 h and cell toxicity was then assessed either by determination of cell densities, by the release of cytoplasmic LDH or by the MTT cytotoxicity assay. L-Glutamate produced a concentration-dependent cytotoxicity that was seen as early as after 30 min of exposure, and was accompanied by an increased level of lipid peroxidation. The L-glutamate toxicity could to a large extent by prevented by NMDA receptor antagonists and to a lesser extent by catalase, superoxide dismutase or glutathione ethyl ester added 30 min before the glutamate. Dopamine was also cytotoxic, and the cytotoxicity was reduced by the combination of catalase and glutathione ethyl ester but not by the MAO inhibitors clorgyline or L-deprenyl, or by the selective dopamine uptake inhibitor GBR 12783. The cytotoxic effects of dopamine and L-glutamate were additive rather than synergistic, regardless of the incubation time used. It is concluded that chick neurons in serum-free culture are a useful in vitro model system for the study of cell toxicity produced by oxidative stress and by glutamate. The cytotoxic effects of dopamine in this model are not due to the monoamine oxidase-mediated production of hydrogen peroxide but appear at least in part to be related to oxidative stress.

Analysis of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system by quantitative-trait locus introgression

One of the significant factors that affect brain dopamine function is the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the first and rate-limiting enzyme in catecholamine biosynthesis. For the analysis of the genetically determined role of dopamine function and TH in behavior and in the regulatory mechanisms of the mesotelencephalic dopamine system we devised a novel genetic strategy (Vadasz; Mouse Genome 88:16-18; 1990). We hypothesized that phenotypic introgression and recombinant fixation could ensure the transfer of Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) from one strain onto the genetic background of another strain, and new, genetically very similar quasi-congenic strains could be created that would carry individual QTLs, or QTLs in various combinations. Here we summarize the construction of the first set of QTL Introgression strains, and present evidence that QTLs that are responsible for the continuous variation of mesencephalic tyrosine hydroxylase activity (TH/MES), have been transferred onto the C57BL/6By (B6) strain background from BALB/cJ (C) and CXBI (I) donor strains with high and low TH/MES, respectively. The QTL transfer was carried out in two directions by repeated backcross-intercross cycles with concomitant selection for the extreme high and low expressions of TH/MES in replicates, resulting in four QTL Introgression lines. Analysis of regional brain TH activities in the course of the QTL introgression indicated that (a) TH activity in B6.I lines showed quite limited heritability, (b) TH/MES was not highly correlated with striatal TH, and (c) the control of hypothalamic and olfactory tubercle TH activities was largely independent from that of TH/MES. Examination of the open-field (OF) behavior data demonstrated that TH activity did not correlate significantly with OF behavior. After 5 backcross-intercross cycles, TH/MES in each replicate line was still significantly different from that of the B6 background strain. A genomewide scanning of microsatellite markers in the QTL introgression lines demonstrated that about 96% of the markers were of background (B6) type. These results indicate the successful transfer of TH/MES QTLs. After the QTL transfer phase of the experiment altogether more than 100 new RQI strains were initiated in the QTL Introgression lines by strict brother x sister mating. After fixing the introgressed QTLs, ten of the inbred RQI strains were tested for TH/MES. The results showed that in one of the new RQI strains TH/MES was restored to a level that is characteristic to the C donor strain, while TH/MES values in some other strains were between those of the background and donor strains, confirming our hypothesis that phenotypic introgression and recombinant fixation can ensure a virtually complete transfer of QTLs. We conclude from this study that complex, continuously distributed neural traits can successfully be subjected to QTL introgression, and the results raise the possibility that the RQI method can be efficiently applied for gene mapping of complex neural and behavioral traits even if their phenotypic expression is sensitive to confounding developmental and environmental variations, genetic interactions, and genotype-environment interactions.

Stereotaxic atlas of the telencephalon of the weakly electric fish Gymnotus carapo

A restraining box for the head and body of the electric fish Gymnotus carapo was constructed and coupled to a micromanipulator, permitting us to prepare an atlas of the telencephalon with stereotaxic parameters. A photograph and a schematic drawing of an animal's head is presented, showing two skin electroreceptors that were used as external landmarks. A sagittal section of the telencephalic structure is also presented, whose vertical bars indicate the frontal planes that compose the atlas. The frontal planes of the atlas consist of serial sections spaced 600 or 500 microns apart in the rostrocaudal axis. Sections mapped with acetylcholinesterase are shown, intercalated with Nissl-stained sections. The acetylcholinesterase sections proved to be useful for the delimitation of certain nuclei and for the exact localization of small fissures and fiber tracts. A brief description of major cytoarchitectural subdivision and connections of the telencephalon is provided.

