The Sos1 and Sos2 Ras-specific exchange factors: differences in placental expression and signaling properties

Targeted disruption of both alleles of mouse sos1, which encodes a Ras-specific exchange factor, conferred mid-gestational embryonic lethality that was secondary to impaired placental development and was associated with very low placental ERK activity. The trophoblastic layers of sos1(-/-) embryos were poorly developed, correlating with high sos1 expression in wild-type trophoblasts. A sos1(-/-) cell line, which expressed readily detectable levels of the closely related Sos2 protein, formed complexes between Sos2, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and Shc efficiently, gave normal Ras.GTP and ERK responses when treated with EGF for < or =10 min and was transformed readily by activated Ras. However, the sos1(-/-) cells were resistant to transformation by v-Src or by overexpressed EGFR and continuous EGF treatment, unlike sos1(+/-) or wild-type cells. This correlated with Sos2 binding less efficiently than Sos1 to EGFR and Shc in cells treated with EGF for > or =90 min or to v-Src and Shc in v-Src-expressing cells, and with less ERK activity. We conclude that Sos1 participates in both short- and long-term signaling, while Sos2-dependent signals are predominantly short-term.

Removal of contaminant nucleic acids by nitrocellulose filtration during pharmaceutical-grade plasmid DNA processing

Pharmaceutical-grade plasmid DNA for use in vaccines and gene therapy requires the development of reproducible and scaleable downstream processes. Shearing of chromosomal DNA at the commencement of the purification results in fragments that are difficult to separate from supercoiled plasmid DNA. Regulatory standards will probably require that the level of chromosomal DNA contamination is kept below 0.01 mg mg(-1) plasmid DNA. This work reports the use of nitrocellulose membranes to decrease chromosomal DNA contamination in plasmid DNA preparations derived from a 450-l bioreactor. Clarified lysates, resuspended PEG precipitates and anion exchange chromatography elutes were filtered through nitrocellulose. In all the cases, chromosomal DNA was selectively retained by the membrane while most supercoiled plasmid DNA was recovered in the filtrate. Contamination levels dropped from over 27% to below 1% as measured by Southern analysis. Under ionic strength conditions equal to or above 1.5 M NaCl, a fraction of the contaminant RNA was also retained by the nitrocellulose membrane.

Correction of glycogen storage disease type 1a in a mouse model by gene therapy

Glycogen storage disease type 1a (GSD-1a), characterized by hypoglycemia, liver and kidney enlargement, growth retardation, hyperlipidemia, and hyperuricemia, is caused by a deficiency in glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase), a key enzyme in glucose homeostasis. To evaluate the feasibility of gene replacement therapy for GSD-1a, we have infused adenoviral vector containing the murine G6Pase gene (Ad-mG6Pase) into G6Pase-deficient (G6Pase(-/-)) mice that manifest symptoms characteristic of human GSD-1a. Whereas <15% of G6Pase(-/-) mice under glucose therapy survived weaning, a 100% survival rate was achieved when G6Pase(-/-) mice were infused with Ad-mG6Pase, 90% of which lived to 3 months of age. Hepatic G6Pase activity in Ad-mG6Pase-infused mice was restored to 19% of that in G6Pase(+/+) mice at 7-14 days post-infusion; the activity persisted for at least 70 days. Ad-mG6Pase infusion also greatly improved growth of G6Pase(-/-) mice and normalized plasma glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, and uric acid profiles. Furthermore, liver and kidney enlargement was less pronounced with near-normal levels of glycogen depositions in both organs. Our data demonstrate that a single administration of a recombinant adenoviral vector can alleviate the pathological manifestations of GSD-1a in mice, suggesting that this disorder in humans can potentially be corrected by gene therapy.

Magnesium Sensitizes Slow Vacuolar Channels to Physiological Cytosolic Calcium and Inhibits Fast Vacuolar Channels in Fava Bean Guard Cell Vacuoles

