Culture and characterization of dental follicle cells from rat molars

The Role of Autophagy on Osteogenesis of Dental Follicle Cells Under Inflammatory Microenvironment

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the role of autophagy on osteogenesis of DFCs under inflammatory microenvironment during tooth eruption.

METHODS

DFCs were isolated and identified. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used to construct the inflammatory microenvironment in vitro and in vivo. Cell viability was examined by CCK-8 assay. Osteogenic differentiation was evaluated by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining, alizarin red S (ARS) staining. The gene and protein levels were examined using qRT-PCR and western blot analysis, respectively. We observed the process of tooth eruption after local LPS injection by micro-CT and HE staining. Osteogenesis and autophagy were monitored through qRT-PCR, western blot and histological staining of specific markers.

RESULTS

LPS at the indicated concentrations did not produce toxic effects on DFCs, and significantly promoted the inflammatory gene expression. LPS inhibited osteogenic differentiation and activated autophagy in DFCs. Blocking autophagy with 3-MA reversed the expression of osteogenic markers in LPS-treated DFCs. Additionally, the eruption of LPS-treated teeth was accelerated and their DFs exhibited an increased expression of TNF-α and Beclin1, and decreased expression of ALP and RUNX2.

CONCLUSIONS

Autophagy was involved in the suppression of the DFCs osteogenesis in an LPS-induced inflammatory condition, suggesting the pivotal role of autophagy in inflammation-induced premature tooth eruption.

Different grinding speeds affect induced regeneration capacity of human treated dentin matrix

Human-treated dentin matrix (hTDM) is a biomaterial scaffold, which can induce implant cells to differentiate into odontoblasts and then form neo-dentin. However, hTDM with long storage or prepared by high-speed handpiece would not to form neo-dentin. In this research, we developed two fresh hTDM with different grinding speeds, which were low-speed hTDM (LTDM) with maximum speed of 500 rpm and high-speed hTDM (HTDM) with a speed of 3,80,000 rpm. Here, we aim to understand whether there were induced regeneration capacity differences between LTDM and HTDM. Scanning electron microscope showed that DFCs grew well on both materials, but the morphology of DFCs and the extracellular matrix was different. Especially, the secreted extracellular matrixes on the inner surface of LTDM were regular morphology and ordered arrangement around the dentin tubules. The transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), western blot and immunofluorescence assay showed that the dentin markers DSPP and DMP-1 were about 2× greater in DFCs induced by LTDM than by HTDM, and osteogenic marker BSP was about 2× greater in DFCs induced by HTDM than by LTDM. Histological examinations of the harvested grafts observed the formation of neo-tissue were different, and there were neo-dentin formed on the inner surface of LTDM and neo-cementum formed on the outer surface of HTDM. In summary, it found that the induction abilities of LTDM and HTDM are different, and the dentin matrix is directional. This study lays a necessary foundation for searching the key factors of dentin regeneration in future.

Function of Dental Follicle Progenitor/Stem Cells and Their Potential in Regenerative Medicine: From Mechanisms to Applications

Dental follicle progenitor/stem cells (DFPCs) are a group of dental mesenchyme stem cells that lie in the dental follicle and play a critical role in tooth development and maintaining function. Originating from neural crest, DFPCs harbor a multipotential differentiation capacity. More importantly, they have superiorities, including the easy accessibility and abundant sources, active self-renewal ability and noncontroversial sources compared with other stem cells, making them an attractive candidate in the field of tissue engineering. Recent advances highlight the excellent properties of DFPCs in regeneration of orofacial tissues, including alveolar bone repair, periodontium regeneration and bio-root complex formation. Furthermore, they play a unique role in maintaining a favorable microenvironment for stem cells, immunomodulation and nervous related tissue regeneration. This review is intended to summarize the current knowledge of DFPCs, including their stem cell properties, physiological functions and clinical application potential. A deep understanding of DFPCs can thus inspire novel perspectives in regenerative medicine in the future.

