Colloidal superstructures programmed into magnetic Janus particles

Emergence of synchronization-induced patterns in two-dimensional magnetic rod systems under rotating magnetic fields

We investigate the dynamics of two-dimensional assemblies of rod-shaped magnetic colloids under the influence of an external rotating magnetic field. Using molecular dynamics, we simulate the formation of patterns that emerge based on the synchronization degree between the magnetic rods and the rotating field. We then explore the structural and dynamic characteristics of the resulting steady states, examining their evolution as a function of changes in the rods' aspect ratio, the strength of the external magnetic field, and its rotation frequency. Three distinct synchronization regimes of the rods with the magnetic field are clearly observed. A detailed set of phase diagrams illustrates the complex relationship between the magnitude of the external magnetic field and its rotation frequency and how these parameters govern the formation of unique self-organized structures.

Magnetic Janus Particles: Synthesis and Multifunctional Applications

Magnetic Janus particles (MJPs) with compositional compartmentalization and strong magnetic responsiveness play a pivotal role in various application fields, such as biotechnology, medicine, and materials science. However, comprehensive reviews of the field of MJPs remain limited. Here, this article attempts to fill the gap by reviewing the current common synthetic strategies for MJPs, including masking, microfluidics, self-assembly, phase separation, and seeded emulsion polymerization, among others. It then covers the multifunctional applications of MJPs, beneficial from their magnetic properties and anisotropic topological structure, primarily involving environmental remediation, biomedicine, smart displays, interfacial catalysis, emulsion stabilization, and structured liquid materials are presented, as well. Finally, the current challenges and future perspectives for MJPs are also discussed, aiming to fully harness the potential for broader applications.

Milliscale Shape-Programmable Magnetic Machines Based on Modular Janus Disks

Through billions of years of evolution, small and microorganisms have come to possess distinctive shape-morphing abilities to live in complex fluid environments. However, fabricating milliscale programmable machines with shape-morphing ability often involves complicated architectures requiring arduous fabrication processes and multiple external stimuli. Here, milliscale programmable machines with reconfigurable structures and extensible sizes are proposed based on the sequential assembly of simple Janus disks at liquid surfaces. The modular machines consist of magnetic Janus disks that are assembled into expected chain shapes in turn. Based on the modular structures with programmable shapes, multiple locomotion modes are developed according to their structural characteristics. Their multifunctionality in manipulating and delivering objects through contacting or noncontacting ways based on the programmable structures is demonstrated. The shape-programmable behaviors of the machines open up a new way toward constructing reconfigurable soft microrobots and understanding complex assembly mechanisms.

Tunable colloidal spinners: Active chirality and hydrodynamic interactions governed by rotating external electric fields

The rotational dynamics of microparticles in liquids have a wide range of applications, including chemical microreactors, biotechnologies, microfluidic devices, tunable heat and mass transfer, and fundamental understanding of chiral active soft matter which refers to systems composed of particles that exhibit a handedness in their rotation, breaking mirror symmetry at the microscopic level. Here, we report on the study of two effects in colloids in rotating electric fields: (i) the rotation of individual colloidal particles in rotating electric field and related to that (ii) precession of pairs of particles. We show that the mechanism responsible for the rotation of individual particles is related to the time lag between the external field applied to the particle and the particle polarization. Using numerical simulations and experiments with silica particles in a water-based solvent, we prove that the observed rotation of particle pairs and triplets is governed by the tunable rotation of individual particles and can be explained and described by the action of hydrodynamic forces. Our findings demonstrate that colloidal suspensions in rotating electric fields, under some conditions, represent a novel class of chiral soft active matter-tunable colloidal spinners. The experiments and the corresponding theoretical framework we developed open novel prospects for future studies of these systems and for their potential applications.

Multi-level magnetic microrobot delivery strategy within a hierarchical vascularized organ-on-a-chip

Targeted microrobotic delivery within the circulatory system holds significant potential for medical theranostic applications. Existing delivery strategies of microrobots encounter challenges such as slow speed, limited navigation control, and dispersal under dynamic flow conditions. Furthermore, within the realm of microrobots, in vitro testing platforms often lack essential biological microenvironments, while in vivo studies conducted on animal models are constrained by limited detection resolution. In this study, we propose a multi-level magnetic delivery strategy that integrates a tethered microrobotic guidewire and untethered swimming microrobots. The amalgamation compensates for their inherent constraints, ensuring a robust and highly efficient delivery of microrobots under complex physiological conditions over extensive distances. Concurrently, a hierarchical vascular network encompassing engineered arteries/veins and capillary networks was constructed by integrating vasculogenesis and endothelial cell (EC) lining strategies, thereby providing an in vivo-like testing platform for microrobots. Experimental evidence demonstrates that the flexible microrobotic guidewire can be precisely directed to any entrance of the second-tier branches, with its inner lumen providing an "express lane" for rapid passage of microrobots through complex fluidic environments without direct contact. After release, dynamically assembled swarms could effectively locomote on the micro-topography of the EC-lined channel surface without becoming trapped and congregate within specified regions inside capillary lumens when guided collectively by a biologically safe magnetic field. Additionally, the superparamagnetic capabilities of microrobotic swarms ensure their dissolution into monodispersed entities upon withdrawal of the magnetic field, mitigating the risk of intravascular thrombosis. The hierarchical vascularized organ-on-a-chip platform establishes a comprehensive testing platform that integrates imaging, control, and a functional 3D microvascular environment, thereby enhancing its suitability for microrobotic applications encompassing targeted drug delivery, thrombus ablation, sensing and diagnosis, etc.