Vacuolar ion channels in guard cells play important roles during stomatal movement and are regulated by many factors including Ca(2+), calmodulin, protein kinases, and phosphatases. We report that physiological cytosolic and luminal Mg(2+) levels strongly regulate vacuolar ion channels in fava bean (Vicia faba) guard cells. Luminal Mg(2+) inhibited fast vacuolar (FV) currents with a K(i) of approximately 0.23 mM in a voltage-dependent manner at positive potentials on the cytoplasmic side. Cytosolic Mg(2+) at 1 mM also inhibited FV currents. Furthermore, in the absence of cytosolic Mg(2+), cytosolic Ca(2+) at less than 10 µM did not activate slow vacuolar (SV) currents. However, when cytosolic Mg(2+) was present, submicromolar concentrations of cytosolic Ca(2+) activated SV currents with a K(d) of approximately 227 nM, suggesting a synergistic Mg(2+)-Ca(2+) effect. The activation potential of SV currents was shifted toward physiological potentials in the presence of cytosolic Mg(2+) concentrations. The direction of SV currents could also be changed from outward to both outward and inward currents. Our data predict a model for SV channel regulation, including a cytosolic binding site for Ca(2+) with an affinity in the submicromolar range and a cytosolic low-affinity Mg(2+)-Ca(2+) binding site. SV channels are predicted to contain a third binding site on the vacuolar luminal side, which binds Ca(2+) and is inhibitory. In conclusion, cytosolic Mg(2+) sensitizes SV channels to physiological cytosolic Ca(2+) elevations. Furthermore, we propose that cytosolic and vacuolar Mg(2+) concentrations ensure that FV channels do not function as a continuous vacuolar K(+) leak, which would prohibit stomatal opening.

MT1-MMP-deficient mice develop dwarfism, osteopenia, arthritis, and connective tissue disease due to inadequate collagen turnover

MT1-MMP is a membrane-bound matrix metalloproteinase (MT-MMP) capable of mediating pericellular proteolysis of extracellular matrix components. MT1-MMP is therefore thought to be an important molecular tool for cellular remodeling of the surrounding matrix. To establish the biological role of this membrane proteinase we generated MT1-MMP-deficient mice by gene targeting. MT1-MMP deficiency causes craniofacial dysmorphism, arthritis, osteopenia, dwarfism, and fibrosis of soft tissues due to ablation of a collagenolytic activity that is essential for modeling of skeletal and extraskeletal connective tissues. Our findings demonstrate the pivotal function of MT1-MMP in connective tissue metabolism, and illustrate that modeling of the soft connective tissue matrix by resident cells is essential for the development and maintenance of the hard tissues of the skeleton.

Beta 2-microglobulin-deficient background ameliorates lethal phenotype of the TGF-beta 1 null mouse

TGF-beta 1 null (TGF-beta1-/-) mice die at 3-4 wk of age and show an autoimmune inflammatory phenotype associated with enhanced expression of both class I and II MHC molecules. To determine the role of MHC class I Ags in the autoimmune manifestations and the inflammation observed in TGF-beta 1-/- mice, we generated TGF-beta 1-/- mice in the genetic background of beta 2-microglobulin deficiency (beta 2M-/-). TGF-beta 1-/-;beta 2M-/- mice had improved survival compared with TGF-beta 1-/- mice. Histopathological examination showed less severe inflammation, especially in the heart, where Mac-2 reactive macrophages were significantly decreased as compared with TGF-beta 1-/- mice. In vivo depletion of CD8+ T cells in TGF-beta 1-/- mice confirmed suppression of inflammation and reduction in the severity of the wasting syndrome. MHC class II mRNA expression in TGF-beta 1-/-;beta 2M-/- mice was also lower than that in TGF-beta 1-/- mice, suggesting reduced systemic inflammation. Autoimmune response as judged by serum Ab titers to ssDNA and 16/6 Id and by immune complex deposits in kidney was reduced in TGF-beta 1-/-;beta 2M-/- mice, when compared with that in TGF-beta 1-/- mice. Our data thus indicate that MHC class I molecules influence the development of the autoimmunity and the inflammation seen in TGF-beta 1-/- mice and CD8+ T cells may have a contribution to the inflammation in TGF-beta 1-/- mice.

