Barium Isotopes Track the Source of Dissolved Solids in Produced Water from the Unconventional Marcellus Shale Gas Play

Waters coproduced with hydrocarbons from unconventional oil and gas reservoirs such as the hydraulically fractured Middle Devonian Marcellus Shale in the Appalachian Basin, USA, contain high levels of total dissolved solids (TDS), including Ba, which has been variously ascribed to drilling mud dissolution, interaction with pore fluids or shale exchangeable sites, or fluid migration through fractures. Here, we show that Marcellus Shale produced waters contain some of the heaviest Ba (high ¹³⁸Ba/¹³⁴Ba) measured to date (δ¹³⁸Ba = +0.36‰ to +1.49‰ ± 0.06‰) and are distinct from overlying Upper Devonian/Lower Mississippian reservoirs (δ¹³⁸Ba = -0.83‰ to -0.52‰). Marcellus Shale produced water values do not overlap with drilling mud barite (δ¹³⁸Ba ≈ 0.0‰) and are significantly offset from Ba reservoirs within the producing portion of the Marcellus Shale, including exchangeable sites and carbonate cement. Precipitation, desorption, and diffusion processes are insufficient or in the wrong direction to produce the observed enrichments in heavy Ba. We hypothesize that the produced water is derived primarily from brines adjacent to and most likely below the Marcellus Shale, although such deep brines have not yet been obtained for Ba isotope analysis. Barium isotopes show promise for tracking formation waters and for understanding water-rock interaction under downhole conditions.

Applying the dual factor model of mental health to understanding protective factors in adolescence

Guided by the dual factor model of mental health and the resilience portfolio model, this study sought to identify protective factors that distinguish adolescents who exhibit different patterns of psychological symptoms and well-being. Participants were 466 twelve- to 17-year-old adolescents recruited from the Appalachian region of 3 Southern states who completed measures of psychological symptomatology, well-being and a range of protective factors. Analyses showed that, after accounting for adversity, the most consistent differences in both individual strengths and external resources were found between the groups who differed in well-being rather than those differing in symptoms. The findings indicate that assessing well-being in addition to psychopathology offers insights about protective factors that cannot be obtained by operationalizing health solely in terms of low levels of adjustment problems and has implications for prevention and intervention strategies designed to promote resilience in adolescents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The influence of layout on Appalachian Trail soil loss, widening, and muddiness: Implications for sustainable trail design and management

This research investigates the influence of layout and design on the severity of trail degradation. Previous trail studies have been restricted by relatively small study areas which provide a limited range of environmental conditions and therefore produce findings with limited applicability; this research improves on this limitation by analyzing a representative sample of the Appalachian Trail with significant topographical, ecological, use-related, and managerial diversity. Many trail science studies have also focused on a singular form of trail degradation, whereas this study investigates all three core types of trail impact: trail soil loss, widening and muddiness. Relational analyses with all three indicators provide a more cohesive understanding of trail impact and reveal interrelationships between trail degradation processes. ANOVA testing of the mean values for these trail impact indicators across categories of influential independent factors confirms and refines the relevance of core trail design principles, specifically the sustainability advantages of trails with low grades and side-hill alignments. Findings also reveal and clarify the importance of landform grade in determining the susceptibility of trails to degradation and the influence of routing decisions; these relationships have received relatively little attention in the literature. The results also reveal several methodological considerations for trail alignment metrics and trail impact indicators.

Promoting Oral Health in Appalachia: Effects of Threat Label and Source Accent on Message Acceptance

This study examined the effects of threat label (i.e., the name assigned to a health threat) and source accent (i.e., the source's manner of pronunciation) on Appalachian residents' acceptance of oral health promotion messages. Participants (N = 348) listened to an audiotaped oral health promotion message about tooth decay or Mountain Dew Mouth; the message was delivered either in a standard American English or a Southern accent. Compared to the label Mountain Dew Mouth, the label tooth decay elevated perceptions of threat susceptibility, threat severity, and response-efficacy and resulted in higher message acceptance. The effect of threat label on message acceptance was mediated by severity perceptions. Participants attributed more status to the source and agreed more with her message when she spoke in a standard than a Southern accent. The effect of source accent on message acceptance was mediated by status perceptions. These findings suggest that the success of persuasive health messages depends not only on message content (i.e., what is said), but also on how that content is linguistically framed and delivered (i.e., how it is said).