Magnetically Induced Anisotropic Interaction in Colloidal Assembly

The wide accessibility to nanostructures with high uniformity and controllable sizes and morphologies provides great opportunities for creating complex superstructures with unique functionalities. Employing anisotropic nanostructures as the building blocks significantly enriches the superstructural phases, while their orientational control for obtaining long-range orders has remained a significant challenge. One solution is to introduce magnetic components into the anisotropic nanostructures to enable precise control of their orientations and positions in the superstructures by manipulating magnetic interactions. Recognizing the importance of magnetic anisotropy in colloidal assembly, we provide here an overview of magnetic field-guided self-assembly of magnetic nanoparticles with typical anisotropic shapes, including rods, cubes, plates, and peanuts. The Review starts with discussing the magnetic energy of nanoparticles, appreciating the vital roles of magneto-crystalline and shape anisotropies in determining the easy magnetization direction of the anisotropic nanostructures. It then introduces superstructures assembled from various magnetic building blocks and summarizes their unique properties and intriguing applications. It concludes with a discussion of remaining challenges and an outlook of future research opportunities that the magnetic assembly strategy may offer for colloidal assembly.

Magnetic Quincke rollers with tunable single-particle dynamics and collective states

Electrohydrodynamically driven active particles based on Quincke rotation have quickly become an important model system for emergent collective behavior in nonequilibrium colloidal systems. Like most active particles, Quincke rollers are intrinsically nonmagnetic, preventing the use of magnetic fields to control their complex dynamics on the fly. Here, we report on magnetic Quincke rollers based on silica particles doped with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. We show that their magnetic nature enables the application of both externally controllable forces and torques at high spatial and temporal precision, leading to several versatile control mechanisms for their single-particle dynamics and collective states. These include tunable interparticle interactions, potential energy landscapes, and advanced programmable and teleoperated behaviors, allowing us to discover and probe active chaining, anisotropic active sedimentation-diffusion equilibria, and collective states in various geometries and dimensionalities.

Bubble Printing of Ti3C2TX MXene for Patterning Conductive and Plasmonic Nanostructures

MXenes represent a novel class of 2D materials with unique properties and have great potential for diverse applications in sensing and electronics; however, their directed assembly at interfaces has not yet been achieved. Herein, the plasmonic heating of MXenes was exploited to achieve the controlled deposition of MXene assemblies via a laser-directed microbubble. The influence of various factors such as solvent composition, substrate surface chemistry, MXene concentration, and laser fluence was investigated, establishing the optimal conditions for rapid patterning with good fidelity. Printed MXene assemblies showed good electrical conductivity and plasmonic sensing capabilities and were able to meet or exceed the state of the art without additional postprocessing steps. This represents the first study of a directed approach for microfabrication using MXenes and lays the foundation for future work in optically directed assembly of MXenes and MXene-based nanocomposites at interfaces toward sensors and devices.

Assembly and manipulation of responsive and flexible colloidal structures by magnetic and capillary interactions

The long-ranged interactions induced by magnetic fields and capillary forces in multiphasic fluid-particle systems facilitate the assembly of a rich variety of colloidal structures and materials. We review here the diverse structures assembled from isotropic and anisotropic particles by independently or jointly using magnetic and capillary interactions. The use of magnetic fields is one of the most efficient means of assembling and manipulating paramagnetic particles. By tuning the field strength and configuration or by changing the particle characteristics, the magnetic interactions, dynamics, and responsiveness of the assemblies can be precisely controlled. Concurrently, the capillary forces originating at the fluid-fluid interfaces can serve as means of reconfigurable binding in soft matter systems, such as Pickering emulsions, novel responsive capillary gels, and composites for 3D printing. We further discuss how magnetic forces can be used as an auxiliary parameter along with the capillary forces to assemble particles at fluid interfaces or in the bulk. Finally, we present examples how these interactions can be used jointly in magnetically responsive foams, gels, and pastes for 3D printing. The multiphasic particle gels for 3D printing open new opportunities for making of magnetically reconfigurable and "active" structures.

1D Colloidal chains: recent progress from formation to emergent properties and applications

Integrating nanoscale building blocks of low dimensionality (0D; i.e., spheres) into higher dimensional structures endows them and their corresponding materials with emergent properties non-existent or only weakly existent in the individual building blocks. Constructing 1D chains, 2D arrays and 3D superlattices using nanoparticles and colloids therefore continues to be one of the grand goals in colloid and nanomaterial science. Amongst these higher order structures, 1D colloidal chains are of particular interest, as they possess unique anisotropic properties. In recent years, the most relevant advances in 1D colloidal chain research have been made in novel synthetic methodologies and applications. In this review, we first address a comprehensive description of the research progress concerning various synthetic strategies developed to construct 1D colloidal chains. Following this, we highlight the amplified and emergent properties of the resulting materials, originating from the assembly of the individual building blocks and their collective behavior, and discuss relevant applications in advanced materials. In the discussion of synthetic strategies, properties, and applications, particular attention will be paid to overarching concepts, fresh trends, and potential areas of future research. We believe that this comprehensive review will be a driver to guide the interdisciplinary field of 1D colloidal chains, where nanomaterial synthesis, self-assembly, physical property studies, and material applications meet, to a higher level, and open up new research opportunities at the interface of classical disciplines.

Collective Behaviors of Magnetic Active Matter: Recent Progress toward Reconfigurable, Adaptive, and Multifunctional Swarming Micro/Nanorobots