Regulation of aromatase, 5 alpha- and 5 beta-reductase in primary cell cultures of developing zebra finch telencephalon

Sex steroids act on the developing and adult telencephalon of songbirds to organize and activate the neural circuits required for the learning and production of song. Presumably, the availability of active androgens and estrogens to steroid-sensitive neural circuits controlling song is modulated by the local expression of androgen-metabolizing enzymes. Two enzymes, 5 alpha- and 5 beta-reductase, are expressed widely in the songbird telencephalon, as they are in the telencephalons of other avian species. These enzymes convert circulating testosterone (T) into the active and inactive metabolites, 5 alpha- and 5 beta-dihydrotestosterone (DHT), respectively. A third enzyme, aromatase, converts T into estradiol (E2) and is expressed at unusually high levels in several regions of the songbird telencephalon. In many tissues, including the brain, the regulation of expression of one or more of these enzymes can be a critical feature of their ability to control the production of active sex steroids. We have used primary cell cultures to examine factors that might regulate the expression of these enzymes in developing zebra finch telencephalon. Cultures were treated for 0-72 h with sex steroids (T, E2, 5 alpha-DHT, and 5 beta-DHT) or with dibutyryl cAMP. Afterward, activities of aromatase, 5 alpha- and 5 beta-reductase were determined or total RNA was extracted for Northern analysis. Treatments with cAMP increased both aromatase activity and aromatase mRNA levels by 220%. E2 significantly reduced aromatase activity by an average 65%, whereas 5 alpha- and 5 beta-DHT had no effect on aromatase activity. Compared to untreated controls, E2 treatment decreased aromatase mRNA levels by 56%. None of these treatments consistently affected either 5 alpha- and 5 beta-reductase activities. These results suggest that telencephalic E2 may regulate its own synthesis by repression of aromatase expression, whereas factors that upregulate cAMP in the telencephalon can increase the local concentrations of E2.

Phosphorylation regulates calpain-mediated truncation of glutamate ionotropic receptors

Pre-incubation of synaptic membranes with phosphatase inhibitors significantly reduces the extent of calpain-mediated truncation of both GluR1 and NR2 subunits of AMPA and NMDA receptors, respectively. The same treatment did not modify calpain-mediated truncation of spectrin. These results might have important implications for mechanisms of synaptic plasticity as the balance of kinase/phosphatase activity and calpain has been proposed to regulate synaptic efficacy at glutamatergic synapses.

Neuroanatomical distribution and variations across the reproductive cycle of aromatase activity and aromatase-immunoreactive cells in the pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca)

The anatomical distribution and seasonal variations in aromatase activity and in the number of aromatase-immunoreactive cells were studied in the brain of free-living male pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca). A high aromatase activity was detected in the telencephalon and diencephalon but low to negligible levels were present in the optic lobes, cerebellum, and brain stem. In the diencephalon, most aromatase-immunoreactive cells were confined to three nuclei implicated in the control of reproductive behaviors: the medial preoptic nucleus, the nucleus of the stria terminalis, and the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. In the telencephalon, the immunopositive cells were clustered in the medial part of the neostriatum and in the hippocampus as previously described in another songbird species, the zebra finch. No immunoreactive cells could be observed in the song control nuclei. A marked drop in aromatase activity was detected in the anterior and posterior diencephalon in the early summer when the behavior of the birds had switched from defending a territory to helping the female in feeding the nestlings. This enzymatic change is presumably controlled by the drop in plasma testosterone levels observed at that stage of the reproductive cycle. No change in enzyme activity, however, was seen at that time in other brain areas. The number of aromatase-immunoreactive cells also decreased at that time in the caudal part of the medial preoptic nucleus but not in the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (an increase was even observed), suggesting that differential mechanisms control the enzyme concentration and enzyme activity in the hypothalamus. Taken together, these data suggest that changes in diencephalic aromatase activity contribute to the control of seasonal variations in reproductive behavior of male pied flycatchers but the role of the telencephalic aromatase in the control of behavior remains unclear at present.

Early specification of striatal projection neurons and interneuronal subtypes in the lateral and medial ganglionic eminence

The striatum is thought to be generated from two transient swellings in the ventral telencephalon, the lateral and medial ganglionic eminences, present at mid-stages of embryonic rat development. We have studied the relative contribution of these structures to the specific generation of striatal neuronal subtypes such as projection neurons and cholinergic and somatostatin-containing interneurons at an early stage and a mid stage in striatal neurogenesis. Dissociated progenitors isolated from the embryonic day 12.5 and embryonic day 15.5 rat lateral ganglionic eminence grafted into the previously ibotenic acid lesioned adult striatum, produce grafts containing extensive numbers of neurons expressing messenger RNA for the striatal projection neuron marker, DARPP-32, whereas grafts of the embryonic day 12.5 and embryonic day 15.5 medial ganglionic eminences do not. While preprosomatostatin messenger RNA-expressing neurons were observed in grafts from each of the lateral ganglionic eminence and medial ganglionic eminence at both embryonic day 12.5 and embryonic day 15.5, choline acetyltransferase messenger RNA-expressing cholinergic neurons were largely found in grafts derived from the embryonic day 12.5 medial ganglionic eminence. These results suggest that the neuronal diversity of the adult striatum may derive both from the lateral ganglionic eminence, providing DARPP-32-expressing projection neurons as well as somatostatin-containing interneurons, and the early stage medial ganglionic eminence specifically contributing the cholinergic interneurons.