Family Planning Practices in Appalachia: Focus Group Perspectives on Service Needs in the Context of Regional Substance Abuse

Reproductive health disparities in the Appalachian region may be driven by barriers to healthcare access. However, the barriers specific to accessing family planning services in Appalachia have not yet been identified from the perspectives of Appalachian community members. Moreover, it is unclear how community members might perceive elevated levels of opioid use in the region to impact family planning practices. To fill this gap in knowledge, the current qualitative study explored community perspectives about family planning in Appalachia in the context of the opioid epidemic for the purpose of developing a survey instrument based on these responses. We conducted three video call focus group interviews with community stakeholders, those who live, work and are invested in Appalachia (N = 16), and analyzed the responses using Levesque, Harris, and Russell's (2013) five pillars of healthcare access as a framework to categorize family planning practices and perceptions of service needs in the context of regional substance abuse: (1) approachability, (2) acceptability, (3) availability and accommodation, (4) affordability, and (5) appropriateness. Subthemes within each of these five categories were also identified. Our findings highlight stakeholder concerns around a lack of knowledge about and access to family planning services in Appalachia. Community members also expressed concern around the lack of availability of substance use treatment services, which may negatively impact family planning use and access in the region.

Personal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Appalachian mining communities

Coal mining activities may increase residential exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), but personal PAH exposures have not been studied in mining areas. We used silicone wristbands as passive personal samplers to estimate PAH exposures in coal mining communities in Central Appalachia in the United States. Adults (N = 101) wore wristbands for one week; 51 resided in communities within approximately three miles of surface mining sites, and 50 resided 10 or more miles from mining sites. Passive indoor polyurethane foam (PUF) sampling was conducted in residents' homes, and a sample of 16 outdoor PUF samples were also collected. Nine PAH congeners were commonly detected in wristbands (mean ± standard deviation), including phenanthrene (50.2 ± 68.7 ng/g), benz[a]anthracene (20.2 ± 58.2 ng/g), fluoranthene (19.4 ± 24.1 ng/g) and pyrene (15.2 ± 18.2 ng/g). Controlling for participant characteristics and season, participants living closer to mining sites had significantly higher levels of phenanthrene, fluorene, fluoranthene, pyrene and ∑PAHs in wristbands compared to participants living farther from mining. Indoor air showed no significant group differences except for pyrene, but outdoor air showed significant or marginally significant differences for phenanthrene, fluorene, pyrene and ∑PAHs. The results suggest that mining community residents face exposure to outdoor mining-related pollutants, and demonstrate that personal silicone wristbands can be deployed as effective passive sampling devices.

Smoking-Cessation Interventions in Appalachia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

CONTEXT

Appalachia, a socioeconomically disadvantaged rural region in the eastern U.S., has one of the nation's highest prevalence rates of smoking and some of the poorest health outcomes. Effective interventions that lower smoking rates in Appalachia have great potential to reduce health disparities and preventable illness; however, a better understanding of effective interventions is needed.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

This review included trials that evaluated the impact of smoking-cessation programs among populations living in Appalachia. The search was carried out on October 9, 2018 and comprised the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Medline, Embase, and Scopus for academic journal articles published in English, with no date restrictions. After preliminary screening, potentially relevant full-text articles were independently reviewed by the authors with a Cohen's κ of 0.72, leading to the final inclusion of 9 articles.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Eligible studies were assessed qualitatively for heterogeneity and risk of bias. Six of the 9 included studies had extractable data related to dichotomous smoking status and reported a measure of association suitable for inclusion in a meta-analysis. For those 6 studies, the pooled RR and pooled OR were estimated using random effects models, with an I² index demonstrating substantial heterogeneity. A funnel plot of the 6 trials appeared relatively symmetric.

CONCLUSIONS

Participation in smoking-cessation interventions increased the probability of smoking abstinence among Appalachian smokers by an estimated 2.33 times (pooled RR=2.33, 95% CI=1.03, 5.25, p=0.04). Given the low number of studies, their substantial heterogeneity, and high risk of bias, the evidence of the effectiveness of smoking-cessation interventions in Appalachia must be interpreted with caution.

