The polysemous concepts of psychomotricity and catatonia: A European multi-consensus perspective

Current classification systems use the terms "catatonia" and "psychomotor phenomena" as mere a-theoretical descriptors, forgetting about their theoretical embedment. This was the source of misunderstandings among clinicians and researchers of the European collaboration on movement and sensorimotor/psychomotor functioning in schizophrenia and other psychoses or ECSP. Here, we review the different perspectives, their historical roots and highlight discrepancies. In 1844, Wilhelm Griesinger coined the term "psychic-motor" to name the physiological process accounting for volition. While deriving from this idea, the term "psychomotor" actually refers to systems that receive miscellaneous intrapsychic inputs, convert them into coherent behavioral outputs send to the motor systems. More recently, the sensorimotor approach has drawn on neuroscience to redefine the motor signs and symptoms observed in psychoses. In 1874, Karl Kahlbaum conceived catatonia as a brain disease emphasizing its somatic - particularly motor - features. In conceptualizing dementia praecox Emil Kraepelin rephrased catatonic phenomena in purely mental terms, putting aside motor signs which could not be explained in this way. Conversely, the Wernicke-Kleist-Leonhard school pursued Kahlbaum's neuropsychiatric approach and described many new psychomotor signs, e.g. parakinesias, Gegenhalten. They distinguished 8 psychomotor phenotypes of which only 7 are catatonias. These barely overlap with consensus classifications, raising the risk of misunderstanding. Although coming from different traditions, the authors agreed that their differences could be a source of mutual enrichment, but that an important effort of conceptual clarification remained to be made. This narrative review is a first step in this direction.

Anxiety, Depression, and Apathy as Predictors of Cognitive Decline in Patients With Parkinson's Disease-A Three-Year Follow-Up Study

Objective

Anxiety, depression, and apathy are the most common neuropsychiatric symptoms in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. They impair cognitive functioning and have a profound impact on quality of life. This follow-up study aims to investigate the predictive value of anxiety, depression, and apathy on the development of Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) in PD patients.

Methods

Twenty-nine cognitively unimpaired PD patients (mean age 68.2 SD ± 7.12 years; 13 women) participated in this study. At Baseline (BL) levels of apathy (Apathy Evaluation Scale, AES), depression (Beck Depression Inventory, BDI-II), and anxiety (Beck Anxiety Inventory, BAI), were assessed. Cognitive status was reassessed three years later according to MCI/non-MCI status. For statistics, we used binary logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) analysis to examine anxiety, apathy, and depression at BL as a predictor of MCI status three years later.

Results

Eight of the 29 patients developed MCI. Anxiety level at BL was found to predict MCI status at three-year follow-up (OR = 1.20, CI = 1.02–1.41, p = 0.02), while depression (OR = 1.16, CI = 0.93–1.47, p = 0.20) and apathy (OR = 1.06, CI = 0.92–1.23, p = 0.40) did not predict MCI status. The area under the ROC curve (AUC) of BAI for discriminating PD-non-MCI from PD-MCI was 0.79 (CI = 0.61–0.98). The optimal classification threshold yielded a sensitivity of 75.0 % and a specificity of 76.2 %. Neither apathy nor depression at BL discriminated between PD-non-MCI patients from PD-MCI three years later.

Conclusions

This study shows an association between anxiety and the development of MCI in PD patients, although the association between apathy, depression, and MCI did not reach a significant level.

Immunopsychiatry: An Update on Autoimmune Encephalitis for Neuropsychiatrists

INTRODUCTION

Autoimmune encephalitis (AIE) is a group of immune-mediated inflammatory processes of the brain with marked psychiatric features. Although relatively rare, they might offer difficult differential diagnosis with psychiatric conditions, especially catatonia and psychotic syndromes. Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis is the most common AIE, presenting with psychiatric syndromes in 90% of cases. The associated psychopathology is complex, pleomorphic and best characterized when there is involvement of a psychiatrist in the assessment.

AREAS COVERED

This text will review the main aspects of AIE to psychiatrists and/or neuropsychiatrists.

