[Study on the presence of yeasts in the feces of the rock pigeon (Columba livia Gmelin 1789) from rural areas]

The diffusion of rock-pigeon (domestic form of Columba livia Gmelin 1789) is greatly increasing owing to its high reproductivity; for this reason it is present in both countries and cities. This bird is considered an important vector of pathogens to man and domestic animals, and today it represents a serious hygienic-sanitary problem. Therefore we checked for the presence of yeasts in feces of rock-pigeons nesting in the Regional Park "La Mandria" (near Turin), visited mostly by school-children and retired. The yeasts isolated were: Candida albicans, C. krusei, C. guillermondii, C. intermedia, C. lusitaniae, C. parapsilosis, C. pseudotropicalis, C. rugosa, C. tropicalis, Cryptococcus albidus, C. laurentii, C. neoformans, C. terreus, Pichia membranaefaciens, Rhodotorula rubra, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. oleaginosus, S. telluris, Torulopsis candida, Trichosporon cutaneum. The incidence of the species isolated is reported on Tables 1 and 2.

Comparison of the pathogenicity of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and Mycobacterium spp isolated from the wood pigeon (Columba palumbus-L)

The pathogenicity of 4 strains of mycobacteria isolated from wood pigeons and 2 strains of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis was compared in calves, mice and chickens. Three of the 4 wood pigeon strains and the 2 M. paratuberculosis strains produced clinical Johne's disease in calves. All 6 strains were pathogenic for mice and the 4 wood pigeon strains were pathogenic for chickens. The strains were not agglutinated by antisera to strains of the M. avium complex and all were mycobactin-dependent. It was concluded that the wood pigeon isolates may constitute a distinct group with the pathogenic capability of M. avium in chickens and M. paratuberculosis in calves.

Safety and efficacy of clavulanate-potentiated amoxycillin in pigeons (Columba livia)

Pigeons treated orally with 125 mg clavulanate-potentiated amoxycillin for seven days showed no adverse reactions. The drug had a marked depressive effect on the faecal flora but this had returned to normal 10 days after cessation of treatment. When administered to pigeons with an experimental Staphylococcus aureus infection of the feet no clinical response was apparent and there was no evidence of a diminution in the inflammatory process.

[Characteristics of paramyxoviruses isolated from pigeons in Czechoslovakia]

Nine strains of paramyxovirus isolated from racing pigeons in southern Bohemia, Moravia and western Slovakia in 1983 were identified by the haemagglutination-inhibition test with antisera to seven types of paramyxovirus and three types of influenza A virus as PMV-1, Newcastle disease virus, in all cases. The haemagglutination activity and pathogenicity of the isolates for chicken embryos, chicken fibroblast cultures, and chickens of different age were determined. The mean death time of chicken embryos (MDT/MLD) was 52.8 to 95.4 h, the average being 75.7 h. The intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI8) was on an average 1.42 +/- 0.10 (P = 0.95). Experimental infection of chickens at the age of one, two, three and eight weeks did not cause any clinical disease but increased the level of haemagglutination-inhibiting (HI) serum antibodies up to 1 : 256 within three weeks. The course of heat inactivation of pigeon viruses at the temperature of 56 degrees C was practically identical with the inactivation of the velogenic viscerotropic strain California/1082/71. On the basis of the results, the pigeon isolates may be considered the Newcastle disease virus of velogenic viscerotropic type whose pathogenicity for chickens has been reduced to the level of mesogenic strains by long-time passaging in pigeons.