CYP1A2 is not the primary enzyme responsible for 4-aminobiphenyl-induced hepatocarcinogenesis in mice

4-Aminobiphenyl (4-ABP), a potent carcinogen in rodents (liver cancer) and human (bladder cancer), is found as an environmental contaminant and in tobacco smoke. Hemoglobin adducts and lung DNA adducts of 4-ABP are found in tobacco smokers. In vitro metabolism studies with human and rat liver microsomes have shown that CYP1A2 is primarily responsible for catalyzing N-hydroxylation, the initial step in the metabolic activation of 4-ABP. To determine whether this P450 is a rate limiting pathway for hepatocarcinogenesis, CYP1A2-null mice were analyzed at 16 months of age and were compared with wild-type mice in their response to 4-ABP using the neonatal mouse bioassay and two different doses of the carcinogen. Overall differences in incidences of hepatocellular adenoma, carcinoma and preneoplastic foci were not significant between either genotypes or 4-ABP doses used, whereas small, but significant, differences were found for specific types of foci. These results suggest that while CYP1A2 levels may not be rate limiting for 4-ABP metabolism to produce tumors and foci, it may modulate the induction process of some types of liver foci in either a positive or negative manner. In vitro studies using CYP1A2-null and wild-type mouse liver microsomes revealed that CYP1A2 is not the sole P450 required for 4-ABP N-hydroxylation and that another, yet to be identified, P450 is likely to be involved.

Difluoromethylornithine chemoprevention of epidermal carcinogenesis in K14-HPV16 transgenic mice

To be informative for chemoprevention, animal models must both closely emulate human disease and possess surrogate endpoint biomarkers that facilitate rapid drug screening. This study elucidated site-specific histopathological and biochemical surrogate endpoint biomarkers of spontaneous epidermal carcinogenesis in K14-HPV16 transgenic mice and demonstrated that the incidence and severity of these markers were decreased by the ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) inhibitor difluoromethylornithine (DFMO). The cumulative incidence of visible epidermal cancers in 127 untreated transgenic mice was 42% by 52 weeks of age, most frequently affecting the chest as flat lesions in association with chronic ulcers, or in the ear as protuberant masses. Microscopic malignancies were detected in 39% of 32-week-old transgenic mice and were found to emerge from precursor lesions that were of two distinct types: dysplastic sessile ear papillomas and hyperproliferative follicular/interfollicular chest dysplasias. ODC activity and tissue polyamine contents were differentially elevated in ear and chest skin during carcinogenesis, such that there was a marked elevation of both parameters of polyamine metabolism as early as 4 weeks of age in the ear, whereas in the chest, polyamine metabolism was increased significantly only in the late stages of neoplastic progression and in epidermal cancers. Administration of 1.0% DFMO in the drinking water from 4 to 32 weeks of age prevented both visible and microscopic malignancies and significantly decreased the incidence of chest and ear precursor lesions. ODC activity and tissue putrescine content were markedly diminished by DFMO chemoprevention in ear skin, whereas there was a more modest decline of these parameters in chest skin. DFMO treatment of transgenic mice from 28 to 32 weeks of age was associated with an absence of ear cancer and a marked regression of dysplastic papillomas. In contrast, the results in chest skin were complex in that the severity of chest precursors diminished, but their incidence was unchanged, and microscopic cancers were still detectable within these lesions. Collectively, this study highlights the utility of multistage epidermal carcinogenesis in K14-HPV16 transgenic mice both for the study of the biology of, and as a screening tool for, novel drugs and chemopreventive regimens.

Schistosome-infected IL-4 receptor knockout (KO) mice, in contrast to IL-4 KO mice, fail to develop granulomatous pathology while maintaining the same lymphokine expression profile

Th2 lymphocytes have been postulated to play a major role in the immunopathology induced by Schistosoma mansoni infection. Nevertheless, infected IL-4 knockout (KO) and wild-type (wt) mice develop egg granulomas comparable in size. To further investigate the function of the Th2 response in egg pathology we studied IL-4Ralpha-deficient mice, which are nonresponsive to both IL-4 and IL-13. In striking contrast to IL-4 KO animals, infected IL-4Ralpha KO mice developed only minimal hepatic granulomas and fibrosis despite the presence of CD3+ T cells in the residual egg lesions. Moreover, liver lymphokine mRNA levels in these animals and IL-4 KO mice were equivalent. In addition, infected IL-4Ralpha-deficient, IL-4-deficient, and wt animals developed similar egg Ag-specific IgG Ab titers, arguing that CD4-dependent Th activity is intact in KO mice. As expected, IFN-gamma secretion was strongly up-regulated in mesenteric lymph node cultures from both groups of deficient animals, a change reflected in increased serum IgG2a and IgG2b Ab levels. Surprisingly, Th2 cytokine production in infected IL-4Ralpha KO mice was not abolished but was only reduced and resembled that previously documented in IL-4 KO animals. This residual Th2 response is likely to explain the ability of IL-4 KO mice to generate egg granulomas, which cannot be formed in IL-4Ralpha-deficient animals because of their lack of responsiveness to the same cytokine ligands. Taken together, these findings argue that tissue pathology in schistosomiasis requires, in addition to egg-specific CD4+ lymphocytes, a previously unrecognized IL-4Ralpha+ non-T cell effector population.