EXPERT OPINION

Immune system dysfunction has been implicated in the pathophysiology of psychiatric symptoms and disorders. The use of diagnostic criteria of possible AIE, especially when specific antibodies of AIE are not available, allows early diagnosis and prompt treatment which are associated with better clinical outcomes. The study of the psychiatric aspects of AIE can broaden our knowledge of the underlying mechanisms of various psychiatric manifestations.

Functional (psychogenic non-epileptic/dissociative) seizures: why and how?

Functional seizures (FS) known also as psychogenic non-epileptic seizures or dissociative seizures, present with ictal semiological manifestations, along with various comorbid neurological and psychological disorders. Terminology inconsistencies and discrepancies in nomenclatures of FS may reflect limitations in understanding the neuropsychiatric intricacies of this disorder. Psychological and neurobiological processes of FS are incompletely understood. Nevertheless, important advances have been made on underlying neuropsychopathophysiological mechanisms of FS. These advances provide valuable information about the underlying mechanisms of mind-body interactions. From this perspective, this narrative review summarises recent studies about aetiopathogenesis of FS at two levels: possible risk factors (why) and different aetiopathogenic models of FS (how). We divided possible risk factors for FS into three categories, namely neurobiological, psychological and cognitive risk factors. We also presented different models of FS based on psychological and neuroanatomical understanding, multilevel models and integrative understanding of FS. This work should help professionals to better understand current views on the multifactorial mechanisms involved in the development of FS. Shedding light on the different FS profiles in terms of aetiopathogenesis will help guide how best to direct therapy, based on these different underlying mechanisms.

A description of the components of a specialist younger-onset dementia service: a potential model for a dementia-specific service for younger people

OBJECTIVES

This narrative paper describes the influences behind the development of, and key components of a specialist younger-onset dementia service located in metropolitan Victoria, Australia.

CONCLUSION

The Melbourne Young-Onset Dementia Service was established in 2013 and provides diagnosis and ongoing care for people with younger-onset dementia and their families, through collaboration with other medical units, allied health and community services. It is potentially a model for other younger-onset dementia services nationally and internationally.

Circulating cell-free mitochondrial DNA in brain health and disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

Circulating cell-free mitochondrial DNA (ccf-mtDNA) are detectable fragments of mtDNA released from the cell as a result of mitochondrial dysfunction or apoptosis. The brain is one of the most energy demanding organs in the human body, and many neuropsychiatric and non-psychiatric neurological diseases have mitochondrial dysfunction associated with disease pathophysiology. Thus, we aimed to assess ccf-mtDNA as a potential biomarker for brain diseases.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analyses of studies that examined peripheral and/or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) ccf-mtDNA relevant to neuropsychiatric conditions, which we define as disorders of affect, behaviour and mood, and non-psychiatric neurological diseases, which consist of neurological diseases not related to psychiatry including neurodegenerative diseases.

RESULTS

The results of the sensitivity analysis investigating the levels of peripheral ccf-mtDNA in neuropsychiatric studies showed no significant difference between cases and controls (Z = 1.57; p = 0.12), whereas the results of the sensitivity analysis investigating the levels of CSF ccf-mtDNA in non-psychiatric neurological diseases showed a decreasing trend in cases compared with controls (Z = 2.32; p = 0.02). Interestingly, the results indicate an overall mitochondrial stress associated mainly with non-psychiatric neurological diseases.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study supports the involvement of mitochondrial stress, here defined as ccf-mtDNA, in brain diseases and encourage further investigation of ccf-mtDNA among patients with brain diseases.

A Systematic Review of Circulatory microRNAs in Major Depressive Disorder: Potential Biomarkers for Disease Prognosis