Avian pox: infection and immunity with quail, psittacine, fowl, and pigeon pox viruses

Quail, chickens, and turkeys vaccinated with pigeon and fowl pox viruses were not protected against challenge of their immunity with quail pox virus and they developed severe cutaneous lesions of pox. When quail and chickens were vaccinated with quail pox virus and given pigeon and fowl pox challenge viruses, no protection was present. Thus, quail pox virus had no immunologic relationship to pigeon and fowl pox viruses. Psittacine pox virus applied as a vaccine in quail and chickens also failed to protect against quail pox virus challenge. However, quail, chickens, and turkeys vaccinated with quail pox virus were protected against quail pox virus challenge. An isolate of psittacine pox virus, applied as a vaccine, protected chickens against challenge with the same virus isolate and also against challenge with two other psittacine pox virus isolates, confirming a close or identical antigenic relationship with each other. When combined in a multivalent vaccine, quail, psittacine, and fowl pox viruses induced excellent protection in chickens against challenge with the three respective viruses. The presence or absence of "takes" or reactions following vaccination by the wing web route did not necessarily correlate with the presence or absence of immunity noted from challenge by feather follicle virus application. The role of quail and psittacine pox viruses as potential pathogens for poultry was discussed briefly.

Pathogenicity for chickens of a paramyxovirus type 1, isolated from racing pigeons in Sweden

Strains of paramyxovirus type 1 (PMV-1) have been isolated from diseased racing pigeons in Sweden. One of these isolates was selected for studies of the pathogenicity and contagiousness in chickens.

The same isolate was previously found to have a high intravenous pathogenicity index (IVPI) in 6 weeks old chickens.

In three experiments it was found that the PMV-1 isolate was very pathogenic for 1 week old chickens but not pathogenic for 120 day old pullets inoculated intranasally and ocularly.

Symptoms in the young chickens were similar to those seen in the neurotropic form of Newcastle disease. The mortality was high and the incubation period 5–11 days.

The disease easily spread to young chickens kept in contact with diseased birds.

The microscopic examination revealed an interstitial nonpurulent pneumonia and a nonpurulent encephalitis in the young chickens. In the pullets the only finding was a mild encephalitis.

PMV-1 was recovered from all young chickens but not from the pullets.

Both the chickens and the inoculated pullets developed antibodies to PMV-1.

Review of the occurrence of mycobactin dependence among mycobacteria species

Most mycobacteria are able to make mycobactin for themselves. But, Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, M. avium atypical like wood-pigeon mycobacteria and some strains of M. avium typical for the primary isolation, lack this capacity and require mycobactin for growth in the laboratory.

Antigenic relatedness of pigeon herpes encephalomyelitis virus to other avian herpesviruses

Pigeon herpes encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV) was compared with seven avian herpesviruses for antigenic relatedness using monospecific antisera and the indirect fluorescent-antibody (IFA), agar-gel-immunodiffusion, and serum-neutralization tests. No antigenic relationship was detected between PHEV and Marek's disease virus, turkey herpesvirus, infectious laryngotracheitis virus, and duck enteritis virus. A common precipitating antigen was detected between the PHEV and pigeon herpesvirus (PHV), owl herpesvirus (OHV), and falcon herpesvirus (FHV). These four viruses also cross-reacted in the IFA test. Weak neutralizing activity was detected only between PHV antiserum and PHEV. These results suggest that the PHEV should be classified as a herpesvirus related to, but distinct from, the PHV-OHV-FHV group of viruses with which it shares common antigens.

Isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans, Candida albicans and other yeasts from pigeon droppings in Egypt

Two hundred pigeon droppings, unmixed with soil, and collected from various provinces in lower Egypt (Delta) were cultured to detect yeasts. Yeasts were isolated from 53.5% of the samples; Cryptococcus neoformans was recovered from 30 samples and Candida albicans from 19 samples. Other Cryptococcus and Candida species as well as species of Torulopsis and Rhodotorula were also encountered. Aspergillus fumigatus was isolated on 13 occasions.

Experimental infection of Columba livia with paramyxovirus Yucaipa

The town pigeons (Columba livia) were inoculated intranasally with a Yucaipa-like virus (PLOC/Senegal/273/77). They were then surveyed for virus production in the cloaca over a 10 day period. The virus could be isolated at two, three and four days after inoculation.