Leptospiral shedding and seropositivity in shelter dogs in the Cumberland Gap Region of Southeastern Appalachia

BACKGROUND

Leptospirosis, caused by pathogenic Leptospira spp., is a zoonotic infection that affects humans, dogs and many other mammalian species. Virtually any mammalian species can act as asymptomatic reservoir, characterized by chronic renal carriage and shedding of a host-adapted leptospiral serovar. Environmental contamination by chronic shedders results in acquisition of infection by humans and susceptible animals.

METHODS

In this study, we investigated if clinically normal shelter dogs and cats harbor leptospires in their kidneys by screening urine samples for the presence of leptospiral DNA by a TaqMan based-quantitative PCR (qPCR) that targets pathogen-associated lipl32 gene. To identify the infecting leptospiral species, a fragment of leptospiral rpoB gene was PCR amplified and sequenced. Additionally, we measured Leptospira-specific serum antibodies using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT), a gold standard in leptospiral serology.

RESULTS

A total of 269 shelter animals (219 dogs and 50 cats) from seven shelters located in the tri-state area of western Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and southeastern Kentucky were included in this study. All cats tested negative by both qPCR and MAT. Of the 219 dogs tested in the study, 26/198 (13.1%, 95% CI: 8.4-17.8%) were positive for leptospiral DNA in urine by qPCR and 38/211 (18.0%, 95% CI: 12.8-23.2%) were seropositive by MAT. Twelve dogs were positive for both qPCR and MAT. Fourteen dogs were positive by qPCR but not by MAT. Additionally, leptospiral rpoB gene sequencing from a sub-set of qPCR-positive urine samples (n = 21) revealed L. interrogans to be the leptospiral species shed by dogs.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings have significant implications regarding animal and public health in the Cumberland Gap Region and possibly outside where these animals may be adopted.

Association between Thyroid Function and Exposures to Brominated and Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Rural Central Appalachia

Exposure to flame retardants (FRs) is associated with adverse effects on human health. Focusing on three FR groups, including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organophosphate FRs (OPFRs), and novel brominated FRs (nBFRs), we determined the levels of these chemicals in indoor air in homes in rural Central Appalachia using passive air samplers and personal exposures in the residents of these homes using silicone wristbands. We also investigated the relationships between the FR levels in wristbands and the thyroid function. The median total concentrations of PBDEs, OPFRs, and nBFRs were 210, 25 000, and 69 pg/m³ in indoor air, and 49, 670, and 110 ng/g in wristbands, respectively. The most abundant chemicals in both air and wristbands were BDE-47 and -99 among PBDEs, tris[(2R)-1-chloro-2-propyl] phosphate among OPFRs, and 2-ethylhexyl 2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate and bis(2-ethylhexyl) tetrabromophthalate among nBFRs. In gender-specific regression models that were controlled for age and smoking, significant associations were observed between BDE-99, BDE-197, and 2-ethylhexyldiphenyl phosphate (EHDP) and free thyroxine (FT₄), between BDE-100 and free triiodothyronine (FT₃), and between anti-Dechlorane Plus (DP) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). In particular, most penta-BDE congeners were significantly or marginally significantly associated with FT₄ and FT₃ for both females and males. Our results suggest that wristbands can be used as suitable exposure monitors for evaluating human exposure to FRs.

Rigor in Qualitative Methods: An Evaluation of Strategies Among Underrepresented Rural Communities

Achieving rigor using selected criteria to determine trustworthiness using qualitative methods has been without critical evaluation. In this article, strategies such as prolonged engagement and thick, rich description; negative case analysis; peer review or briefing; clarifying researcher bias; member checking; and, investigator triangulation and intercoder reliability are evaluated for appropriateness among an African American Appalachian rural population. Achieving rigor using qualitative methods among participants living in rural communities is time intensive requiring attention to quality versus quantity of time spent in interviews, building trusting relationships, an awareness of interviewer bias and assumptions, and appropriately evaluated strategies that enhance validity. Strategies to achieve rigor in qualitative methods should not be used as a one size fits all approach as this practice might actually diminish rigor. Among underrepresented populations, strategies should be adapted or not used at all.