Active matter refers to the nonequilibrium system composed of interacting units that continually dissipate energy at a single-unit level and transduce it into mechanical force or motion. Such systems are ubiquitous in nature and span most of the biological scales, ranging from cytoskeleton protein polymers at the molecular level to bacterial colonies at the cellular level to swarms of insects, flocks of birds, schools of fish, and even crowds of humans on the organismal scale. The consumption of energy within systems tends to induce the self-organization of active matter as well as the spontaneous emergence of dynamic, complex, and collective states with extraordinary properties, such as adaptability, reconfigurability, taxis, and so on. The research into active matter is expected to deepen the understanding of the underlying mechanisms of how the units in living systems interact with each other and regulate the flow of energy to improve the survival efficiency, which in turn can provide valuable insights into the engineering of artificial active systems with novel and practical collective functionalities.Because of the striking similarity in collective states, a colloidal system is an emerging approach to understanding the guiding principles of the coordinated activities in living systems. Thanks to the capabilities in batch fabrication, size control, and the modulation of interactions (e.g., dipole-dipole interactions, capillary forces, electrostatic interactions, and so on), various complex collective states have been reproduced and programmed in colloidal suspension through the elaborate design of compositions and unit-unit interactions. Among the developed colloidal systems, magnetic colloids energized by alternating magnetic fields demonstrate several unique advantages, including the high-degree-of-freedom and simple modulation of the magnetic field parameters as well as the excellent compatibility of the magnetic field with many application scenarios. Therefore, magnetic active matter not only constitutes a useful platform that leads to a discovery of fascinating emergent collective behaviors but also promises enormous potential in a variety of engineering fields.In this Account, we summarize and highlight the key efforts carried out by our group and others on the investigation of the collective behavior of magnetic active matter in the past 5 years. First, we elucidate the generation mechanisms of the emergent coordinated behaviors, which are classified according to the dominating interactions among agents, that is, the magnetic dipole-dipole interaction, hydrodynamic interaction, and weak interaction. Then we illustrate the construction of magnetic active matter with a higher level of collective effects and functionalities (e.g., reconfigurability, environmental adaptability, 3D swarming, cooperative multifunctionality, and so on) via the synergistic effects between magnetic fields and other fields. Next, potential applications of magnetic active matter are discussed, which mainly focus on the exploration in revolutionizing traditional biomedical fields. Finally, an outlook of future opportunities is presented to promote the development of magnetic active matter, which facilitates a better understanding of living counterparts and the further realization of practical applications.

Reconfigurable Disk-like Microswarm under a Sawtooth Magnetic Field

Swarming robotic systems, which stem from insect swarms in nature, exhibit a high level of environmental adaptability and enhanced tasking capabilities for targeted delivery and micromanipulation. Here, we present a strategy that reconfigures paramagnetic nanoparticles into microswarms energized by a sawtooth magnetic field. A rotary-stepping magnetic-chain mechanism is proposed to address the forming principle of disk-like swarms. Based on programming the sawtooth field, the microswarm can perform reversible transformations between a disk, an ellipse and a ribbon, as well as splitting and merging. In addition, the swarms can be steered in any direction with excellent maneuverability and a high level of pattern stability. Under accurate manipulation of a magnetic microswarm, multiple microparts with complicated shapes were successfully combined into a complete assembly. This reconfigurable swarming microrobot may shed light on the understanding of complex morphological transformations in living systems and provide future practical applications of microfabrication and micromanipulation.

Magnetic soft micromachines made of linked microactuator networks

Soft untethered micromachines with overall sizes less than 100 μm enable diverse programmed shape transformations and functions for future biomedical and organ-on-a-chip applications. However, fabrication of such machines has been hampered by the lack of control of microactuator's programmability. To address such challenge, we use two-photon polymerization to selectively link Janus microparticle-based magnetic microactuators by three-dimensional (3D) printing of soft or rigid polymer microstructures or links. Sequentially, we position each microactuator at a desired location by surface rolling and rotation to a desired position and orientation by applying magnetic field-based torques, and then 3D printing soft or rigid links to connect with other temporarily fixed microactuators. The linked 2D microactuator networks exhibit programmed 2D and 3D shape transformations, and untethered limbless and limbed micromachine prototypes exhibit various robotic gaits for surface locomotion. The fabrication strategy presented here can enable soft micromachine designs and applications at the cellular scales.

Static and Dynamic Self-Assembly of Pearl-Like-Chains of Magnetic Colloids Confined at Fluid Interfaces

Magnetic colloids adsorbed at a fluid interface are unique model systems to understand self-assembly in confined environments, both in equilibrium and out of equilibrium, with important potential applications. In this work the pearl-chain-like self-assembled structures of superparamagnetic colloids confined to a fluid-fluid interface under static and time-dependent actuations are investigated. On the one hand, it is found that the structures generated by static fields transform as the tilt angle of the field with the interface is increased, from 2D crystals to separated pearl-chains in a process that occurs through a controllable and reversible zip-like thermally activated mechanism. On the other hand, the actuation with precessing fields about the axis perpendicular to the interface induces dynamic self-assembled structures with no counterpart in non-confined systems, generated by the interplay of averaged magnetic interactions, interfacial forces, and hydrodynamics. Finally, how these dynamic structures can be used as remotely activated roller conveyors, able to transport passive colloidal cargos at fluid interfaces and generate parallel viscous flows is shown. The latter can be used in the mixture of adsorbed molecules and the acceleration of surface-chemical reactions, overcoming diffusion limitations.

Optothermally Assembled Nanostructures

Nanofabrication is one of the core techniques in rapidly evolving nanoscience and nanotechnology. Conventional top-down nanofabrication approaches such as photolithography and electron beam lithography can produce high-resolution nanostructures in a robust way. However, these methods usually involve multistep processing and sophisticated instruments and have difficulty in fabricating three-dimensional complex structures of multiple materials and reconfigurability. Recently, bottom-up techniques have emerged as promising alternatives to fabricating nanostructures via the assembly of individual building blocks. In comparison to top-down lithographical methods, bottom-up assembly features the on-demand construction of superstructures with controllable configurations at single-particle resolution. The size, shape, and composition of chemically synthesized building blocks can also be precisely tailored down to the atomic scale to fabricate multimaterial architectural structures of high flexibility. Many techniques have been reported to assemble individual nanoparticles into complex structures, such as self-assembly, DNA nanotechnology, patchy colloids, and optically controlled assembly. Among them, the optically controlled assembly has the advantages of remote control, site-specific manipulation of single components, applicability to a wide range of building blocks, and arbitrary configurations of the assembled structures. In this Account, we provide a concise review of our contributions to the optical assembly of architectural materials and structures using discrete nanoparticles as the building blocks. By exploiting entropically favorable optothermal conversion and controlling optothermal-matter interactions, we have developed optothermal assembly techniques to manipulate and assemble individual nanoparticles. Our techniques can be operated both in solution and on solid substrates. First, we discuss the opto-thermoelectric assembly (OTA) of colloidal particles into superstructures by coordinating thermophoresis and interparticle depletion bonding in the solution. Localized laser heating generates a temperature gradient field, where the thermal migration of ions creates a thermoelectric field to trap charged particles. The depletion of ion species at the gap between closely positioned particles under optical heating provides strong interparticle bonding to stabilize colloidal superstructures with precisely controlled configurations and interparticle distances. Second, we discuss bubble-pen lithography (BPL) for the rapid printing of nanoparticles using an optothermal microbubble. The long-range convection flow induced by the optothermal bubble drags the colloidal particles to the substrate with a high velocity. BPL represents a general method for printing all kinds of building blocks into desired patterns in a high-resolution and high-throughput way. Third, we present the optothermally-gated photon nudging (OPN) technique, which manipulates and assembles particles on a solid substrate. Our solid-phase optical control of particles synergizes the modulation of particle-substrate interactions by optothermal effects and photon nudging of the particles by optical scattering forces. Operated on the solid surfaces without liquid media, OPN can avoid the undesired Brownian motion of nanoparticles in solutions to manipulate individual particles with high accuracy. In addition, the assembled structures can be actively reassembled into new configurations for the fabrication of tunable functional devices. Next, we discuss applications of the optothermally assembled nanostructures in surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, color displays, biomolecule sensing, and fundamental research. Finally, we conclude this Account with our perspectives on the challenges, opportunities, and future directions in the development and application of optothermal assembly.

