Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the equine transferrin gene

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in exons 13, 15 and 16 of equine transferrin for common, rare and mutant variants were investigated. Compared with previous work a further 13 SNPs have been identified, allowing for the two previously identified clades to be subdivided into 11 groups. A combination of one or more of eight SNPs can be used to classify the equine variants into these 11 groups, since most are co-inherited. Putative sites of glycosylation in exons 13 and 16 showed no polymorphism, suggesting that presence or absence of sugar moieties does not lead to electrophoretic variation between the variants. Using the 26 SNPs currently identified in transferrin it is still not possible to differentiate variants F1 from F2, or D from H2, which represent 75% of the variants occurring in Thoroughbred equine population. This suggests that further SNPs exist in equine transferrin. The significance of the high level of variation in exon 15 is discussed.

Report of the International Equine Gene Mapping Workshop: male linkage map

The goal of the First International Equine Gene Mapping Workshop, held in 1995, was the construction of a low density, male linkage map for the horse. For this purpose, the International Horse Reference Family Panel (IHRFP) was established, consisting of 12 paternal half-sib families with 448 half-sib offspring provided by 10 laboratories. Blood samples were collected and DNA extracted in each laboratory and sent to the Lexington laboratory (KY, USA) for dispatch in aliquots to 14 typing laboratories. In total, 161 markers (144 microsatellites, seven blood groups and 10 proteins) were tested for all families for which the sire was heterozygous. Genealogies and typing data were sent for analysis to the INRA laboratory (Jouy-en-Josas, France) according to a specific format and entered into a database with input verification and output processes. Linkage analysis was performed with the CRIMAP program. Significant linkage was detected for 124 loci, of which 95 were unambiguously ordered using a multipoint analysis with an average spacing of 14.2 CM. These loci were distributed among 29 linkage groups. A more comprehensive analysis including synteny group data and FISH data suggested that 26 autosomes out of 31 are covered. The complete map spans 936 CM.

Plasma amyloid beta-peptide 1-42 and incipient Alzheimer's disease

Mutations in the amyloid precursor protein and presenilin 1 and 2 genes result in elevated plasma levels of the amyloid beta-peptide species terminating at amino acid residue 42 (A beta1-42). In a longitudinal study of unrelated elderly individuals, those who subsequently developed Alzheimer's disease had higher plasma levels of A beta1-42 at entry than did those who remained free of dementia. The results indicate that elevated plasma levels of the released A beta peptide A beta1-42 may be detected several years before the onset of symptoms, supporting that extracellular A beta1-42 plays an important role in the pathogenesis of late-onset Alzheimer's disease.

Functional significance of mild cognitive impairment in elderly patients without a dementia diagnosis

The authors investigated differences in functional ability among three groups of subjects who were not diagnosed with dementia: normal control (NC) subjects (n=35); Clinical Dementia Rating Scale (CDRS) score of 0 (minimal impairment; n=26); and CDRS 0. 5 (questionable dementia; n=42). CDRS 0 and 0. 5 patients reported significantly poorer functioning than NCs in household and other activities, but CDRS 0 and CDRS 0. 5 groups did not differ in self-reported functioning. It is likely that CDRS 0. 5 patients overestimated their functional abilities. Correlations between self- and informant reports of functional status were significantly lower in the CDRS 0. 5 group than in the CDRS 0 group, an important finding for clinical management because patients with questionable dementia may actually be more impaired than they admit. Informants' reports or standardized performance-based assessment should be considered in the clinical evaluation of such patients.

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and the risk of dementia with stroke

CONTEXT

Next to Alzheimer disease, vascular dementia is the second most common form of dementia in the elderly, yet few specific risk factors have been identified.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship of plasma lipids and lipoproteins to dementia with stroke.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Prospective longitudinal community-based study over a 7-year period (1991-1998).