Psychological Diagnoses and Weight Loss among Appalachian Bariatric Surgery Patients

BACKGROUND

The relationship between presurgical psychopathology and weight loss following bariatric surgery is complex; previous research has yielded mixed results. The current study investigates the relationship among presurgical mental health diagnoses, symptom severity, and weight loss outcomes in an Appalachian population, where obesity-related comorbidities are prominent.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review was performed on bariatric surgery patients in an accredited Appalachian centered academic hospital in northern West Virginia between 2013 and 2015 (n = 347). Data extraction included basic demographics, anthropometrics (percent excess weight loss (%EWL)) at six-month, one-year, and two-year postoperative visits, and two validated psychological questionnaires (Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI)) from patient's presurgical psychological evaluation.

RESULTS

Average patient population was 92.5% Caucasian, 81.5% female, 45 ± 11.5 years old, and 84.1% who underwent laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery with the remaining having laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy. At baseline, no differences were detected in weight, excess body weight, or body mass index between surgery types. Average baseline BDI-II score was 10.1 ± 8.68 (range 0-41) and BAI score was 6.1 ± 6.7 (range 0-36), and this was not significantly different by surgery at baseline. Both baseline psychological scores were in the "minimal" severity range. BDI-II was positively related to BMI of patients at baseline (p = 0.01). Both BDI-II and BAI were not significantly related to %EWL across follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Other than baseline weight, BDI-II and BAI scores were not related to %EWL outcomes in patients receiving bariatric surgery in the Appalachian region. Future work should examine mixed methods approaches to capture prospective and longitudinal data to more thoroughly delve into mental health aspects of our Appalachian patients and improve efforts to recapture postoperative patients who may have been lost to follow-up.

Lead Exposure of Red-Shouldered Hawks During the Breeding Season in the Central Appalachians, USA

Lead is toxic to humans and wildlife. Most studies of lead exposure of raptors focus on the winter, non-breeding season when they scavenge heavily. We evaluated blood lead concentrations (BLCs) of red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus) during the non-scavenging season in the eastern United States. BLCs of 53 of 70 hawks were above the limit of detection ([Formula: see text] = 9.25 µg/dL ± 19.81; ± SD). Adult hawks had higher BLCs ([Formula: see text] = 12.86 µg/dL ± 24.72) than did nestlings ([Formula: see text] = 3.25 µg/dL ± 2.62; p ≤ 0.001, χ² = 13.2). There was no difference in BLCs of adult hawks among physiographic provinces but there were differences between urban and non-urban settings (p = 0.04, χ² = 4.2). Soils and invertebrate hawk prey also had quantifiable lead concentrations. Our work shows that red-shouldered hawks are exposed to lead when not scavenging, and suggests pathways by which these birds may be exposed.

Potential efficiency gains in payment programs from resolving spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the cost of supplying forest carbon

The environmental benefits and costs of conservation policies often vary over space and through time. Accounting for this spatial and temporal heterogeneity has important implications for the potential cost effectiveness of different payment program designs. In this study, we examine the cost efficiency gain from spatial and temporal targeting in payment designs for forest carbon storage in the Central and Southern Appalachian Mountains in the Eastern United States. We run a forest land change model and a carbon simulation model utilizing a panel data on forest land and its competing uses, economic returns, and spatial characteristics for each 1 km² grid cells in 1992, 2001, 2006 and 2011. A time- and space-specific carbon cost for each individual 1 km² grid cell is calculated that captures the spatial and temporal heterogeneity in carbon cost efficiency. From there, we compare carbon cost efficiency levels of various payment designs that allow for different degrees of spatial and temporal flexibility. We find that 1) spatial targeting improves carbon cost efficiency, and this efficiency gain is larger as payments become more narrowly targeted, 2) this carbon efficiency gain is present in all market conditions, but is largest in a moderately growing market and smallest in a downturn market, 3) accounting for temporal heterogeneity results in even larger carbon efficiency gains, almost double those from spatial targeting. Just as policies that enable spatial targeting (e.g., auctions) increase cost efficiency savings, so too will policy mechanisms that emphasize budget flexibility through time. These could include utilizing loans or flexible conservation financing, or allowing movement across budgeting categories within a given time period.