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a neuropsychiatric disorder, which remains challenging to diagnose and manage due to its complex endophenotype. In this aspect, circulatory microRNAs (cimiRNAs) offer great potential as biomarkers and may provide new insights for MDD diagnosis. Therefore, we systemically reviewed the literature to explore various cimiRNAs contributing to MDD diagnosis and underlying molecular pathways. A comprehensive literature survey was conducted, employing four databases from 2012 to January 2021. Out of 1004 records, 157 reports were accessed for eligibility criteria, and 32 reports meeting our inclusion criteria were considered for in-silico analysis. This study identified 99 dysregulated cimiRNAs in MDD patients, out of which 20 cimiRNAs found in multiple reports were selected for in-silico analysis. KEGG pathway analysis indicated activation of ALS, MAPK, p53, and P13K-Akt signaling pathways, while gene ontology analysis demonstrated that most protein targets were associated with transcription. In addition, chromosomal location analysis showed clustering of dysregulated cimiRNAs at proximity 3p22-p21, 9q22.32, and 17q11.2, proposing their coregulation with specific transcription factors primarily involved in MDD physiology. Further analysis of transcription factor sites revealed the existence of HIF-1, REST, and TAL1 in most cimiRNAs. These transcription factors are proposed to target genes linked with MDD, hypothesizing that first-wave cimiRNA dysregulation may trigger the second wave of transcription-wide changes, altering the protein expressions of MDD-affected cells. Overall, this systematic review presented a list of dysregulated cimiRNAs in MDD, notably miR-24-3p, let 7a-5p, miR-26a-5p, miR135a, miR-425-3p, miR-132, miR-124 and miR-16-5p as the most prominent cimiRNAs. However, various constraints did not permit us to make firm conclusions on the clinical significance of these cimiRNAs, suggesting the need for more research on single blood compartment to identify the biomarker potential of consistently dysregulated cimiRNAs in MDD, as well as the therapeutic implications of these in-silico insights.

Remote Patient Monitoring for Neuropsychiatric Disorders: A Scoping Review of Current Trends and Future Perspectives from Recent Publications and Upcoming Clinical Trials

Introduction:

Telemedicine and remote patient monitoring are rapidly growing fields. This scoping review provides an update on remote patient monitoring for neuropsychiatric disorders from recent publications and upcoming clinical trials.

Methods:

Publications (PubMed and ICHUSHI; published January 2010 to February 2021) and trials (ClinicalTrials.gov and Japanese registries; active or recruiting by March 2021) that assessed wearable devices for remote management and/or monitoring of patients with neuropsychiatric disorders were searched. The review focuses on disorders with ≥3 publications.

Results:

We identified 44 publications and 51 active or recruiting trials, mostly from 2019 or 2020. Research on digital devices was most common for Parkinson's disease (11 publications and 19 trials), primarily for monitoring motor symptoms and/or preventing falls. Other disorders (3–5 publications each) included epilepsy (electroencephalogram [EEG] and seizure prediction), sleep disorder (sleep outcomes and behavioral therapies), multiple sclerosis (physical activity and symptoms), depression (physical activity, symptoms, and behavioral therapies), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (symptoms). Very few studies focused on newly emerging technologies (e.g., in-ear EEG and portable oximeters), and few studies integrated remote symptom monitoring with telemedicine.

Discussion:

Currently, development of digital devices for daily symptom monitoring is focused on Parkinson's disease. For the diseases reviewed, studies mostly focused on physical activity rather than psychiatric or nonmotor symptoms. Although the validity and usefulness of many devices are established, models for implementing remote patient monitoring in telehealth settings have not been established.

Conclusions:

Verification of the clinical effectiveness of digital devices combined with telemedicine is needed to further advance remote patient care for neuropsychiatric disorders.

New Insights and Potential Therapeutic Targeting of CB2 Cannabinoid Receptors in CNS Disorders

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is ubiquitous in most human tissues, and involved in the regulation of mental health. Consequently, its dysregulation is associated with neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders. Together, the ECS and the expanded endocannabinoidome (eCBome) are composed of genes coding for CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors (CB1R, CB2R), endocannabinoids (eCBs), and the metabolic enzyme machinery for their synthesis and catabolism. The activation of CB1R is associated with adverse effects on the central nervous system (CNS), which has limited the therapeutic use of drugs that bind this receptor. The discovery of the functional neuronal CB2R raised new possibilities for the potential and safe targeting of the ECS for the treatment of CNS disorders. Previous studies were not able to detect CB2R mRNA transcripts in brain tissue and suggested that CB2Rs were absent in the brain and were considered peripheral receptors. Studies done on the role of CB2Rs as a potential therapeutic target for treating different disorders revealed the important putative role of CB2Rs in certain CNS disorders, which requires further clinical validation. This review addresses recent advances on the role of CB2Rs in neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, including, but not limited to, anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Huntington's disease (HD) and addiction.