Import and processing of heart mitochondrial cyclophilin D

Cyclophilins are a family of cyclosporin-A-binding proteins which catalyse rotation about prolyl peptide bonds. A mitochondrial isoform in mammalian cells, cyclophilin D, is a component of the permeability transition pore that is formed by the adenine nucleotide translocase and the voltage-dependent anion channel at contact sites between the inner and outer membrane. This study investigated the submitochondrial location of cyclophilin D by following the fate of radiolabelled protein following import. Precursor [(35)S]cyclophilin D was expressed in vitro from a PCR-generated cDNA. The precursor was imported by rat heart mitochondria and processed in a single step to a 21-kDa protein that was identical (SDS/PAGE) to an in vitro expressed mature protein and a cyclophilin D purified from rat heart mitochondria. No further modification of the mature protein could be demonstrated. Fractionation of mitochondria following import established that cyclophilin D locates only to the matrix. It is concluded that cyclophilin D binding to the permeability transition pore must occur at the inner face of the mitochondrial inner membrane.

Role of CYP1A2 in the toxicity of long-term phenacetin feeding in mice

The mechanisms underlying phenacetin-induced toxicity and carcinogenicity are not clear. In particular, it is not known whether these effects are mediated by metabolic activation of the drug. CYP1A2 is known to metabolize phenacetin in vitro. To determine the role of this enzyme in vivo, the toxicity and carcinogenicity of phenacetin was examined in Cyp1a2-null mice (that lack CYP1A2). Six- to 8-week-old wild type (+/+) or null (-/-) mice were fed either a control diet, or one containing 1.25% phenacetin, ad libitum for up to 67 weeks. Representative groups of mice were examined for phenacetin-induced toxicity and carcinogenicity after 36, 48, 58, or 67 weeks of feeding. Consistent with the known role of CYP1A2 in phenacetin metabolism, plasma levels of phenacetin were higher and acetaminophen levels lower in the (-/-) mice fed phenacetin compared to phenacetin-fed (+/+) controls. Weight gain was significantly depressed in both groups of phenacetin-fed mice after 4 weeks of feeding, and continued to be lower for the remainder of the experiment, compared to controls. Hepatomegaly and splenomegaly were more severe in (-/-) mice but present in both genotypes fed phenacetin at all time points assessed. Histological analysis of liver, kidney, spleen, and urogenital tract also revealed a differential response in the (-/-) mice fed phenacetin compared to (+/+) mice fed the same diet. Further, mortality was the most severe in the (-/-) mice fed phenacetin than in all other groups. Despite significant toxicity in (-/-) mice fed phenacetin, only one renal carcinoma was found among them. Results from this work demonstrate that, in the absence of CYP1A2, phenacetin is more toxic than in controls. This provides evidence that metabolism of phenacetin by CYP1A2 alters toxicity in vivo, and suggests that alternate CYP1A2-independent metabolic pathways contribute to its toxicity.

Aging accentuates and bone marrow transplantation ameliorates metabolic defects in Fabry disease mice

Fabry disease is an X-linked metabolic disorder caused by a deficiency of alpha-galactosidase A (alpha-Gal A). The enzyme defect leads to the systemic accumulation of glycosphingolipids with alpha-galactosyl moieties consisting predominantly of globotriaosylceramide (Gb3). In patients with this disorder, glycolipid deposition in endothelial cells leads to renal failure and cardiac and cerebrovascular disease. Recently, we generated alpha-Gal A gene knockout mouse lines and described the phenotype of 10-week-old mice. In the present study, we characterize the progression of the disease with aging and explore the effects of bone marrow transplantation (BMT) on the phenotype. Histopathological analysis of alpha-Gal A -/0 mice revealed subclinical lesions in the Kupffer cells in the liver and macrophages in the skin with no gross lesions in the endothelial cells. Gb3 accumulation and pathological lesions in the affected organs increased with age. Treatment with BMT from the wild-type mice resulted in the clearance of accumulated Gb3 in the liver, spleen, and heart with concomitant elevation of alpha-Gal A activity. These findings suggest that BMT may have a potential role in the management of patients with Fabry disease.