Hierarchical assemblies of superparamagnetic colloids in time-varying magnetic fields

Magnetically-guided colloidal assembly has proven to be a versatile method for building hierarchical particle assemblies. This review describes the dipolar interactions that govern superparamagnetic colloids in time-varying magnetic fields, and how such interactions have guided colloidal assembly into materials with increasing complexity that display novel dynamics. The assembly process is driven by magnetic dipole-dipole interactions, whose strength can be tuned to be attractive or repulsive. Generally, these interactions are directional in static external magnetic fields. More recently, time-varying magnetic fields have been utilized to generate dipolar interactions that vary in both time and space, allowing particle interactions to be tuned from anisotropic to isotropic. These interactions guide the dynamics of hierarchical assemblies of 1-D chains, 2-D networks, and 2-D clusters in both static and time-varying fields. Specifically, unlinked and chemically-linked colloidal chains exhibit complex dynamics, such as fragmentation, buckling, coiling, and wagging phenomena. 2-D networks exhibit controlled porosity and interesting coarsening dynamics. Finally, 2-D clusters have shown to be an ideal model system for exploring phenomena related to statistical thermodynamics. This review provides recent advances in this fast-growing field with a focus on its scientific potential.

Ellipsoidal magnetite nanoparticles: a new member of the magnetic-vortex nanoparticles family for efficient magnetic hyperthermia

The development of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles with novel topological magnetic domain structures, such as the vortex-domain structure, is a promising strategy for improving the application performance of conventional superparamagnetic iron oxides while maintaining their good biocompatibility. Here, we fabricated a new kind of magnetic-vortex nanoparticles, i.e., ellipsoidal magnetite nanoparticles (EMPs), for cancer magnetic hyperthermia. The magnetization configurations and switching behaviours of the EMPs were analyzed by analytical simulations and Lorentz TEM, demonstrating the magnetic vortex structures of both single and coupled EMPs. The EMP treatment of 4T1 cells exposed to an alternating magnetic field (AMF) induced a significant decrease in the cell viability by ∼51.5%, which indicated a much higher cytotoxic effect in comparison with commercial superparamagnetic iron oxides (Resovist, ∼12.0%). In addition, the in vivo high efficacy of 4T1 breast tumor inhibition was also achieved by using EMP-mediated magnetic hyperthermia. Our results not only provide a new type of magnetic-vortex nanoparticles for efficient hyperthermia but also enrich the family of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for various biomedical applications.

Magnetic propulsion of colloidal microrollers controlled by electrically modulated friction

Precise control over the motion of magnetically responsive particles in fluidic chambers is important for probing and manipulating tasks in prospective microrobotic and bio-analytical platforms. We have previously exploited such colloids as shuttles for the microscale manipulation of objects. Here, we study the rolling motion of magnetically driven Janus colloids on solid substrates under the influence of an orthogonal external electric field. Electrically induced attractive interactions were used to tune the load on the Janus colloid and thereby the friction with the underlying substrate, leading to control over the forward velocity of the particle. Our experimental data suggest that the frictional coupling required to achieve translation, transitions from a hydrodynamic regime to one of mixed contact coupling with increasing load force. Based on this insight, we show that our colloidal microrobots can probe the local friction coefficient of various solid surfaces, which makes them potentially useful as tribological microsensors. Lastly, we precisely manipulate porous cargos using our colloidal rollers, a feat that holds promise for bio-analytical applications.

Dynamics of a Pair of Paramagnetic Janus Particles under a Uniform Magnetic Field and Simple Shear Flow

We numerically investigate the dynamics of a pair of circular Janus microparticles immersed in a Newtonian fluid under a simple shear flow and a uniform magnetic field by direct numerical simulation. Using the COMSOL software, we applied the finite element method, based on an arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian approach, and analyzed the dynamics of two anisotropic particles (i.e., one-half is paramagnetic, and the other is non-magnetic) due to the center-to-center distance, magnetic field strength, initial particle orientation, and configuration. This article considers two configurations: the LR-configuration (magnetic material is on the left side of the first particle and on the right side of the second particle) and the RL-configuration (magnetic material is on the right side of the first particle and on the left side of the second particle). For both configurations, a critical orientation determines if the particles either attract (below the critical) or repel (above the critical) under a uniform magnetic field. How well the particles form a chain depends on the comparison between the viscous and magnetic forces. For long particle distances, the viscous force separates the particles, and the magnetic force causes them to repel as the particle orientation increases above the configuration’s critical value. As the initial distance decreases, a chain formation is possible at a steady orientation, but is more feasible for the RL-configuration than the LR-configuration under the same circumstances.