Neurocysticercosis presenting as bipolar disorder: a case report

Neurocysticercosis is the most common neuro-parasitosis caused by the larval stage of Taenia solium. The most common manifestations include seizures and hydrocephalus. Psychiatric abnormalities are relatively rare but depressive symptoms are frequent in patients with neurocysticercosis. However, mania as a presentation is relatively rare. Pregnancy and the postpartum period are relatively vulnerable times and they can lead to reactivation of existing neurocysterci lesions. We are discussing the case of a 23-year-old female patient with neurocysticercosis leading to the reactivation of lesions in the peripartum and postpartum period leading to bipolar affective disorder. Improvement in the patient was seen with a combination of antipsychotics, antihelmintics, antiepileptics and steroids, along with improved radiological signs of neurocysterci lesions. Although neurocysticercosis is a common illness, its prevalence presenting as a manic episode is merely 2.6% and, hence, missed easily. Therefore, it is important to rule out organic aetiology in patients even with a classic presentation of bipolar affective disorder and those having any other neurological symptoms and signs.

Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Frailty in Older Adults over the Spectrum of Cancer: A Narrative Review

BACKGROUND

The interplay between different neuropsychiatric conditions, beyond dementia, in the presence of a diagnosis of cancer in older adults may mediate patients' fitness and cancer-related outcomes. Here, we aimed to investigate the presence of depression, sleep disturbances, anxiety, attitude, motivation, and support in older adults receiving a diagnosis of cancer and the dimension of frailty in order to understand the magnitude of the problem.

METHODS

This review provides an update of the state of the art based on references from searches of PubMed between 2000 and June 2021.

RESULTS

The evidence obtained underscored the tight association between frailty and unfavorable clinical outcomes in older adults with cancer. Given the intrinsic correlation of neuropsychiatric disorders with frailty in the realm of cancer survivorship, the evidence showed they might have a correlation with unfavorable clinical outcomes, late-life geriatric syndromes and higher degree of frailty.

CONCLUSIONS

The identification of common vulnerabilities among neuropsychiatric disorders, frailty, and cancer may hold promise to unmask similar shared pathways, potentially intercepting targeted new interventions over the spectrum of cancer with the delivery of better pathways of care for older adults with cancer.

Cut it out or wait it out? Case series of middle fossa arachnoid cysts presenting with psychiatric symptoms and a discussion of the ethics of neurosurgical management

Arachnoid cysts have been linked to neuropsychiatric morbidity. We describe two patients presenting with dissociative and manic symptoms believed to be associated with middle fossa arachnoid cysts. They were managed medically and remitted eventually, but symptoms were resistant. We briefly review the literature to discuss mechanisms by which cysts could cause symptoms and consider whether neurosurgical management would be appropriate. Although neurosurgery can be considered, its role is currently limited by practical and ethical considerations.

Sex Modifies the Associations of APOEɛ4 with Neuropsychiatric Symptom Burden in Both At-Risk and Clinical Cohorts of Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

Recent work suggests that APOEɛ4/4 females with Alzheimer's disease (AD) are more susceptible to developing neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS).

OBJECTIVE

To examine the interaction of sex and APOEɛ4 status on NPS burden using two independent cohorts: 1) patients at risk for AD with mild cognitive impairment and/or major depressive disorder (n = 252) and 2) patients with probable AD (n = 7,261).

METHODS

Regression models examined the interactive effects of sex and APOEɛ4 on the number of NPS experienced and NPS Severity. APOEɛ3/4 and APOEɛ4/4 were pooled in the at-risk cohort due to the sample size.