Projected urban growth in the southeastern USA puts small streams at risk

Future land-use development has the potential to profoundly affect the health of aquatic ecosystems in the coming decades. We developed regression models predicting the loss of sensitive fish (R² = 0.39) and macroinvertebrate (R² = 0.64) taxa as a function of urban and agricultural land uses and applied them to projected urbanization of the rapidly urbanizing Piedmont ecoregion of the southeastern USA for 2030 and 2060. The regression models are based on a 2014 investigation of water quality and ecology of 75 wadeable streams across the region. Based on these projections, stream kilometers experiencing >50% loss of sensitive fish and invertebrate taxa will nearly quadruple to 19,500 and 38,950 km by 2060 (16 and 32% of small stream kilometers in the region), respectively. Uncertainty was assessed using the 20 and 80% probability of urbanization for the land-use projection model and using the 95% confidence intervals for the regression models. Adverse effects on stream health were linked to elevated concentrations of contaminants and nutrients, low dissolved oxygen, and streamflow alteration, all associated with urbanization. The results of this analysis provide a warning of potential risks from future urbanization and perhaps some guidance on how those risks might be mitigated.

Collaborative-Tick Surveillance Works: An Academic and Government Partnership for Tick Surveillance in the Southeastern United States (Acari: Ixodidae)

Tick surveillance provides essential information on distributions and encounter frequencies; it is a component of operational activities in public health practice. Our research objectives were a proof-of-concept for collaborative surveillance, which involved establishing an academic and government partnership to enhance tick surveillance efforts. The University of Tennessee (UT) collaborated with United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station Forest Inventory Analysis (FIA) in an Occupational Health and Safety partnership. UT provided FIA crews in the southeastern United States with vials containing 80% ethanol (July 2014-November 2017). Crew members were instructed to put all encountered ticks into the vials and return them to FIA headquarters. UT identified all submitted ticks to species and life stage, and screened Amblyomma americanum (L.) for Ehrlichia bacteria using a nested-PCR assay. From the 198 returned vials, 1,180 ticks were submitted, including A. americanum (90.51%; 202 larvae, 503 nymphs, and 363 adults), Dermacentor variabilis Say (7.12%; 1 nymph, 83 adults), Ixodes scapularis (Say) (1.61%; 19 adults), Amblyomma maculatum Koch (0.59%; 1 nymph, 6 adults), and Amblyomma cajennense (Fabricius) (0.17%; 1 nymph, 1 adult). FIA crews encountered A. americanum with Ehrlichia and collection information was used to generate baseline occurrence data of tick encounters. Results indicate that this collaborative-tick surveillance can be improved and used to generate useful data including pathogen detection, and because crews revisit these sites, changes in tick encounters can be monitored.

Exploring How to Use Groundwater Chemistry to Identify Migration of Methane near Shale Gas Wells in the Appalachian Basin

Methane (CH₄) enters waters in hydrocarbon-rich basins because of natural processes and problems related to oil and gas wells. As a redox-active greenhouse gas, CH₄ degrades water or emits to the atmosphere and contributes to climate change. To detect if methane migrated from hydrocarbon wells (i.e., anomalous methane), we examined 20 751 methane-containing groundwaters from the Upper Appalachian Basin (AB). We looked for concentrations (mg/L) that indicated AB brine salts (chloride concentrations ([Cl]) > 30; [Ca]/[Na] < 0.52) to detect natural methane, and we looked for concentrations of redox-active species ([SO₄] ≥ 6; [Fe] ≥ 0.3) to detect anomalous methane. These indicators highlight natural contamination by methane-containing brines or recent onset of microbial oxidation of methane coupled to iron- or sulfate-reduction. We hypothesized that only waters recently contaminated by methane still exhibit high iron and sulfate concentrations. Of the AB samples, 17 (0.08%) from 12 sites indicated potential contamination. All were located in areas with high densities of shale-gas or conventional oil/gas wells. In contrast, in southwestern Pennsylvania where brines are shallow and coal, oil, and gas all have been extracted extensively, no sites of recent methane migration were detectable. Such indicators may help screen for contamination in some areas even without predrill measurements.

Kids SIPsmartER, a cluster randomized controlled trial and multi-level intervention to improve sugar-sweetened beverages behaviors among Appalachian middle-school students: Rationale, design & methods