Rodent incisor and molar dental follicles show distinct characteristics in tooth eruption

OBJECTIVE

Rodent incisors and molars show different eruption patterns. Dental follicles and their interaction with dental epithelia play key roles in tooth eruption. However, little is known about the differences between incisor dental follicle (IF) and molar dental follicle (MF) during tooth eruption of rodents. This study aimed to investigate the differences between IF and MF during tooth eruption under induction with cervical-loop cells (CLC) and Hertwig's epithelial root sheath (HERS) cells of rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

CLC, HERS, IF, MF cells were isolated from 10 postnatal day 7 rats and identified by immunofluorescence staining. CLC or HERS cells-derived conditioned medium (CM) was obtained to induce IF and MF cells. Cell proliferation, mineralization, gene and protein expression related to tooth eruption were detected, and histological analysis was also performed.

RESULTS

The osteogenic differentiation and mineralization abilities of IF cells were stronger than those of MF cells. Both CLC and HERS cells-derived CM enhanced these abilities of IF cells, whereas they showed the opposite effect on MF cells. At 7, 10, and 15 d after birth, IF cells expressed more OPG and less RANKL than MF cells.

CONCLUSIONS

IF and MF cells present distinct characteristics in tooth eruption, CLC and HERS cells have significant inductive effects on them.

Effects of rhBMP-2 on Bone Formation Capacity of Rat Dental Stem/Progenitor Cells from Dental Follicle and Alveolar Bone Marrow

Dental stem/progenitor cells are a promising cell sources for alveolar bone (AB) regeneration because of their same embryonic origin and superior osteogenic potential. However, their molecular processes during osteogenic differentiation remain unclear. The objective of this study was to identify the responsiveness of dental follicle cells (DFCs) and AB marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ABM-MSCs) to recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2). These cells expressed vimentin and MSC markers and did not express cytokeratin and hematopoietic stem cell markers and showed multilineage differentiation potential under specific culture conditions. DFCs exhibited higher proliferation and colony-forming unit-fibroblast efficiency than ABM-MSCs; rhBMP-2 induced DFCs to differentiate toward a cementoblast/osteoblast phenotype and ABM-MSCs to differentiate only toward a osteoblast phenotype; and rhBMP-2-induced DFCs exhibited higher osteogenic differentiation potential than ABM-MSCs. These cells adhered, grew, and produced extracellular matrix on nanohydroxyapatite/collagen/poly(l-lactide) (nHAC/PLA). During a 14-day culture on nHAC/PLA, the extracellular alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity of DFCs decreased gradually and that of ABM-MSCs increased gradually; rhBMP-2 enhanced their extracellular ALP activity, intracellular osteocalcin (OCN), and osteopontin (OPN) protein expression; and DFCs exhibited higher extracellular ALP activity and intracellular OCN protein expression than ABM-MSCs. When implanted subcutaneously in severe combined immunodeficient mice for 3 months, DFCs+nHAC/PLA+rhBMP-2 obtained higher percentage of bone formation area, OCN, and cementum attachment protein expression and lower OPN expression than ABM-MSCs+nHAC/PLA+rhBMP-2. These results showed that DFCs possessed superior proliferation and osteogenic differentiation potential in vitro, and formed higher quantity and quality bones in vivo. It suggested that DFCs might exhibit a more sensitive responsiveness to rhBMP-2, so that DFCs enter a relatively mature stage of osteogenic differentiation earlier than ABM-MSCs after rhBMP-2 induction. The findings imply that these dental stem/progenitor cells are alternative sources for AB engineering in regenerative medicine, and developing dental tissue may provide better source for stem/progenitor cells.