Susceptibility of day-old chicks and ducklings, goslings and quails to pigeon herpes encephalomyelitis and pigeon herpesviruses

Day-old chicks were susceptible to pigeon herpes encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV) by intracerebral (i/c) inoculation. Infected birds developed neurologic signs starting from 2 to 15 days post-infection, and 85% died. The virus was recovered from the brains of diseased chicks in titers ranging between 104 and 105.5 EID 50/0.2 ml. Inoculated birds shed the virus in their droppings throughout the 2 weeks observation period. Day-old chicks given the virus by the intranasal (i/n) or oral routes did not develop any specific signs but shed the virus also in their droppings throughout the observation period. Ducklings and goslings inoculated intravenously (i/v), i/n or orally were resistant. Day-old chicks and ducklings, goslings and quails inoculated by different routes with pigeon herpesvirus (PHV) did not show respiratory or nervous signs.

Avian paramyxoviruses possessing antigenically related HN but distinct M proteins. Brief report

Antigenic analyses of avian paramyxoviruses Pigeon/Otaru/76 and Dove/Tennessee/75 revealed a new pattern of relationship consisting of related HN and distinct M proteins. We propose the two viruses to be classified into different species.

Experimental bacteriophage set for typing Staphylococcus intermedius

A new phage set for typing Staphylococcus intermedius is proposed. By using 14 phages, 581 strains isolated from dogs, pigeons, horses, foxes and mink were subjected to typing at routine test dilution (RTD) and 100 X RTD. The typability of each ecovar ranged from 78.9% to 100%. Most of the strains were typable at RTD. Phage patterns obtained could be divided into 4 types (Canine I, Canine II, Pigeon, and Equine). The phage set was considered useful for typing S. intermedius.

[Comparative study of mycobactin-dependent strains of mycobacteria isolated from the wood-pigeon with Mycobacterium avium and M. paratuberculosis: study of biological and antigenic characteristics]

In this investigation three mycobacterial strains isolated in our laboratory from wood-pigeons were compared with one strain isolated by Matthews and another by Jorgensen from, respectively, a wood-pigeon and a roe-deer. The strains were also compared with various strains of Mycobacterium avium and M. paratuberculosis. The strains isolated from the wood-pigeons formed a relatively homogeneous group, which could be distinguished from M. avium and M. paratuberculosis. It was interesting to verify that most of the cultural and biochemical properties of the wood-pigeon mycobacteria were similar to those of M. paratuberculosis. The strains formed rough colonies and grew slowly in special mediums containing M. phlei extracts or mycobactin. However, one must recall that mycobactin dependence was also reported by Matthews for some strains of M. avium. The tween hydrolysis test (10 days), negative for M. avium, was positive for both the wood-pigeon mycobacteria and M. paratuberculosis. The trehalase test, which appears to be regularly positive for M. avium, was also positive for the wood-pigeon mycobacteria and M. paratuberculosis. In respect to drug susceptibility, no significant differences were observed. The organisms were resistant to most drugs studied, but were also resistant to cycloserine, in contrast to most M. avium strains. On the other hand, the organisms were not distinguished using sensitins, prepared from wood-pigeon mycobacteria and M. paratuberculosis using specifically sensitized guinea-pigs. However, the wood-pigeon mycobacteria could be clearly differentiated from M. paratuberculosis and M. avium using serology methods. Indeed, the wood-pigeon mycobacteria did not agglutinate in the presence of any of the sera defining the M. avium-intracellulare serovars (serovars 1 to 28); and by immunodiffusion in agar the wood-pigeon mycobacteria antigens formed two precipitation lines which were absent from M. paratuberculosis. Judging from our findings, the wood-pigeon mycobacteria are more closely related to M. paratuberculosis than to M. avium. It appears that biochemical and antigenic properties are not sufficient to completely differentiate these bacteria. Further studies are needed, and we plan to investigate in the near future their pathogenicity for rabbits, chicken and calves.