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 1111 nondemented participants (mean [SD] age, 75.0 [5.9] years) were followed up for an average of 2.1 years (range, 1-7.8 years).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Incident dementia with stroke according to standardized criteria, by baseline levels of total plasma cholesterol and triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, LDL levels corrected for lipoprotein(a), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, lipoprotein(a), and apolipoprotein E genotype.

RESULTS

Two hundred eighty-six (25.7%) of the 1111 subjects developed dementia during follow-up; 61 (21.3%) were classified as having dementia with stroke and 225 (78.7%) as having probable Alzheimer disease. Levels of LDL cholesterol were significantly associated with an increased risk of dementia with stroke. Compared with the lowest quartile, the highest quartile of LDL cholesterol was associated with an approximately 3-fold increase in risk of dementia with stroke, adjusting for vascular risk factors and demographic variables (relative risk [RR], 3.1; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.5-6.1). Levels of LDL corrected for lipoprotein(a) were an even stronger predictor of dementia with stroke in the adjusted multivariate analysis. Compared with the lowest quartile, the RR of dementia with stroke for the highest quartile of lipoprotein(a)-corrected LDL cholesterol was 4.1 (95% CI, 1.8-9.6) after adjusting for vascular factors and demographic variables. Lipid or lipoprotein levels were not associated with the development of Alzheimer disease in our cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated levels of LDL cholesterol were associated with the risk of dementia with stroke in elderly patients. Further study is needed to determine whether treatment of elevated LDL cholesterol levels will reduce the risk of dementia with stroke.

Free fatty acid-induced insulin resistance is associated with activation of protein kinase C theta and alterations in the insulin signaling cascade

To examine the mechanism by which free fatty acids (FFAs) induce insulin resistance in vivo, awake chronically catheterized rats underwent a hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp with or without a 5-h preinfusion of lipid/heparin to raise plasma FFA concentrations. Increased plasma FFAs resulted in insulin resistance as reflected by a approximately 35% reduction in the glucose infusion rate (P < 0.05 vs. control). The insulin resistance was associated with a 40-50% reduction in 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-determined rates of muscle glycogen synthesis (P < 0.01 vs. control) and muscle glucose oxidation (P < 0.01 vs. control), which in turn could be attributed to a approximately 25% reduction in glucose transport activity as assessed by 2-[1,2-3H]deoxyglucose uptake in vivo (P < 0.05 vs. control). This lipid-induced decrease in insulin-stimulated muscle glucose metabolism was associated with 1) a approximately 50% reduction in insulin-stimulated insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1-associated phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase activity (P < 0.05 vs. control), 2) a blunting in insulin-stimulated IRS-1 tyrosine phosphorylation (P < 0.05, lipid-infused versus glycerol-infused), and 3) a four-fold increase in membrane-bound, or active, protein kinase C (PKC) theta (P < 0.05 vs. control). We conclude that acute elevations of plasma FFA levels for 5 h induce skeletal muscle insulin resistance in vivo via a reduction in insulin-stimulated muscle glycogen synthesis and glucose oxidation that can be attributed to reduced glucose transport activity. These changes are associated with abnormalities in the insulin signaling cascade and may be mediated by FFA activation of PKC theta.

Assessment of cognition in advanced AD: The test for severe impairment

Article abstract The Test for Severe Impairment (TSI) was compared with the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and a modified MMSE (mMMSE) in a multisite, longitudinal study of AD. The TSI correlated highly with the MMSE (r = 0.83) and the mMMSE (r = 0.82), but was not redundant. There was a wide range of scores on the TSI among those scoring in the severely impaired range on the MMSE and mMMSE. The slope of cognitive change over time detected by the TSI was greater than that revealed by the MMSE or the mMMSE. Performance on the TSI was a significant predictor of survival. The TSI is a valid measure that is sensitive to cognitive change over time in severely demented patients with AD.