Reconfigurable magnetic microrobot swarm: Multimode transformation, locomotion, and manipulation

Swimming microrobots that are energized by external magnetic fields exhibit a variety of intriguing collective behaviors, ranging from dynamic self-organization to coherent motion; however, achieving multiple, desired collective modes within one colloidal system to emulate high environmental adaptability and enhanced tasking capabilities of natural swarms is challenging. Here, we present a strategy that uses alternating magnetic fields to program hematite colloidal particles into liquid, chain, vortex, and ribbon-like microrobotic swarms and enables fast and reversible transformations between them. The chain is characterized by passing through confined narrow channels, and the herring school-like ribbon procession is capable of large-area synchronized manipulation, whereas the colony-like vortex can aggregate at a high density toward coordinated handling of heavy loads. Using the developed discrete particle simulation methods, we investigated generation mechanisms of these four swarms, as well as the "tank-treading" motion of the chain and vortex merging. In addition, the swarms can be programmed to steer in any direction with excellent maneuverability, and the vortex's chirality can be rapidly switched with high pattern stability. This reconfigurable microrobot swarm can provide versatile collective modes to address environmental variations or multitasking requirements; it has potential to investigate fundamentals in living systems and to serve as a functional bio-microrobot system for biomedicine.

Apparent phototaxis enabled by Brownian motion

Biomimetic behaviour in artificially created active matter that allows deterministic and controlled motility has become of growing interest in recent years. It is well known that phototrophic bacteria optimize their position with respect to light by phototaxis. Here, we describe how our fully artificial, magnetic and photocatalytic microswimmers undergo a specific type of behaviour that strongly resembles phototaxis: when crossing an illuminated stripe the particles repeatedly turn back towards the light once they reach the dark region, without any obvious reason for the particles to do so. In order to understand the origin of this behaviour we analyze different influences and elucidate through experiments and theoretical considerations that this behavior arises from a combination of orientational stabilization through activity and destabilizing Brownian motion. This interplay shows beautifully how simple physical effects can combine into complex behaviours.

Field-induced anti-nematic and biaxial ordering in binary mixtures of discotic mesogens and spherical magnetic nanoparticles

Using computer simulations we explore the equilibrium structure and response to external stimuli of complex magnetic hybrids consisting of magnetic particles in discotic liquid crystalline matrices. We show that the anisotropy of the liquid crystalline matrix (either in the nematic or in the columnar phase) promotes the collective orientational ordering of self-assembled magnetic particles. Upon applying an external homogeneous magnetic field in an otherwise isotropic state, the magnetic particles self-assemble into linear-rodlike-chains. At the same time structural changes occur in the matrix. The matrix transforms from an isotropic to a non-conventional anti-nematic state in which the symmetry axis of the discs is, on average, perpendicular to the magnetic field. In addition, a stable biaxial nematic state is found upon applying an external field to an otherwise uniaxial discotic nematic state. These observed morphologies constitute an appealing alternative to binary mixtures of rigid rod-disc system and indicate that non-trivial biaxial ordering can be obtained in the presence of a uniaxial external stimulus.

Simulations of structure formation by confined dipolar active particles

Dipolar active particles describe a class of self-propelled, biological or artificial particles equipped with an internal (typically magnetic) dipole moment. Because of the interplay between self-propulsion and dipole-dipole interactions, complex collective behavior is expected to emerge in systems of such particles. Here, we use Brownian dynamics simulations to explore this collective behavior. We focus on the structures that form in small systems in spatial confinement. We quantify the type of structures that emerge and how they depend on the self-propulsion speed and the dipolar (magnetic) strength of the particles. We observe that the dipolar active particles self-assemble into chains and rings. The dominant configuration is quantified with an order parameter for chain and ring formation and shown to depend on the self-propulsion speed and the dipolar magnetic strength of the particles. In addition, we show that the structural configurations are also affected by the confining walls. To that end, we compare different confining geometries and study the impact of a reorienting 'wall torque' upon collisions of a particle with a wall. Our results indicate that dipolar interactions can further enhance the already rich variety of collective behaviors of active particles.

Janus microdimer swimming in an oscillating magnetic field

Artificial microswimmers powered by magnetic fields have numerous applications, such as drug delivery, biosensing for minimally invasive medicine and environmental remediation. Recently, a Janus microdimer surface walker that can be propelled by an oscillating magnetic field near a surface was reported by Li et al. (Adv. Funct. Mater. 28, 1706066. (doi:10.1002/adfm.201706066)). To clarify the mechanism for the surface walker, we numerically studied in detail a Janus microdimer swimming near a wall actuated by an oscillating magnetic field. The results showed that a Janus microdimer in an oscillating magnetic field can produce magnetic torque in the y-direction, which eventually propels the Janus microdimer along the x-direction near a wall. Furthermore, we found that the Janus microdimer can also move along a special direction in an oscillating magnetic field with two orientations without a wall. The knowledge obtained in this study is fundamental for understanding the interactions between a Janus microdimer and surfaces in an oscillating magnetic field and is useful for controlling Janus microdimer motion with or without a wall.

Static and dynamic behavior of magnetic particles at fluid interfaces

This perspective work reviews the current status of research on magnetic particles at fluid interfaces. The article gives both a unified overview of recent experimental advances and theoretical studies centered on very different phenomena that share a common characteristic: they involve adsorbed magnetic particles that range in size from a few nanometers to several millimeters. Because of their capability of being remotely piloted through controllable external fields, magnetic particles have proven essential as building blocks in the design of new techniques, smart materials and micromachines, with new tunable properties and prospective applications in engineering and biotechnology. Once adsorbed at a fluid-fluid interfase, in a process that can be facilitated via the application of magnetic field gradients, these particles often result sorely confined to two dimensions (2D). In this configuration, inter-particle forces directed along the perpendicular to the interface are typically very small compared to the surface forces. Hence, the confinement and symmetry breaking introduced by the presence of the surface play an important role on the response of the system to the application of an external field. In monolayers of particles where the magnetic is predominant interaction, the states reached are strongly determined by the mode and orientation of the applied field, which promote different patterns and processes. Furthermore, they can reproduce some of the dynamic assemblies displayed in bulk or form new ones, that take advantage of the interfacial phenomena or of the symmetry breaking introduce by the confining boundary. Magnetic colloids are also widely used for unraveling the guiding principles of 2D dynamic self-assembly, in designs devised for producing interface transport, as tiny probes for assessing interfacial rheological properties, neglecting the bulk and inertia contributions, as well as actuated stabilizing agents in foams and emulsions.