Isolation of bacteriophages for typing staphylococcus intermedius isolated from pigeons

Attempts to isolate phages for typing Staphylococcus intermedius isolated from pigeons were made. Five phages were isolated from the lysogenic strains and the nostrils of pigeons, and were used for typing 50 strains isolated from pigeons in Japan, Belgium and Czechoslovakia. Thirty-one (62.0%) of the 50 strains were typed at either routine test dilution (RTD) or 100 X RTD into 8 phage patterns. A total of 122 strains of S. intermedius isolated from dogs, horses, mink and foxes were subjected to phage typing with pigeon phages, with the result that 10 (8.2%) of the 122 strains were typable. S. aureus and S. epidermidis, 59 and 58 strains, respectively, were resistant to lysis due to the pigeon phages. The experimental phages were considerably specific for S. intermedius isolated from pigeons.

Control of Cryptococcus neoformans in nature by biotic factors

Two bacterial species (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis) isolated from pigeon droppings, displayed anti Cryptococcus neoformans activity on 4 of 6 media and sterilized pigeon droppings. Acanthamoeba palestinensis trophozoites isolated from pigeon droppings ingested and killed 99.9% of C neoformans cells after 7 days of incubation. Mites and sow bugs (Metoponorthus pruinosus) isolated from pigeon droppings appear to be fungivorous. These findings suggest that many organisms that occur in pigeon droppings influence C. neoformans persistence, reproduction, morphology and distribution in nature.

A one year study on the viability of Cryptococcus neoformans in nature

Using four different assat procedures we found a 50 to 86% decrease in viability of Cryptococcus neoformans over a one year period after two towers in the Oklahoma City area were modified to exclude pigeons and weather elements, especially rain. In homogeneous pigeon dropping samples a sharp decrease in viability occurred after 7 to 9 months of storage. The decrease occurred in pigeon dropping samples maintained at the natural sites and at ambient temperature in the laboratory in the laboratory but not in droppings stored at -4 degrees C. Air sampling studies done at the natural sites before and after tower modifications also showed a decrease in C. neoformans viability. The decrease in viability cannot be explained by seasonal temperature variations that occurred at natural sites. Our findings suggest that death of C. neoformans occurred because of lack of available intracellular water exacerbated by low humidity, exclusion of precipitation and moisture from fresh pigeon droppings. In light of our experiences, at one site in south central United States, the feasibility of controlling C. neoformans at heavily contaminated sites, other than by the use of noxious or potentially dangerous chemicals, is discussed.

Pigeon herpes encephalomyelitis virus in Egypt

A virus was isolated in Egypt from brain and liver collected from domestic pigeons suffering from nervous disorders. The morphological and biophysical properties of the virus were consistent with it being a member of the family Herpetoviridae. Antigenically the virus was closely related to if not identical with pigeon herpes encephalomyelitis virus.

Particle size of airborn Cryptococcus neoformans in a tower

Nearly 10(6) cells of Cryptococcus neoformans were cultured per g of pigeon droppings in a vacant tower. The air in the tower contained an average of 45 viable cells of C. neoformans per 100 liters: 60% of the cells were less than 4.7 micron in diameter. It is estimated that a human exposed to this atmosphere for 1 h would have 41 cells of c. neoformans deposited in the lungs. Sweeping resulted in the aerosolization of large numbers of cells of C. neoformans from 4.7 to 11 micron in diameter, the number of cells less than 4.7 micron remained relatively constant. One minute after sweeping, 4.4% of viable airborne cells of C. neoformans were less than 1.1 micron in diameter. We believe that this is the first report of isolating such small cells of C. neoformans from a natural site.

Distribution of Cryptococcus neoformans in a natural site

Pigeon droppings in a vacant tower were assayed for the number and size of viable cells of Cryptococcus neoformans. The dry, thinly scattered floor debris contained 2.6 x 10(6) viable cells per g--300 times more cells than were cultured from a large, compact pile of pigeon droppings (7.4 x 10(3) cells per g). Aerosols generated from floor debris containing pigeon droppings had an average of 360 viable cells in 31 liters of air; 27 of these cells (7.5%) were 1.1 to 3.3 micrometers in diameter and, therefore, capable of human lung deposition. Environmental factors which may influence the distribution, survival, and proliferation of C. neoformans in nature are discussed.