The intake of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) is disproportionately high in Appalachia, including among adolescents whose intake is more than double the national average and more than four times the recommended daily amount. Unfortunately, there is insufficient evidence for effective strategies targeting SSB behaviors among Appalachian youth in real-world settings, including rural schools. Kids SIPsmartER is a 6-month, school-based, behavior and health literacy program aimed at improving SSB behaviors among middle school students. The program also integrates a two-way short message service (SMS) strategy to engage caregivers in SSB role modeling and supporting home SSB environment changes. Kids SIPsmartER is grounded by the Theory of Planned Behavior and health literacy, media literacy, numeracy, and public health literacy concepts. Guided by the RE-AIM framework (reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance), this type 1 hybrid design and cluster randomized controlled trial targets 12 Appalachian middle schools in southwest Virginia. The primary aim evaluates changes in SSB behaviors at 7-months among 7th grade students at schools receiving Kids SIPsmartER, as compared to control schools. Secondary outcomes include other changes in students (e.g., BMI, quality of life, theory-related variables) and caregivers (e.g., SSB behaviors, home SSB environment), and 19-month maintenance of these outcomes. Reach is assessed, along with mixed-methods strategies (e.g., interviews, surveys, observation) to determine how teachers implement Kids SIPsmartER and the potential for institutionalization within schools. This paper discusses the rationale for implementing and evaluating a type 1 hybrid design and multi-level intervention addressing pervasive SSB behaviors in Appalachia. Clincialtrials.gov: NCT03740113.

A taxonomically broad metagenomic survey of 339 species spanning 57 families suggests cystobasidiomycete yeasts are not ubiquitous across all lichens

PREMISE

Lichens are fungi that enter into obligate symbioses with photosynthesizing organisms (algae, cyanobacteria). Traditional narratives of lichens as binary symbiont pairs have given way to their recognition as dynamic metacommunities. Basidiomycete yeasts, particularly of the genus Cyphobasidium, have been inferred to be widespread and important components of lichen metacommunities. Yet, the presence of basidiomycete yeasts across a wide diversity of lichen lineages has not previously been tested.

METHODS

We searched for lichen-associated cystobasidiomycete yeasts in newly generated metagenomic data from 413 samples of 339 lichen species spanning 57 families and 25 orders. The data set was generated as part of a large-scale project to study lichen biodiversity gradients in the southern Appalachian Mountains Biodiversity Hotspot of southeastern North America.

RESULTS

Our efforts detected cystobasidiomycete yeasts in nine taxa (Bryoria nadvornikiana, Heterodermia leucomelos, Lecidea roseotincta, Opegrapha vulgata, Parmotrema hypotropum, P. subsumptum, Usnea cornuta, U. strigosa, and U. subgracilis), representing 2.7% of all species sampled. Seven of these taxa (78%) are foliose (leaf-like) or fruticose (shrubby) lichens that belong to families where basidiomycete yeasts have been previously detected. In several of the nine cases, cystobasidiomycete rDNA coverage was comparable to, or greater than, that of the primary lichen fungus single-copy nuclear genomic rDNA, suggesting sampling artifacts are unlikely to account for our results.

CONCLUSIONS

Studies from diverse areas of the natural sciences have led to the need to reconceptualize lichens as dynamic metacommunities. However, our failure to detect cystobasidiomycetes in 97.3% (330 species) of the sampled species suggests that basidiomycete yeasts are not ubiquitous in lichens.

Visual performance impaired by elevated sedimentary and algal turbidity in walleye Sander vitreus and emerald shiner Notropis atherinoides

The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of different forms of elevated turbidity on the visual acuity of two native Lake Erie fishes and to assess the response of fishes from different trophic levels to elevated turbidity. Additionally, the role of visual morphology (e.g., eye and optic lobe size) on visual acuity was evaluated across visual environments. Reaction distance, a behavioural proxy for measures of visual acuity, was measured for a top predator, walleye Sander vitreus and a forage fish, emerald shiner Notropis atherinoides. In both S. vitreus (n = 27) and N. atherinoides (n = 40) reaction distance across all types of turbidity (sedimentary, algal, sedimentary + algal; 20 NTU) was approximately 50% lower relative to the clear treatment. Reaction distance was further reduced in algal compared with sedimentary turbidity for wild-caught S. vitreus. Eye and brain morphology also influenced reaction distance across turbidity treatments, such that larger relative eye and brain metrics were positively correlated with reaction distance. This study provides evidence for disrupted visual acuity as a potential mechanism underlying fish responses, such as decreased foraging efficiency, to increased turbidity and further indicates that algal turbidity will probably be more detrimental to visual processes than sedimentary turbidity. With the increasing occurrence and severity of harmful algal blooms due to cultural eutrophication globally, this could have significant implications for predator-prey relationships in aquatic systems.