Shape- and Material-Dependent Self-Propulsion of Photocatalytic Active Colloids, Interfacial Effects, and Dynamic Interparticle Interactions

Active colloids powered by self-generated, local chemical concentration gradients exhibit dynamics that are a function of the particles' morphology and material properties. These characteristics also govern how the active colloids interact with surfaces, including other particles and nearby walls. Thus, by targeted design, the dynamic behavior, on average, can be engineered, despite a lack of "external" control such as an applied magnetic field. This allows for the development of new applications and the investigation of novel effects that arise when self-propelled active colloids have complex shapes and material composition. Here, we explore some of our recent work on this topic including the dynamics and interactions of photoactivated, self-propelled colloids with such multifaceted properties. We also delve into some special cases, such as a new variety of active particle-particle interaction that we recently developed, in which direct contact between the active colloids is forbidden, and the direction of propulsion for pairs of particles is correlated. The unifying theme of the work highlighted herein is the relationship between the physical, chemical, and material properties of active colloids and their motive behavior, the understanding of which opens up a wide range of new possibilities as we move toward the ultimate goal of realizing functional, man-made micro- and nanomachinery.

Self-assembly of magnetic colloids with radially shifted dipoles

Anisotropic potentials in Janus colloids provide additional freedom to control particle aggregation into structures of different sizes and morphologies. In this work, we perform Brownian dynamics simulations of a dilute suspension of magnetic spherical Janus colloids with their magnetic dipole moments shifted radially towards the surface of the particle in order to gain valuable microstructural insight. Properties such as the mean cluster size, orientational ordering, and nucleation and growth are examined dynamically. Differences in the structure of clusters and in the aggregation process are observed depending on the dipolar shift (s)-the ratio between the displacement of the dipole and the particle radius-and the dipolar coupling constant (λ)-the ratio between the magnetic dipole-dipole and Brownian forces. Using these two dimensionless quantities, a structural "phase" diagram is constructed. Each phase corresponds to unique nucleation and growth behavior and orientational ordering of dipoles inside clusters. At small λ, the particles aggregate and disaggregate resulting in short-lived clusters at small s, while at high s the particles aggregate in permanent triplets (long-lived clusters). At high λ, the critical nuclei formed during the nucleation process are triplets and quadruplets with unique orientational ordering. These small clusters then serve as building blocks to form larger structures, such as single-chain, loop-like, island-like, worm-like, and antiparallel-double-chain clusters. This study shows that dipolar shifts in colloids can serve as a control parameter in applications where unique size, morphology, and aggregation kinetics of clusters are required.

Robust boundary flow in chiral active fluid

We perform experiments on an active chiral fluid system of self-spinning rotors in a confining boundary. Along the boundary, actively rotating rotors collectively drive a unidirectional material flow. We systematically vary rotor density and boundary shape; boundary flow robustly emerges under all conditions. Flow strength initially increases then decreases with rotor density (quantified by area fraction ϕ); peak strength appears around a density ϕ=0.65. Boundary curvature plays an important role: flow near a concave boundary is stronger than that near a flat or convex boundary in the same confinements. Our experimental results in all cases can be reproduced by a continuum theory with single free fitting parameter, which describes the frictional property of the boundary. Our results support the idea that boundary flow in active chiral fluid is topologically protected; such robust flow can be used to develop materials with novel functions.

Reconfigurable assembly of charged polymer-modified Janus and non-Janus particles: from half-raspberries to colloidal clusters and chains

Understanding the dynamic and reversible assembly of colloids and particles into complex constructs, inspired by natural phenomena, is of fundamental significance for the fabrication of multi-scale responsive and reconfigurable materials. In this work, we investigate the pH-triggered and reconfigurable assembly of structures composed of binary mixtures of oppositely charged polyacrylic acid (PAA)-modified non-Janus and poly(2-dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (PDMAEMA)/poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM)-modified Janus particles driven by electrostatic interactions. Three different target structures are visible both in dispersions and in dry state: half-raspberry structures, colloidal clusters and colloidal chains depending on the mass, numerical and particle size ratio. All formed structures are well-defined and stable in a certain pH range. Half-raspberry-like structures are obtained at pH 6 and numerical ratios N JP/PAA-HP of 1 : 500 (for 200-PAA-HP), 1 : 44 (for 450-PAA-HP) and 1 : 15 (for 650-PAA-HP), respectively, due to electrostatic interactions between the central JP and the excessive PAA-HP. Colloidal chains and cluster-like structures are generated at numerical ratios N JP/PAA-HP of 4 : 5 (for 200-PAA-HP), 4 : 3 (for 450-PAA-HP), and 4 : 1 (for 650-PAA-HP). Moreover, the smaller the size of a "connecting" PAA colloid, the larger is the average length of a colloidal chain. Depending on the particle size ratio S JP/PAA-HP, some of the observed structures can be disassembled on demand by changing the pH value either close to the IEP of the PDMAEMA (for half-raspberries) or PAA (for colloidal clusters and chains) and then reassembled into new stable structures many times. The obtained results open a pathway to pH-controlled reconfigurable assembly of a binary mixture composed of polymeric-modified non-Janus and Janus particles, which allow the reuse of particle building blocks.