The perfect state of Cryptococcus neoformans, Filobasidiella neoformans, on pigeon manure filtrate agar

To enable studies of the dependence of Cryptococcus neoformans and its perfect and imperfect states upon bird manure as a habitat of this pathogen, a nutrient medium closely resembling natural conditions was prepared. As sole nutrient, the water soluble ingredients of manure from pigeons (Columbia livia) were used. There was no heat sterilization of the manure filtrate. Using a standard pair of C. neoformans strains for mating, it could be demonstrated that the perfect state of the fungus developed on this so called pigeon manure filtrate agar within 48 h at 26 degrees C. This medium is supposed to help in the elucidation of the epidemiological significance of the perfect and imperfect states of this pathogen.

Viral encephalomyelitis of pigeons. IV. Growth of the virus in tissue cultures

Growth and cytopathogenicity of pigeon herpes encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV) in avian and mammalian cell cultures were investigated. The virus was cytopathogenic to all avian primary cell cultures tested and produced large syncytia with intranuclear inclusions. Viral antigen was detected in the nuclei of infected cells 6 hr postinoculation. Infective virus, however, was obtained 8 hr post-inoculation. Maximum virus yields in avian cell cultures were reached 72 hr postinoculation. In mammalian cell lines tested, the virus proved to be cytopathogenic except in swine embryo kidney cell lines. The cytopathic effect in mammalian cell lines was characterized by the rounding and clumping of cells., Moderate virus yields were obtained with lamb kidney and bovine embryo thymus cell lines, but not with other cell lines tested. Growth behavior of the virus in cell cultures in comparison with other human and avian herpesviruses is discussed.

Isolation of a new avian paramyxovirus from a rock pigeon (Columba livia)

A hemagglutinating agent identified as paramyxovirus was isolated from the respiratory organs of a rock pigeon captured in Hokkaido, Japan. The virus was serologically distinct from the known members of genus Paramyxovirus. Of the 160 pigeons collected in Hokkaido, 6 possessed the antibodies to the virus. The virus was designated as Paramyxovirus/pigeon/Otaru/76.

Further studies on competitive exclusion for controlling Salmonellae in chickens

A native intestinal microflora of chickens which is protective against salmonella readily transferred to penmates and apparently to birds in adjacent pens. The microflora not only minimized infection resulting from exposure following colonization of the gut with microflora, but significantly abbreviated the period of infection when introduced after a salmonella infection was established in chicks. A microflora with undiminished protective activity, sensitive to only a few commonly used antibacterials, was established in a SPF-Cofal/Marek-negative population. Intestinal microflora from mourning doves was at least partially effective in protecting chicks against a naladixic-acid-resistant strain of Salmonella infantis. In limited tests with 2 of 3 sources of protective microflora, the growth rate of chicks in the absence of salmonellae was significantly improved. A hypothesis involving specificity of attachment between the glycocalyces of the protective microflora and of the intestinal mucosa is offered as the likely mechanism of protection.

Experimental transmission of Chlamydia psittaci to turkeys from wild birds

Wild birds were inoculated with Chlamydia psittaci to determine species that could be potential hosts and vectors in transmitting the agent to domestic turkeys. Infection occurred in turkeys exposed to starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), common grackles (Quiscalus quiscula), brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater), and Inca doves (Cardafella inca). Mourning doves (Zenaidura macroura) shed the agent sparingly, but turkeys exposed to them did not become infected, These findings and knowledge of the habits of these various species are discussed. It was concluded that the Inca dove should be considered a potential source of turkey chlamydiosis in Texas. The species studied and other species not studied should be included in serologic surveys and surveillance studies attempting isolation of chlamydiae.