Aquatic thermal conditions predict the presence of native and invasive rock pool Aedes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the southern Appalachians, U.S.A

The native rock pool mosquito, Aedes atropalpus (Coquillett), and the invasive Aedes japonicus (Theobald) have been found in many types of artificial and natural containers throughout North America. Little is known about the ecology of these two species in habitats where they co-occur, although multiple investigators have reported the decline of the native species concurrent with the introduction and spread of the invasive species. Here we report the results of riverine rock pool collections (n=503) in the southern Appalachian Mountains between 2009-2015. Surface water temperatures strongly predicted the presence of each species across a broad range of observed temperatures (11-39.8° C). For every unit of increase in temperature (°C) the odds of collecting Ae. atropalpus larvae increased by 0.34 while the odds of collecting Ae. japonicus larvae decreased by 0.28. No Ae. japonicus larvae or pupae were collected at temperatures greater than 36° C; however, immature Ae. atropalpus were found in rock pools with temperatures up to 39.8° C. In contrast, Ae. japonicus were highly abundant in cooler rock pools (<17° C) where Ae. atropalpus were infrequent or absent. Our findings suggest that in spite of the successful invasion by Ae. japonicus, Ae. atropalpus remains well established in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Given the strong correlation of temperature with the presence of the two species and the contrasting absence of each species at observed temperature extremes, the role of thermal conditions should be carefully explored in the context of other ecological factors likely influencing the range and abundance of these mosquitoes.

Effects of Protected Area Size on Conservation Return on Investment

The objective of this research is to examine how protected area size influences the conservation benefit and acquisition cost of creating a protected area, how the resulting effects influence the predicted rate of return on investment (ROI), and how those relationships change prioritization decision-making for selecting protected areas compared with decisions based only on conservation benefit and decisions based only on acquisition cost. The objective is accomplished in an econometric framework by analyzing the parcel-level acquisition cost and conservation benefit measured by the change in potential fragmentation patterns on the landscape resulting from protection. We focus on areas acquired by The Nature Conservancy in central and southern Appalachia, United States. As an indicator of the change in landscape fragmentation, we use a fragmentation statistic known as effective mesh size. Although the effect of protected parcel size on predicted ROI is inelastic, greater conservation effectiveness is obtained with larger protected parcels than with smaller ones on average. Protected parcel size influences parcels' rankings for protection more (less) when only the predicted change in effective mesh size of protected area (only the predicted acquisition cost per area) is used for prioritizing parcels than when the ranking of parcels is determined by the predicted ROI. These findings imply that, although protected parcel size is important, failure to prioritize using ROI could result in an inappropriate level of emphasis being given to protected parcel size than is warranted.

Effect of maturity and mineralogy on fluid-rock reactions in the Marcellus Shale

Natural gas extraction from the Appalachian Basin has significantly increased in the past decade. The push to properly dispose, reuse, or recycle the large amounts of produced fluids associated with hydraulic fracturing operations and design better fracturing fluids has necessitated a better understanding of the subsurface chemical reactions taking place during hydrocarbon extraction. Using autoclave reactors, this study mimics the conditions of deep subsurface shale reservoirs to observe the chemical evolution of fluids during the shut-in phase of hydraulic fracturing (HF), a period when hydraulic fracturing fluids (HFFs) remain confined in the reservoir. The experiment was conducted by combining a synthetic hydraulic fracturing fluid and powdered shale core samples in high temperature/pressure static autoclave reactors for 14 days. Shale samples of varying maturity and mineralogy were used to assess the effect of these variations on the proliferation of inorganic ions and low molecular weight volatile organic compounds (VOCs), mainly benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX) and monosubstituted carboxylic acids. Ion chromatography results indicate that the relative abundance of ions present was similar to that of water produced from HF operations in the Marcellus Shale basin. There was an increase of SO42- and PO43- and a decrease in Ba2+ upon fluid-shale reaction. Major ionic shifts indicate calcite dissolution in two of the fluid-shale reactions and barite precipitation in all fluid-shale reactions. Toluene, xylene, and carboxylic acids were produced in the shale-free control experiment. The most substantial increase in BTEX analytes was observed in reactions with low maturity shale, while the high maturity shale reaction produced no measurable BTEX compounds. Total organic carbon decreased in all reactions including fracturing fluid and shale, suggesting adsorption onto the organic matter (OM) matrix. The results from this study highlight that both the nature of OM and mineralogy play a key role in determining the fate of inorganic and organic compounds during fluid-shale interactions in the subsurface shale reservoir. Overall this study aims to contribute to the growing understanding of complex chemical interactions that occur in the shale reservoirs during HF, which is vital for determining the potential environmental impacts of HF and designing more efficient HFF and produced water recycling techniques for environmentally conscious natural gas production.