Active Patchy Colloids with Shape-Tunable Dynamics

Controlling the complex dynamics of active colloids-the autonomous locomotion of colloidal particles and their spontaneous assembly-is challenging yet crucial for creating functional, out-of-equilibrium colloidal systems potentially useful for nano- and micromachines. Herein, by introducing the synthesis of active "patchy" colloids of various low-symmetry shapes, we demonstrate that the dynamics of such systems can be precisely tuned. The low-symmetry patchy colloids are made in bulk via a cluster-encapsulation-dewetting method. They carry essential information encoded in their shapes (particle geometry, number, size, and configurations of surface patches, etc.) that programs their locomotive and assembling behaviors. Under AC electric field, we show that the velocity of particle propulsion and the ability to brake and steer can be modulated by having two asymmetrical patches with various bending angles. The assembly of monopatch particles leads to the formation of dynamic and reconfigurable structures such as spinners and "cooperative swimmers" depending on the particle's aspect ratios. A particle with two patches of different sizes allows for "directional bonding", a concept popular in static assemblies but rare in dynamic ones. With the capability to make tunable and complex shapes, we anticipate the discovery of a diverse range of new dynamics and structures when other external stimuli (e.g., magnetic, optical, chemical, etc.) are employed and spark synergy with shapes.

Hybrid Janus Particles: Challenges and Opportunities for the Design of Active Functional Interfaces and Surfaces

Janus particles are a unique class of multifunctional patchy particles combining two dissimilar chemical or physical functionalities at their opposite sides. The asymmetry characteristic for Janus particles allows them to self-assemble into sophisticated structures and materials not attainable by their homogeneous counterparts. Significant breakthroughs have recently been made in the synthesis of Janus particles and the understanding of their assembly. Nevertheless, the advancement of their applications is still a challenging field. In this Review, we highlight recent developments in the use of Janus particles as building blocks for functional materials. We provide a brief introduction into the synthetic strategies for the fabrication of JPs and their properties and assembly, outlining the existing challenges. The focus of this Review is placed on the applications of Janus particles for active interfaces and surfaces. Active functional interfaces are created owing to the stabilization efficiency of Janus particles combined with their capability for interface structuring and functionalizing. Moreover, Janus particles can be employed as building blocks to fabricate active functional surfaces with controlled chemical and topographical heterogeneity. Ultimately, we will provide implications for the rational design of multifunctional materials based on Janus particles.

Bi-continuous emulsion using Janus particles

Bi-continuous emulsion stabilized with amphiphilic Janus particles was achieved.

A versatile colloidal Janus platform: surface asymmetry control, functionalization, and applications

We show a facile synthetic route towards colloidal SiO2-based Janus particles with tunable asymmetries and functionalities based on the integrated use of silane mixtures, Pickering emulsions, and polydopamine chemistry. We demonstrate the generic nature of the concept and application potential by presenting several functionalities.

Magnetic Biohybrid Vesicles Transported by an Internal Propulsion Mechanism

Some biological microorganisms can crawl or swim due to coordinated motions of their cytoskeleton or the flagella located inside their bodies, which push the cells forward through intracellular forces. To date, there is no demonstration of synthetic systems propelling at low Reynolds number via the precise actuation of the material confined within an enclosing lipid membrane. Here, we report lipid vesicles and other more complex self-assembled biohybrid structures able to propel due to the advection flows generated by the actuated rotation of the superparamagnetic particles they contain. The proposed swimming and release strategies, based on cooperative hydrodynamic mechanisms and near-infrared laser pulse-triggered destabilization of the phospholipid membranes, open new possibilities for the on-command transport of minute quantities of drugs, fluid or nano-objects. The lipid membranes protect the confined substances from the outside environment during transportation, thus enabling them to work in physiological conditions.

Engineering Contactless Particle-Particle Interactions in Active Microswimmers

Artificial self-propelled colloidal particles have recently served as effective building blocks for investigating many dynamic behaviors exhibited by nonequilibrium systems. However, most studies have relied upon excluded volume interactions between the active particles. Experimental systems in which the mobile entities interact over long distances in a well-defined and controllable manner are valuable so that new modes of multiparticle dynamics can be studied systematically in the laboratory. Here, a system of self-propelled microscale Janus particles is engineered to have contactless particle-particle interactions that lead to long-range attraction, short-range repulsion, and mutual alignment between adjacent swimmers. The unique modes of motion that arise can be tuned by modulating the system's parameters.

Opto-thermophoretic assembly of colloidal matter

Colloidal matter exhibits unique collective behaviors beyond what occurs at single-nanoparticle and atomic scales. Treating colloidal particles as building blocks, researchers are exploiting new strategies to rationally organize colloidal particles into complex structures for new functions and devices. Despite tremendous progress in directed assembly and self-assembly, a truly versatile assembly technique without specific functionalization of the colloidal particles remains elusive. We develop a new strategy to assemble colloidal matter under a light-controlled temperature field, which can solve challenges in the existing assembly techniques. By adding an anionic surfactant (that is, cetyltrimethylammonium chloride), which serves as a surface charge source, a macro ion, and a micellar depletant, we generate a light-controlled thermoelectric field to manipulate colloidal atoms and a depletion attraction force to assemble the colloidal atoms into two-dimensional (2D) colloidal matter. The general applicability of this opto-thermophoretic assembly (OTA) strategy allows us to build colloidal matter of diverse colloidal sizes (from subwavelength scale to micrometer scale) and materials (polymeric, dielectric, and metallic colloids) with versatile configurations and tunable bonding strengths and lengths. We further demonstrate that the incorporation of the thermoelectric field into the optical radiation force can achieve 3D reconfiguration of the colloidal matter. The OTA strategy releases the rigorous design rules required in the existing assembly techniques and enriches the structural complexity in colloidal matter, which will open a new window of opportunities for basic research on matter organization, advanced material design, and applications.

Directed Assembly of Janus Cylinders by Controlling the Solvent Polarity

This study demonstrates the possibility of controlling the directed self-assembly of microsized Janus cylinders by changing the solvent polarity of the assembly media. Experimental results are analyzed and theoretical calculations of the free energy of adhesion (ΔG^ad) are performed to elucidate the underlying basic principles and investigate the effects of the solvent on the self-assembled structures. This approach will pave a predictive route for controlling the structures of assembly depending on the solvent polarity. In particular, we find that a binary solvent system with precisely controlled polarity induces directional assembly of the microsized Janus cylinders. Thus, the formation of two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) assembled clusters can be reliably tuned by controlling the numbers of constituent Janus cylinders in a binary solvent system. Finally, this approach is expanded to stepwise assembly, which forms unique microstructures via secondary growth of primary seed clusters formed by the Janus cylinders. We envision that this investigation is highly promising for the construction of desired superstructures using a wide variety of polymeric Janus microparticles with chemical and physical multicompartments.