Effect of literacy on neuropsychological test performance in nondemented, education-matched elders

The current investigation compared neuropsychological test performance among nondemented literate and illiterate elders. The sample included participants in an epidemiological study of normal aging and dementia in the Northern Manhattan community. All participants were diagnosed as nondemented by a neurologist, and did not have history of Parkinson's disease, stroke, or head injury. Literacy level was determined by self-report. MANOVAs revealed a significant overall effect for literacy status (literate vs. illiterate) on neuropsychological test performance when groups were matched on years of education. The overall effect of literacy status remained significant after restricting the analyses to elders with no formal education, and after controlling for the effects of language of test administration. Specifically, illiterates obtained lower scores on measures of naming, comprehension, verbal abstraction, orientation, and figure matching and recognition. However tests of verbal list delayed recall, nonverbal abstraction, and category fluency were unaffected by literacy status, suggesting that these measures can be used to accurately detect cognitive decline among illiterate elders in this sample. Differences in organization of visuospatial information, lack of previous exposure to stimuli, and difficulties with interpretation of the logical functions of language are possible factors that contribute to our findings.

Cerebral tuberculomas in Northern Ireland

Two children presenting with very different clinical pictures were both found to have intracranial tuberculomas. This condition, although rare in developed countries, should be suspected in any child with enhancing cerebral lesions or cranial computed tomography.

Hourly care received by people with Alzheimer's disease: results from an urban, community survey

People with Alzheimer's disease living in a defined community in New York City were identified and assessed on two occasions to determine the number of hours of activities of daily living (ADL) care they received. Nearly half received all care hours from informal sources; however, a quarter received all ADL care hours from formal sources. The mean number of daily ADL hours in the sample was 9.7, of which 4.2 came from formal sources. This reflects the extensive use of Medicaid-based home care services in New York City. As dementia worsened, substitution of formal for informal care was rare, but formal care assumed a greater proportion of total care hours.

A randomized, placebo-controlled dose-comparison trial of haloperidol for psychosis and disruptive behaviors in Alzheimer's disease

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this study was to compare the efficacy and side effects of two doses of haloperidol and placebo in the treatment of psychosis and disruptive behaviors in patients with Alzheimer's disease.

METHOD

In a 6-week random-assignment, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (phase A), haloperidol, 2-3 mg/day (standard dose), and haloperidol, 0.50-0.75 mg/day (low dose), were compared in 71 outpatients with Alzheimer's disease. For the subsequent 6-week double-blind crossover phase (phase B), patients taking standard- or low-dose haloperidol were switched to placebo, and patients taking placebo were randomly assigned to standard- or low-dose haloperidol.

RESULTS

For the 60 patients who completed phase A, standard-dose haloperidol was efficacious and superior to both low-dose haloperidol and placebo for scores on the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale psychosis factor and on psychomotor agitation. Response rates according to three sets of criteria were greater with the standard dose (55%-60%) than the low dose (25%-35%) and placebo (25%-30%). The advantage of standard dose over low dose was replicated in phase B. In phase A, extrapyramidal signs tended to be greater with the standard dose than in the other two conditions, primarily because of a subgroup (20%) who developed moderate to severe signs. Low-dose haloperidol did not differ from placebo on any measure of efficacy or side effects.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicated a favorable therapeutic profile for haloperidol in doses of 2-3 mg/day, although a subgroup developed moderate to severe extrapyramidal signs. A starting dose of 1 mg/day with gradual, upward dose titration is recommended. The narrow therapeutic window observed with haloperidol may also apply to other neuroleptics used in Alzheimer's disease patients with psychosis and disruptive behaviors.

Attachment and adolescent psychosocial functioning

To explore the meaning and function of attachment organization during adolescence, its relation to multiple domains of psychosocial functioning was examined in a sample of 131 moderately at-risk adolescents. Attachment organization was assessed using the Adult Attachment Interview; multiple measures of functioning were obtained from parents, adolescents, and their peers. Security displayed in adolescents' organization of discourse about attachment experiences was related to competence with peers (as reported by peers), lower levels of internalizing behaviors (as reported by adolescents), and lower levels of deviant behavior (as reported by peers and by mothers). Preoccupation with attachment experiences, seen in angry or diffuse and unfocused discussion of attachment experiences, was linked to higher levels of both internalizing and deviant behaviors. These relations generally remained even when other attachment-related constructs that had been previously related to adolescent functioning were covaried in analysis. Results are interpreted as suggesting an important role for attachment organization in a wide array of aspects of adolescent psychosocial development.