RESULTS

In the at-risk cohort, there was a significant sex*APOEɛ4 interaction (p = 0.007) such that the association of APOEɛ4 with NPS was greater in females than in males (incident rate ratio (IRR) = 2.0). APOEɛ4/4 females had the most NPS (mean = 1.9) and the highest severity scores (mean = 3.5) of any subgroup. In the clinical cohort, APOEɛ4/4 females had significantly more NPS (IRR = 1.1, p = 0.001, mean = 3.1) and higher severity scores (b = 0.31, p = 0.015, mean = 3.7) than APOEɛ3/3 females (meanNPS = 2.9, meanSeverity = 3.3). No association was found in males.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that sex modifies the association of APOEɛ4 on NPS burden. APOEɛ4/4 females may be particularly susceptible to increased NPS burden among individuals with AD and among individuals at risk for AD. Further investigation into the mechanisms behind these associations are needed.

Case Report: Cotard's Syndrome in Anti-N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) Receptor (Anti-NMDAR) Encephalitis

Cotard's syndrome is uncommon psychopathology among patients with psychotic illnesses. Limited cases had been reported regarding the occurrence of this syndrome in anti-NMDAR encephalitis which itself is a relatively new disease that often presents with florid psychotic symptoms. This poses difficulties in differentiating it from a primary psychiatric illness. Late recognition of anti-NMDAR encephalitis can lead to death as it can progress to autonomic instability in its natural course of illness. We report a patient who first presented with psychotic symptoms with initial negative findings from baseline investigations. Further investigation revealed anti NMDAR antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid. Prompt treatment was initiated and despite early poor response to the first-line treatment with the development of allergic reaction, our patient recovered completely after 1 month of hospitalization. This case report aims to highlight the importance of early detection of anti-NMDAR encephalitis and the possibility of uncommon psychopathology such as Cotard's syndrome occurring in this disease.

Psychiatric symptoms and comorbidities in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy in presurgical assessment-A prospective explorative single center study

INTRODUCTION

People with epilepsy (PWE) have a higher prevalence of psychiatric disorders. Some individuals with drug-resistant epilepsy might benefit from surgical interventions. The aim of this study was to perform an assessment of psychiatric comorbidities with a follow-up period of 12 months in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy, comparing those who underwent surgery to those who did not.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We assessed psychiatric comorbidities at baseline, after 4 months and after 12 months. Psychiatric symptoms and diagnoses were assessed using SCID-Interview, Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, Beck-Depression Inventory, Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale, Prodromal-Questionnaire and the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale.

RESULTS

Twenty-five patients were included in the study, 12 underwent surgery, 11 were esteemed as being neurologically unqualified for surgery and two refused surgery. Patients in the no-surgery group were significantly older, reported more substance use, had significantly higher levels of anxiety and were more often diagnosed with a personality disorder. Age and levels of anxiety were significant predictors of being in the surgery or the no-surgery group. The described differences between surgery and no-surgery patients did not change significantly over the follow-up period.

DISCUSSION

These data point toward a higher expression of baseline psychiatric symptoms in drug-resistant PWE without surgery. Further studies are warranted to further elucidate these findings and to clarify potential psychotropic effects of epilepsy itself, drug-resistant epilepsy and of epilepsy surgery and their impact on psychopathology. Clinically, it seems highly relevant to include psychiatrists in an interdisciplinary state-of-the-art perioperative management of drug-resistant PWE.

HIV, HSV, SARS-CoV-2 and Ebola Share Long-Term Neuropsychiatric Sequelae

Long COVID, in which disease-related symptoms persist for months after recovery, has led to a revival of the discussion of whether neuropsychiatric long-term symptoms after viral infections indeed result from virulent activity or are purely psychological phenomena. In this review, we demonstrate that, despite showing differences in structure and targeting, many viruses have highly similar neuropsychiatric effects on the host. Herein, we compare severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1), Ebola virus disease (EVD), and herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1). We provide evidence that the mutual symptoms of acute and long-term anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress among these viral infections are likely to result from primary viral activity, thus suggesting that these viruses share neuroinvasive strategies in common. Moreover, it appears that secondary induced environmental stress can lead to the emergence of psychopathologies and increased susceptibility to viral (re)infection in infected individuals. We hypothesize that a positive feedback loop of virus-environment-reinforced systemic responses exists. It is surmised that this cycle of primary virulent activity and secondary stress-induced reactivation, may be detrimental to infected individuals by maintaining and reinforcing the host's immunocompromised state of chronic inflammation, immunological strain, and maladaptive central-nervous-system activity. We propose that this state can lead to perturbed cognitive processing and promote aversive learning, which may manifest as acute, long-term neuropsychiatric illness.