Spontaneous assembly of a hybrid crystal-liquid phase in inverse patchy colloid systems

Materials with well-defined architectures are heavily sought after in view of their diverse technological applications. Among the desired target architectures, lamellar phases stand out for their exceptional mechanical and optical features. Here we show that charged colloids, decorated on their poles with two oppositely charged regions possess the unusual ability to spontaneously assemble in different morphologies of (semi-)ordered, layered particle arrangements which maintain their structural stability over a surprisingly large temperature range. This remarkable capacity is related to a characteristic bonding mechanism: stable intra-layer bonds guarantee the formation of planar aggregates, while strong inter-layer bonds favor the stacking of the emerging planar assemblies. These two types of bonds together are responsible for the self-healing processes occurring during the spontaneous assembly. The resulting phases are characterized by parallel, densely packed, particle layers connected by a relatively small number of intra-layer particles. We investigate the properties of the (semi-)ordered phases in terms of static and dynamic correlation functions, focusing in particular on a novel hybrid crystal-liquid phase that prevails at intermediate temperatures where the inter-layer particles form a mobile, fluid phase.

Janus nanoparticles inside polymeric materials: interfacial arrangement toward functional hybrid materials

Recent advances and successes in interfacial behavior of Janus NPs at interfaces are summarized, with the hope to motivate additional efforts in the studies of Janus NPs in polymer matrix for the design of functional hybrid nanostructures and devices with engineered, desired and tailored properties for real-life applications.

Self-assembly of colloidal molecules that respond to light and a magnetic field

Janus particles with polymer caps self-assemble into dual responsive particle chains that can be manipulated with light and a magnetic field.

Shape Memory Actuation of Janus Nanoparticles with Amphipathic Cross-Linked Network

Preparation of nanoscale Janus particles that can respond to external stimulation and, at the same time, be prepared using an easily achievable method presents a significant challenge. Here, we have demonstrated the shape memory of Janus nanoparticles (SMJNPs) with a multifunctional combination of Janus nanostructure and a shape memory effect, composed of a well-defined amphipathic sucrose-poly(ε-caprolactone) cross-linked network. A sudden negative pressure method was first used to prepare the Janus-shaped nanoparticles (temporary shape), which can switch their shape and wettability. The Janus-shaped nanoparticle is an amphipathic structure composed of hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. Moreover, in response to temperature, the nanoparticle can recover their nanosphere state via a shape memory process. The novel Janus nanoparticles with the shape memory property also show a great potential for application such as drug delivery.

Supracolloidal reconfigurable polyhedra via hierarchical self-assembly

Enclosed three-dimensional structures with hollow interiors have been attractive targets for the self-assembly of building blocks across different length scales. Colloidal self-assembly, in particular, has enormous potential as a bottom-up means of structure fabrication exploiting a priori designed building blocks because of the scope for tuning interparticle interactions. Here we use computer simulation study to demonstrate the self-assembly of designer charge-stabilised colloidal magnetic particles into a series of supracolloidal polyhedra, each displaying a remarkable two-level structural hierarchy. The parameter space for design supports thermodynamically stable polyhedra of very different morphologies, namely tubular and hollow spheroidal structures, involving the formation of subunits of four-fold and three-fold rotational symmetry, respectively. The spheroidal polyhedra are chiral, despite having a high degree of rotational symmetry. The dominant pathways for self-assembly into these polyhedra reveal two distinct mechanisms - a growth mechanism via sequential attachment of the subunits for a tubular structure and a staged or hierarchical pathway for a spheroidal polyhedron. These supracolloidal architectures open up in response to an external magnetic field. Our results suggest design rules for synthetic reconfigurable containers at the microscale exploiting a hierarchical self-assembly scheme.

Rotational friction of dipolar colloids measured by driven torsional oscillations

Despite its prominent role in the dynamics of soft materials, rotational friction remains a quantity that is difficult to determine for many micron-sized objects. Here, we demonstrate how the Stokes coefficient of rotational friction can be obtained from the driven torsional oscillations of single particles in a highly viscous environment. The idea is that the oscillation amplitude of a dipolar particle under combined static and oscillating fields provides a measure for the Stokes friction. From numerical studies we derive a semi-empirical analytic expression for the amplitude of the oscillation, which cannot be calculated analytically from the equation of motion. We additionally demonstrate that this expression can be used to experimentally determine the rotational friction coefficient of single particles. Here, we record the amplitudes of a field-driven dipolar Janus microsphere with optical microscopy. The presented method distinguishes itself in its experimental and conceptual simplicity. The magnetic torque leaves the local environment unchanged, which contrasts with other approaches where, for example, additional mechanical (frictional) or thermal contributions have to be regarded.

Non-equilibrium dynamics of magnetically anisotropic particles under oscillating fields

In this article, we demonstrate how magnetic anisotropy of colloidal particles can give rise to unusual dynamics and controllable rearrangements under time-dependent fields. As an example, we study spherical particles with a radially off-centered net magnetic moment in an oscillating field. Based on complementary data from a numerical simulation of spheres with shifted dipole and experimental observations from particles with hemispherical ferromagnetic coating, it is explained on a two particle basis how this magnetic anisotropy causes nontrivial rotational motion and magnetic reorientation. We further present the behavior of larger ensembles of coated particles. It illustrates the potential for controlled reconfiguration based on the presented two-particle dynamics.

Remote Control of T Cell Activation Using Magnetic Janus Particles

We report a strategy for using magnetic Janus microparticles to control the stimulation of T cell signaling with single-cell precision. To achieve this, we designed Janus particles that are magnetically responsive on one hemisphere and stimulatory to T cells on the other side. By manipulating the rotation and locomotion of Janus particles under an external magnetic field, we could control the orientation of the particle-cell recognition and thereby the initiation of T cell activation. This study demonstrates a step towards employing anisotropic material properties of Janus particles to control single-cell activities without the need of complex magnetic manipulation devices.