In vivo percutaneous absorption of boric acid, borax, and disodium octaborate tetrahydrate in humans compared to in vitro absorption in human skin from infinite and finite doses

Literature from the first half of this century report concern for toxicity from topical use of boric acid, but assessment of percutaneous absorption has been impaired by lack of analytical sensitivity. Analytical methods in this study included inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry which now allows quantitation of percutaneous absorption of 10B in 10B-enriched boric acid, borax, and disodium octaborate tetrahydrate (DOT) in biological matrices. This made it possible, in the presence of comparatively large natural dietary boron intakes for the in vivo segment of this study, to quantify the boron passing through skin. Human volunteers were dosed with 10B-enriched boric acid, 5.0%, borax, 5.0%, or disodium octaborate tetrahydrate, 10%, in aqueous solutions. Urinalysis, for boron and changes in boron isotope ratios, was used to measure absorption. Boric acid in vivo percutaneous absorption was 0.226 (SD = 0.125) mean percentage dose, with flux and permeability constant (Kp) calculated at 0.009 microgram/cm2/h and 1.9 x 10(-7) cm/h, respectively. Borax absorption was 0.210 (SD = 0.194) mean percentage of dose, with flux and Kp calculated at 0.009 microgram/cm2/h and 1.8 x 10(-7) cm/h, respectively. DOT absorption was 0.122 (SD = 0.108) mean percentage, with flux and Kp calculated at 0.01 microgram/cm2/h and 1.0 x 10(-7) cm/h, respectively. Pretreatment with the potential skin irritant 2% sodium lauryl sulfate had no effect on boron skin absorption. In vitro human skin percentage of doses of boric acid absorbed were 1.2 for a 0.05% solution, 0.28 for a 0.5% solution, and 0.70 for a 5.0% solution. These absorption amounts translated into flux values of, respectively, 0.25, 0.58, and 14.58 micrograms/cm2/h and permeability constants (Kp) of 5.0 x 10(-4), 1.2 x 10(-4), and 2.9 x 10(-4) cm/h for the 0.05, 0.5, and 5.0% solutions. The above in vitro doses were at infinite, 1000 microliters/cm2 volume. At 2 microliters/cm2 (the in vivo dosing volume), flux decreased some 200-fold to 0.07 microgram/cm2/h and Kp of 1.4 x 10(-6) cm/h, while percentage of dose absorbed was 1.75%. Borax dosed at 5.0%/1000 microliters/cm2 had 0.41% dose absorbed, flux at 8.5 micrograms/cm2/h, and Kp was 1.7 x 10(-4) cm/h. Disodium octaborate tetrahydrate (DOT) dosed at 10%/1000 microliters/cm2 was 0.19% dose absorbed, flux at 7.9 micrograms/cm2/h, and Kp was 0.8 x 10(-4) cm/h. These in vitro results from infinite doses (1000 microliters/cm2) were 1000-fold greater than those obtained in the companion in vivo study. The results from the finite (2 microliters/cm2) dosing were closer (10-fold difference) to the in vivo results. General application of infinite dose percutaneous absorption values for risk assessment is questioned by these results. These in vivo results show that percutaneous absorption of boron, as boric acid, borax, and disodium octaborate tetrahydrate, through intact human skin, is low and is significantly less than the average daily dietary intake. This very low boron skin absorption makes it apparent that, for the borates tested, the use of gloves to prevent systemic uptake is unnecessary. These findings do not apply to abraded or otherwise damaged skin.