Corpus callosum in schizophrenia with deficit and non-deficit syndrome: a statistical shape analysis

Background

The corpus callosum (CC) is the most targeted region in the cerebrum that integrates cognitive data between homologous areas in the right and left hemispheres.

Aims

Our study used statistical analysis to determine whether there was a correlation between shape changes in the CC in patients with schizophrenia (SZ) (deficit syndrome (DS) and non-deficit syndrome (NDS)) and healthy control (HC) subjects.

Methods

This study consisted of 27 HC subjects and 50 schizophrenic patients (20 with DS and 30 with NDS). 3 patients with DS and 4 patients with NDS were excluded. Three-dimensional, sagittal, T1-spoiled, gradient-echo imaging was used. Standard anatomical landmarks were selected and marked on each image using specific software.

Results

As to comparing the Procrustes mean shapes of the CC, statistically significant differences were observed between HC and SZ (DS+NDS) (p=0.017, James’s F_j=73.732), HC and DS (p<0.001, James’s F_j=140.843), HC and NDS (p=0.006, James’s F_j=89.178) and also DS and NDS (p<0.001, James’s F_j=152.967). Shape variability in the form of CC was 0.131, 0.085, 0.082 and 0.086 in the HC, SZ (DS+NDS), DS and NDS groups, respectively.

Conclusions

This study reveals callosal shape variations in patients with SZ and their DS and NDS subgroups that take into account the CC’s topographic distribution.

Persistent neuropsychiatric symptoms after COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The nature and extent of persistent neuropsychiatric symptoms after COVID-19 are not established. To help inform mental health service planning in the pandemic recovery phase, we systematically determined the prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in survivors of COVID-19. For this pre-registered systematic review and meta-analysis (PROSPERO ID CRD42021239750), we searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL and PsycINFO to 20 February 2021, plus our own curated database. We included peer-reviewed studies reporting neuropsychiatric symptoms at post-acute or later time-points after COVID-19 infection and in control groups where available. For each study, a minimum of two authors extracted summary data. For each symptom, we calculated a pooled prevalence using generalized linear mixed models. Heterogeneity was measured with I 2. Subgroup analyses were conducted for COVID-19 hospitalization, severity and duration of follow-up. From 2844 unique titles, we included 51 studies (n = 18 917 patients). The mean duration of follow-up after COVID-19 was 77 days (range 14-182 days). Study quality was most commonly moderate. The most prevalent neuropsychiatric symptom was sleep disturbance [pooled prevalence = 27.4% (95% confidence interval 21.4-34.4%)], followed by fatigue [24.4% (17.5-32.9%)], objective cognitive impairment [20.2% (10.3-35.7%)], anxiety [19.1% (13.3-26.8%)] and post-traumatic stress [15.7% (9.9-24.1%)]. Only two studies reported symptoms in control groups, both reporting higher frequencies in COVID-19 survivors versus controls. Between-study heterogeneity was high (I 2 = 79.6-98.6%). There was little or no evidence of differential symptom prevalence based on hospitalization status, severity or follow-up duration. Neuropsychiatric symptoms are common and persistent after recovery from COVID-19. The literature on longer-term consequences is still maturing but indicates a particularly high prevalence of insomnia, fatigue, cognitive impairment and anxiety disorders in the first 6 months after infection.

Psychosis: a rare onset symptom of pediatric multiple sclerosis

Neuropsychiatric symptoms are common in multiple sclerosis (MS), but it is rarely associated with psychosis as the initial manifestation. Fourteen-year-old boy admitted with auditory hallucinations. His neurological examination was normal. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed multiple demyelinating lesions in the mesencephalon and periventricular regions. His IgG index was high and the oligoclonal band was positive. MS was diagnosed and pulsed corticosteroids were given and his psychotic symptoms regressed. After 22months, the patient presented with hemi-hypoesthesia, and repeated MRI showed new contrast enhancing lesion detected. His complaints completely resolved with pulse corticosteroid therapy. Increasing morbidity due to delay in MS treatment underlines the need to consider MS in the differential diagnosis of pediatric cases presenting with psychosis.