Thyroid-specific enhancer-binding protein/thyroid transcription factor 1 is not required for the initial specification of the thyroid and lung primordia

Targeted disruption of the homeobox gene T/ebp (Ttf1) in mice results in ablation of the thyroid and pituitary, and severe deformities in development of the lung and hypothalamus. T/ebp is expressed in the thyroid, lung, and ventral forebrain during normal embryogenesis. Examination of thyroid development in T/ebp homozygous null mutant embryos revealed that the thyroid rudiment is initially formed but is eliminated through apoptosis. Absence of T/EBP expression in the lung primordium does not activate apoptosis since a lung tissue, albeit dysmorphic, is nevertheless formed in T/ebp-/- embryos. These results demonstrate that T/EBP is not required for the initial specification of thyroid or lung primordia, but is absolutely essential for the development and morphogenesis of these organs.

A novel urease-negative Helicobacter species associated with colitis and typhlitis in IL-10-deficient mice

A spiral-shaped bacterium with bipolar, single-sheathed flagella was isolated from the intestines of IL-10 (interleukin-10)-deficient (IL-10(-/-)) mice with inflammatory bowel disease. The organism was microaerobic, grew at 37 and 42 degrees C, and was oxidase and catalase positive but urease negative. On the basis of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis and biochemical and phenotypic criteria, the organism is classified as a novel helicobacter. Cesarean section-rederived IL-10(-/-) mice without helicobacter infection did not have histological evidence of intestinal inflammation. However, helicobacter-free IL-10(-/-), SCID/NCr, and A/JNCr mice experimentally inoculated with the novel urease-negative Helicobacter sp. developed variable degrees of inflammation in the lower intestine, and in immunocompetent mice, the experimental infection was accompanied by a corresponding elevated immunoglobulin G antibody response to the novel Helicobacter sp. antigen. These data support other recent studies which demonstrate that multiple Helicobacter spp. in both naturally and experimentally infected mice can induce inflammatory bowel disease. The mouse model of helicobacter-associated intestinal inflammation should prove valuable in understanding how specific microbial antigens influence a complex disease process.

Cytochrome P450 CYP1B1 determines susceptibility to 7, 12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-induced lymphomas

CYP1B1-null mice, created by targeted gene disruption in embryonic stem cells, were born at the expected frequency from heterozygous matings with no observable phenotype, thus establishing that CYP1B1 is not required for mouse development. CYP1B1 was not detectable in cultured embryonic fibroblast (EF) or in different tissues, such as lung, of the CYP1B1-null mouse treated with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonist 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin whereas the equivalent wild-type EF cells express basal and substantial inducible CYP1B1 and lung expresses inducible CYP1B1. CYP1A1 is induced to far higher levels than CYP1B1 in liver, kidney, and lung in wild-type mice and is induced to a similar extent in CYP1B1-null mice. 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) was toxic in wild-type EFs that express CYP1B1 but not CYP1A1. These cells effectively metabolized DMBA, consistent with CYP1B1 involvement in producing the procarcinogenic 3,4-dihydrodiol as a major metabolite, whereas CYP1B1-null EF showed no significant metabolism and were resistant to DMBA-mediated toxicity. When wild-type mice were administered high levels of DMBA intragastrically, 70% developed highly malignant lymphomas whereas only 7.5% of CYP1B1-null mice had lymphomas. Skin hyperplasia and tumors were also more frequent in wild-type mice. These results establish that CYP1B1, located exclusively at extrahepatic sites, mediates the carcinogenicity of DMBA. Surprisingly, CYP1A1, which has a high rate of DMBA metabolism in vitro, is not sufficient for this carcinogenesis, which demonstrates the importance of extrahepatic P450s in determining susceptibility to chemical carcinogens and validates the search for associations between P450 expression and cancer risk in humans.