Mother's Perceived Social Support and Children's Dental Caries in Northern Appalachia

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine whether perceived social support among mothers with high levels of dental caries was associated with their children experiencing high levels of dental caries. Methods: In West Virginia and Pennsylvania from 2002 to 2009, mothers were interviewed and clinical exams were conducted on their one- to six-year-old children. Two hundred and fifty mother-child dyads were analyzed where the mother had high dental caries. Mothers reported perceived social support across four domains (appraisal, tangible, self-esteem, belonging) from the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List instrument (ISEL), with higher scores representing greater support. The association between each social support domain and the probability of high child dental caries was examined. Results: Twenty-seven percent of children (67 out of 250) had high dental caries, and the odds of children having high caries was lower by seven percent for every one point increase in the ISEL appraisal score (odds ratio equals 0.93; 95 percent confidence interval equals 0.88, 0.99). Tangible, self-esteem, and belonging social support ISEL subscales were not significantly associated with high child dental caries (P>0.05). Conclusions: Among mothers with high dental caries, there was modest evidence that appraisal support-the perceived availability of someone to talk to about problems-was associated with lower odds of their children having high dental caries. (Pediatr Dent 2019;41(3):200-5) Received December 2, 2018 | Last Revision April 19, 2019 | Accepted April 22, 2019.

Using Mobile Monitoring to Develop Hourly Empirical Models of Particulate Air Pollution in a Rural Appalachian Community

Most empirical air quality models (e.g., land use regression) focus on urban areas. Mobile monitoring for model development offers the opportunity to explore smaller, rural communities - an understudied population. We use mobile monitoring to systematically sample all daylight hours (7 am to 7 pm) to develop empirical models capable of estimating hourly concentrations in Blacksburg, VA, a small town in rural Appalachia (population: 182 635). We collected ∼120 h of mobile monitoring data for particle number (PN) and black carbon (BC). We developed (1) daytime (12-h average) models that approximate long-term concentrations and (2) spatiotemporal models for estimating hourly concentrations. Model performance for the daytime models is consistent with previous fixed-site and short-term sampling studies; adjusted R² (10-fold CV R²) was 0.80 (0.69) for the PN model and 0.67 (0.58) for the BC model. The spatiotemporal models had comparable performance (10-fold CV R² for the PN [BC] models: 0.42 [0.25]) to previous mobile monitoring studies that isolate specific time periods. Temporal and spatial model coefficients had similar magnitudes in the spatiotemporal models suggesting both factors are important for exposure. We observed similar spatial patterns in Blacksburg (e.g., roadway gradients) as in other studies in urban areas suggesting similar exposure disparities exist in small, rural communities.

Hypodontia, Oligodontia and Anodontia in West Virginia Appalachia

Purpose: Children in West Virginia have a high prevalence of missing permanent teeth when compared to children in the rest of the nation. The purpose of this study is to determine the prevalence of permanent tooth hypodontia/oligodontia/anodontia in West Virginia children and to compare the prevalence by sex.Methods: Five hundred panoramic radiographs of West Virginia children, ages 6-11 years, were examined for missing permanent tooth buds/permanent teeth. Data analyses included frequency determinations, Chi square analyses, and logistic regression.Results: Sixty children (12.0%, n=500) had at least one missing permanent tooth bud/permanent tooth. There were 15.5% of females and 8.8% of males who had at least one missing permanent tooth bud/permanent tooth. In adjusted logistic regression on at least one missing permanent tooth bud/permanent tooth, females had an adjusted odds ratio of 2.11 [95% Confidence Interval: 1.18, 3.75; p = .011] compared with males. Other variables in the analysis failed to reach significance.Conclusion: In this sample of West Virginia children, females were more likely to have at least one missing permanent tooth bud/permanent tooth compared to males. Early recognition and treatment planning for dental care is needed for children with hypodontia/oligodontia/anodontia.