Cognitive test performance among nondemented elderly African Americans and whites

We examined the neuropsychological test performance of a randomly selected community sample of English-speaking non-Hispanic African American and white elders in northern Manhattan. All participants were diagnosed as nondemented by a neurologist, whose assessment was made independent of neuropsychological test scores. African American elders obtained significantly lower scores on measures of verbal and nonverbal learning and memory, abstract reasoning, language, and visuospatial skill than whites. After using a stratified random sampling technique to match groups on years of education, many of the discrepancies became nonsignificant; however, significant ethnic group differences on measures of figure memory, verbal abstraction, category fluency, and visuospatial skill remained. Discrepancies in test performance of education-matched African Americans and whites could not be accounted for by occupational attainment or history of medical conditions such as hypertension and diabetes. These findings emphasize the importance of using culturally appropriate norms when evaluating ethnically diverse elderly for dementia.

Prospective comparative study of the evolution of probable Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease dementia

No previous comparison of test performance in probable Alzheimer's disease (pAD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) dementia has provided information about potential differences in the dementing process. This study compared the evolution of cognitive changes associated with these dementias. Generalized estimating equations (GEE) applied to regression analyses with repeated measures were used to evaluate cognitive changes over 1 to 3 years prior to the point when dementia was diagnosed in 40 matched pairs of patients with incident pAD and PD dementia. Both groups' performance declined on the Short Blessed, Selective Reminding Test (SRT; total recall, long-term retrieval, and delayed recall), Boston Naming Test, Category Fluency, and Similarities. The decline on naming and SRT delayed recall was more rapid in the PD dementia group, suggesting that these performance deficits emerge earlier in the development of pAD. The PD dementia group performed worse on Category Fluency throughout the follow-up period, suggesting either that dementia is overlaid on this preexisting performance deficit or that this type of executive deficit is an early manifestation of dementia in PD. The pAD group performed more poorly throughout the follow-up period on SRT delayed recognition, consistent with a pAD-specific encoding deficit. We conclude that while pAD and PD dementia are similar in many respects, differences in their evolution support previous observation of unique features in the 2 dementias and suggest different underlying pathologies.

Plasma esterase (ES) polymorphism in the tammar wallaby, Macropus eugenii

The major plasma esterase in the tammar wallaby was identified as a carboxylesterase by inhibition studies and polymorphism with six variants was observed by isoelectric focusing (pH 4.2-4.9), followed by staining for esterase activity. Family studies demonstrated an inheritance of six codominant alleles, ESA,B,C,D,E,F, and population studies revealed marked differences in the allele frequencies in five Australian populations of tammar wallabies.

The APOE-epsilon4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer disease among African Americans, whites, and Hispanics

CONTEXT

Although the association between Alzheimer disease (AD) and the apolipoprotein E epsilon4 (APOE-epsilon4) allele has been confirmed worldwide, it appears to be inconsistent among African Americans, Hispanics, and Nigerians.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association between the APOE-epsilon4 allele and AD in elderly African Americans, Hispanics, and whites.

DESIGN

Prospective, population-based, longitudinal study over a 5-year period (1991-1996).

SETTING

The Washington Heights-Inwood community of New York City.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 1079 Medicare recipients without AD or a related disorder at baseline.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Risk of clinically diagnosed AD in the 3 ethnic groups and among individuals with and without an APOE-epsilon4 allele.

RESULTS

Compared with individuals with the APOE-epsilon3/epsilon3 genotype, the relative risk (RR) of AD associated with 1 or more copies of the APOE-epsilon4 allele was significantly increased among whites (RR, 2.5; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1-6.4), but not among African Americans (RR, 1.0; 95% CI, 0.6-1.6) or Hispanics (RR, 1.1; 95% CI, 0.7-1.6). In the absence of the APOE-epsilon4 allele, the cumulative risks of AD to age 90 years, adjusted for education and sex, were 4 times higher for African Americans (RR, 4.4; 95% CI, 2.3-8.6) and 2 times higher for Hispanics (RR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.2-4.3) than for whites. In the presence of an APOE-epsilon4 allele, the cumulative risk of AD to age 90 years was similar for individuals in all 3 ethnic groups.