Transporters for ammonium, amino acids and peptides are expressed in pitchers of the carnivorous plant Nepenthes

Insect capture and digestion contribute substantially to the nitrogen budget of carnivorous plants. In Nepenthes, insect-derived nitrogenous compounds are imported from the pitcher fluid and transported throughout the plant via the vascular tissue to support growth. Import and distribution of nutrients may require transmembrane nitrogen transporters. Representatives of three classes of genes encoding transporters for the nitrogenous compounds ammonium, amino acids and peptides were identified in Nepenthes pitchers. The expression at the cellular level of an ammonium transporter gene, three amino acid transporter genes, and one peptide transporter gene were investigated in the insect trapping organs of Nepenthes. Expression of the ammonium transporter gene NaAMT1 was detected in the head cells of digestive glands in the lower part of the pitcher where NaAMT1 may function in ammonium uptake from the pitcher fluid. One amino acid transporter gene, NaAAP1, was expressed in bundle sheath cells surrounding the vascular tissue. To understand the locations where transmembrane transport could be required within the pitcher, symplasmic and apoplasmic continuity was probed using fluorescent dyes. Symplasmic connections were not found between cortical cells and vascular bundles. Therefore, the amino acid transporter encoded by NaAAP1 may be involved in transport of amino acids into the vascular tissue. In contrast, expression of the peptide transporter gene NaNTR1 was detected in phloem cells of the vascular tissue within pitchers. NaNTR1 may function in the export of nitrogen from the pitcher by loading peptides into the phloem.

Splenic marginal zone B-cell and thymic T-cell lymphomas in p53-deficient mice

The molecular pathology and histogenesis of lymphomas in 56 retired breeder male and 14 12-week-old male homozygous p53-deficient (p53-/-) mice (C57BL/6TacfBR-[KO]p53 N4) were evaluated. Lymphomas were assessed by serial morphologic techniques, immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, and analysis of T cell receptor (TCR) or immunoglobulin heavy chain (IgH) gene rearrangements. We found two common types of lymphomas. T-cell lymphomas arose in the thymus through a sequence of lymphocyte depletion, medullary hyperplasia, and unilateral lymphoma. Tumor cells were CD3+, CD90+, and usually TCRalpha/beta+ and possessed clonal TCRbeta gene rearrangements. Thymic lymphoblastic lymphomas (LL) were highly malignant and quickly metastasized to the splenic white pulp and liver, even when the thymus was only slightly increased in weight. In the spleen, a novel lymphoma was found. Marginal zone hyperplasia led to marginal zone lymphoma (MZL), a well-differentiated lymphoma that usually expressed CD45R (B220) and CD5 at low levels and that had clonal IgH gene rearrangements. IgH gene rearrangements were also seen in spleens with marginal zone hyperplasias only. Hyperplastic and neoplastic marginal zone B cells expressed IgM at low to normal levels, as seen by FACS analysis and immunohistochemistry. These tumors only metastasized to the liver at a later stage, as they became less differentiated. Several mice had both types of tumors present in the spleen. Two B-cell lymphoblastic lymphomas of uncertain origin were also found. In this article, we discuss the possible mechanisms responsible for development of the lymphomas seen in these p53-deficient mice.

Time course of SDS-alkaline lysis of recombinant bacterial cells for plasmid release

SDS-alkaline lysis of recombinant Escherichia coli cell suspensions was carried out in a coaxial cylinder rheometer, and the data were used to establish the time course of lysis reaction. The results of the experiments showed that cell lysis reaction time depended on cell strain but was unaffected by plasmid size and plasmid copy number. The high molecular weight globular proteins and chromosomal DNA were denatured, and the resulting changes in rheometric measurements characterised the denaturation time.

Formation of Rathke's pouch requires dual induction from the diencephalon

Targeted disruption of the homeobox gene T/ebp (Nkx2.1, Ttf1, Titf1) in mice results in ablation of the pituitary. Paradoxically, while T/ebp is expressed in the ventral diencephalon during forebrain formation, it is not expressed in Rathke's pouch or in the pituitary gland at any time of embryogenesis. Examination of pituitary development in the T/ebp homozygous null mutant embryos revealed that a pouch rudiment is initially formed but is eliminated by programmed cell death before formation of a definitive pouch. In the diencephalon of the mutant, Bmp4 expression is maintained, whereas Fgf8 expression is not detectable. These data and additional genetic and molecular observations suggest that Rathke's pouch develops in a two-step process that requires at least two sequential inductive signals from the diencephalon. First, BMP4 is required for induction and formation of the pouch rudiment, a role confirmed by analysis of Bmp4 homozygous null mutant embryos. Second, FGF8 is necessary for activation of the key regulatory gene Lhx3 and subsequent development of the pouch rudiment into a definitive pouch. This study provides firm molecular genetic evidence that morphogenesis of the pituitary primordium is induced in vivo by signals from the adjacent diencephalon.