A novel mind-set in primate experimentation: Implications for primate welfare

We emphasize the importance of studying the primate brain in cognitive neuroscience and suggest a new mind-set in primate experimentation within the boundaries of animal welfare regulations. Specifically, we list the advantages of investigating both genes and neural mechanisms and processes in the emergence of behavioral and cognitive functions, and propose the establishment of an open field of primate research. The latter may be conducted by implementing and harmonizing experimental practices with ethical guidelines that regulate (1) management of natural parks with free-moving populations of target nonhuman primates, (2) establishment of indoor-outdoor labs for both system genetics and neuroscience investigations, and (3) hotel space and technologies which remotely collect and dislocate information regarding primates geographically located elsewhere.

White Matter Abnormalities in Late Onset First Episode Mania: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study

INTRODUCTION

A first manic episode after 50 years of age is uncommon. Late Onset Mania might be indicative of abnormalities in white matter, probably related to vascular, degenerative, or inflammatory processes.

OBJECTIVE

To determine if patients with late onset mania have reduced white matter integrity according to Magnetic Resonance Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) and structural MRI.

METHODS

Twenty-two patients with late onset mania (>50 years old) and 22 age-paired healthy subjects were included in the study. Fractional anisotropy (FA) was used as a quantitative measure of white matter integrity. Fazekas scale was assessed also to measure white matter abnormalities in the FLAIR sequence. The Frontal Assessment Battery, COGNISTAT and Trail making test A and B were used as cognitive measurements.

RESULTS

According to DTI, commissural connections (left corpus callosum), and limbic connections (right and left uncinate fasciculus) were different between the patients and the comparison group. Fractional anisotropy values in the left corpus callosum showed significant correlations with neuropsychological measures, and with the Fazekas scale score. According to Fazekas scale, a pathological score in the FLAIR sequence was significantly more frequent in the patients as compared to the comparison group.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with first episode mania in late life have relevant white matter abnormalities not explained by age, affecting interhemispheric and fronto-limbic networks probably related to executive functioning and emotional processing, at the level of the corpus callosum and the uncinate fasciculus. The etiology of this white matter loss of integrity in patients with late-onset mania is yet to be explored.

More than just anti-NMDAR: the many facets of autoimmune encephalitis

This editorial expands on a Praxis article published by Beattie and colleagues in the trainees' section of this journal. The authors describe an interesting case of anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis, outline the clinical presentation and make suggestions on ways to approach this rare disorder. Here we provide an overview of autoimmune conditions that result in the production of autoantibodies targeting central nervous system proteins mediating autoimmune encephalitis and offer a perspective on approaches to diagnosis and treatment.

The Epigenome in Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Neurodevelopmental diseases (NDDs), such as autism spectrum disorders, epilepsy, and schizophrenia, are characterized by diverse facets of neurological and psychiatric symptoms, differing in etiology, onset and severity. Such symptoms include mental delay, cognitive and language impairments, or restrictions to adaptive and social behavior. Nevertheless, all have in common that critical milestones of brain development are disrupted, leading to functional deficits of the central nervous system and clinical manifestation in child- or adulthood. To approach how the different development-associated neuropathologies can occur and which risk factors or critical processes are involved in provoking higher susceptibility for such diseases, a detailed understanding of the mechanisms underlying proper brain formation is required. NDDs rely on deficits in neuronal identity, proportion or function, whereby a defective development of the cerebral cortex, the seat of higher cognitive functions, is implicated in numerous disorders. Such deficits can be provoked by genetic and environmental factors during corticogenesis. Thereby, epigenetic mechanisms can act as an interface between external stimuli and the genome, since they are known to be responsive to external stimuli also in cortical neurons. In line with that, DNA methylation, histone modifications/variants, ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling, as well as regulatory non-coding RNAs regulate diverse aspects of neuronal development, and alterations in epigenomic marks have been associated with NDDs of varying phenotypes. Here, we provide an overview of essential steps of mammalian corticogenesis, and discuss the role of epigenetic mechanisms assumed to contribute to pathophysiological aspects of NDDs, when being disrupted.