CONCLUSION

The presence of an APOE-epsilon4 allele is a determinant of AD risk in whites, but African Americans and Hispanics have an increased frequency of AD regardless of their APOE genotype. These results suggest that other genes or risk factors may contribute to the increased risk of AD in African Americans and Hispanics.

In vivo percutaneous absorption of boron as boric acid, borax, and disodium octaborate tetrahydrate in humans: a summary

Literature from the first half of this century reports concern for toxicity from topical use of boric acid, but assessment of percutaneous absorption has been impaired by lack of analytical sensitivity. Analytical methods in this study included inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, which now allows quantitation of percutaneous absorption of 10B in 10B-enriched boric acid, borax, and disodium octaborate tetrahydrate (DOT) in biological matrices. This made it possible, in the presence of comparatively large natural dietary boron intakes for the in vivo segment of this study, to quantify the boron passing through skin. Human volunteers were dosed with 10B-enriched boric acid, 5.0%, borax, 5.0%, or disodium octaborate tetrahydrate, 10% in aqueous solutions. Urinalysis, for boron and changes in boron isotope ratios, was used to measure absorption. Boric acid in vivo percutaneous absorption was 0.226 (SD = 0.125) mean percent dose, with flux and permeability constant (Kp) calculated at 0.009 microg/cm2/h and 1.9 x 10(-7) cm/h, respectively. Borax absorption was 0.210 (SD = 0.194) mean percent dose, with flux and Kp calculated at 0.009 microg/cm2/h and 1.8 x 10(-7) cm/h, respectively. DOT absorption was 0.122 (SD = 0.108) mean percent, with flux and Kp calculated at 0.01 microg/cm2/h and 1.0 x 10(-7) cm/h, respectively. Pretreatment with the potential skin irritant 2% sodium lauryl sulfate had no effect on boron skin absorption. These in vivo results show that percutaneous absorption of boron, as boric acid, borax, and disodium octaborate tetrahydrate, through intact human skin is low and is significantly less than the average daily dietary intake. This very low boron skin absorption makes it apparent that, for the borates tested, the use of gloves to prevent systemic uptake is unnecessary. These findings do not apply to abraded or otherwise damaged skin.

Plasma protein polymorphisms in the tammar wallaby, Macropus eugenii

Five populations of the Australian tammar wallaby, Macropus eugenii, from Kangaroo Island, South Australia, and Garden, Abrolhos and Middle Islands and Perup, Western Australia, were examined for plasma protein polymorphisms. Select Kangaroo/Garden Island hybrids and backcross progeny were also included in the study. Vitamin D binding protein (GC), albumin (ALB), transferrin (TF), protease inhibitor (PI), haemopexin (HX), haptoglobin (HP) and immunoglobulin G (IgG) were identified by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, pH 7.9, isoelectric focusing, pH 4.2–4.9, and immunoblotting with rabbit antisera to human proteins. Five GC (A, B, C, D, E), two ALB (A, B), two TF (A, B) and five PI (I, J, L, M, P) variants were detected, and limited family studies demonstrated a codominant allelic inheritance for each of the systems.

Decreasing striatal 6-FDOPA uptake with increasing duration of cocaine withdrawal

It has been hypothesized that a decrease in dopaminergic presynaptic activity during abstinence or withdrawal is related to relapse in cocaine-dependent subjects (Dackis and Gold 1985; Markou and Koob 1991). This study measured striatal 6-fluorodopa (6-FDOPA) uptake, an index of dopaminergic presynaptic activity, using positron emission tomography (PET) in 11 drug-free cocaine addicts compared to eight normal subjects. Middle abstinence cocaine addicts (n = 5, off cocaine 11-30 days) had significantly lower striatal 6-FDOPA uptake compared to normal controls or early abstinence cocaine addicts (n = 6, off cocaine 1-10 days). The cocaine-dependent subjects (n = 11) showed a significant negative correlation between days off cocaine and striatal 6-FDOPA uptake. The results suggest that during abstinence from cocaine there is a delayed decrease in dopamine terminal activity in the striatum.