Cyclophilin-D binds strongly to complexes of the voltage-dependent anion channel and the adenine nucleotide translocase to form the permeability transition pore

A cyclophilin-D affinity matrix was employed to isolate components of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. A cDNA encoding cyclophilin-D was cloned from a rat liver library and ligated into pGEX to allow expression of a glutathione S-transferase/cyclophilin-D fusion protein in Escherichia coli XL1 cells. The cyclophilin-D in the fusion was functionally normal as judged by its peptidylprolyl cis-trans-isomerase activity and its inhibition by cyclosporin A. The fusion protein was bound to glutathione-agarose to form the cyclophilin-D affinity matrix. The matrix selectively bound 32-kDa proteins of mitochondrial membrane extracts, but no H2O-soluble proteins were bound. The 32-kDa band on SDS/PAGE resolved into a doublet and reacted with antibodies against the voltage-dependent anion channel (porin) and the adenine nucleotide translocase. These two proteins were also selectively retained by the affinity matrix in the presence of cyclosporin A. The thus-purified voltage-dependent anion channel, adenine nucleotide translocase and the fusion protein were incorporated into phosphatidylcholine liposomes containing fluorescein sulphonate. The proteoliposomes were permeabilized by Ca2+ plus phosphate, and this was blocked completely by cyclosporin A. These properties are identical to those of the permeability transition pore in mitochondria. It is concluded that the basic permeability transition pore structure comprises the voltage-dependent anion channel (outer membrane), adenine nucleotide translocase (inner membrane) and cyclophilin-D, and forms at contact sites between the two membranes.

Helicobacter hepaticus triggers colitis in specific-pathogen-free interleukin-10 (IL-10)-deficient mice through an IL-12- and gamma interferon-dependent mechanism

Mice rendered deficient in interleukin-10 (IL-10) by gene targeting (IL-10(-/-) mice) develop chronic enterocolitis resembling human inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) when maintained in conventional animal facilities. However, they display a minimal and delayed intestinal inflammatory response when reared under specific-pathogen-free (SPF) conditions, suggesting the involvement of a microbial component in pathogenesis. We show here that experimental infection with a single bacterial agent, Helicobacter hepaticus, induces chronic colitis in SPF-reared IL-10(-/-) mice and that the disease is accompanied by a type 1 cytokine response (gamma interferon [IFN-gamma], tumor necrosis factor alpha, and nitric oxide) detected by restimulation of spleen and mesenteric lymph node cells with a soluble H. hepaticus antigen (Ag) preparation. In contrast, wild-type (WT) animals infected with the same bacteria did not develop disease and produced IL-10 as the dominant cytokine in response to Helicobacter Ag. Strong H. hepaticus-reactive antibody responses as measured by Ag-specific total immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b, IgG3, and IgA were observed in both WT and IL-10(-/-) mice. In vivo neutralization of IFN-gamma or IL-12 resulted in a significant reduction of intestinal inflammation in H. hepaticus-infected IL-10(-/-) mice, suggesting an important role for these cytokines in the development of colitis in the model. Taken together, these microbial reconstitution experiments formally establish that a defined bacterial agent can serve as the immunological target in the development of large bowel inflammation in IL-10(-/-) mice and argue that in nonimmunocompromised hosts IL-10 stimulated in response to intestinal flora is important in preventing IBD.

Ontogeny of the murine glucose-6-phosphatase system

A deficiency in microsomal glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) activity causes glycogen storage disease type 1 (GSD-1), a clinically and biochemically heterogeneous group of diseases. It has been suggested that catalysis by G6Pase involves multiple components, with defects in the G6Pase catalytic unit causing GSD-1a and defects in the putative substrate and product translocases causing GSD-1b, 1c, and 1d. However, this model is open to debate. To elucidate the G6Pase system, we have examined G6Pase mRNA expression, G6Pase activity, and glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) transport activity in the murine liver and kidney during normal development. In the liver, G6Pase mRNA and enzymatic activity were detected at 18 days gestation and increased markedly at parturition, before leveling off to adult levels. In the kidney, G6Pase mRNA and enzymatic activity appeared at 19 days gestation and peaked at weaning, suggesting that kidney G6Pase may have a different metabolic role. In situ hybridization analysis demonstrated that, in addition to the liver and kidney, the intestine expressed G6Pase. Despite the expression of G6Pase in the embryonic liver, microsomal G6P transport activity was not detectable until birth, peaking at about age 4 weeks. Our study strongly supports the multicomponent model for the G6Pase system.