TNF‑α regulates the osteogenic differentiation of bone morphogenetic factor 9 adenovirus‑transduced rat follicle stem cells via Wnt signaling

Periodontitis is a chronic infectious disease that alters the cellular microenvironment and promotes bone absorption. Bone morphogenetic protein 9 (BMP9) serves an important role in proliferation and differentiation, and tumor necrosis factor‑alpha (TNF‑α) is an important contributor to bone resorption. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of osteogenic differentiation in the presence of BMP9 and TNF‑α in rat follicle stem cells (rDFCs). rDFCs were transfected with adenoviruses expressing BMP9 (AdBMP9) and the expression levels of important proteins [BMP9, β‑catenin, glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), phosphorylated‑GSK3β, calcium/calmodulin dependent protein kinase II and nemo like kinase] were determined using western blotting. The effect of osteogenesis was analyzed using reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR, in addition to alkaline phosphatase, Alizarin Red S, and hematoxylin and eosin staining methods. The results of the present study revealed that TNF‑α activated the canonical Wnt signaling pathway and suppressed osteogenesis. High concentrations of Dickkopf 1 (DKK1) reduced the osteogenic differentiation of AdBMP9‑transduced rDFCs, whereas low concentrations of DKK1 promoted BMP9‑induced bone formation, which was discovered to partially act via the canonical and non‑canonical Wnt signaling pathways. In conclusion, the findings of the present study suggested that the enhanced promoting effect of BMP9 alongside the treatment with low concentrations of DKK1 may be useful for treating periodontitis bone absorption.

Dexamethasone inhibits BMP7-induced osteogenic differentiation in rat dental follicle cells via the PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway

Impacted third molars are commonly seen in teenagers and young adults and can cause considerable suffering. Preventing eruption of the third molars can reduce pain at the source. Our previous study has shown that dexamethasone (DEX) at a certain concentration can prevent the eruption of third molars without damaging alveolar bone in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, but the relevant molecular mechanisms need to be explored. This study aimed to explore the effects of high concentrations of DEX on osteogenic signaling pathways, including BMP/Smad and Wnt/β-catenin pathways, in rat dental follicle cells (rDFCs) and to elucidate the possible mechanisms. The results showed that BMP7 induced osteogenic differentiation by increasing the activity of ALP and the protein levels of OPN in rDFCs. DEX decreased endogenous BMP7 and phosphorylated Smad1/5/8 expression as well as BMP7-induced osteogenic differentiation. DEX also reduced the mRNA and protein levels of β-catenin by enhancing the expression of GSK-3β. In addition, regardless of DEX intervention, overexpression of BMP7 promoted the expression of β-catenin, while knockdown of BMP7 attenuated it. Further investigation revealed that overexpression of BMP7 attenuated the DEX-mediated inhibition of AKT and GSK-3β phosphorylation, but knockdown of BMP7 exerted the opposite effects. This study suggests that high concentrations of DEX may inhibit the expression of β-catenin via the PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β pathway in a manner mediated by BMP7. The findings further illustrate the possible molecular mechanisms by which DEX prevents tooth development.

Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound promotes tissue regeneration in rat dental follicle cells in a porous ceramic scaffold

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) on the osteogenic differentiation of dental follicle cells (DFCs) in vitro and on the regenerative effects of DFC-OsteoBoneTM complexes in vivo. DFCs were isolated and characterized. In the in vitro study, DFCs were cultured in an osteogenic medium in the presence or absence of LIPUS. The expression levels of ALP, Runx2, OSX, and COL-I mRNA were analyzed using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) on day 7. Alizarin red staining was performed on day 21. The state of the growth of the DFCs that were seeded on the scaffold at 3, 5, 7, and 9 days was detected by using a scanning electron microscope. In our in vivo study, 9 healthy nude mice randomly underwent subcutaneous transplantation surgery in one of three groups: group A, empty scaffold; group B, DFCs + scaffold; and group C, DFCs + scaffold + LIPUS. After 8 weeks of implantation, a histological analysis was performed by HE and Mason staining. Our results indicate that LIPUS promotes the osteogenic differentiation of DFCs by increasing the expression of the ALP, Runx2, OSX, and COL-I genes and the formation of mineralized nodules. The cells can adhere and grow on the scaffolds and grow best at 9 days. The HE and Mason staining results showed that more cells, fibrous tissue and blood vessels could be observed in the DFCs + scaffold + LIPUS group than in the other groups. LIPUS could promote the osteogenic differentiation of DFCs in vitro and promote tissue regeneration in a DFCs-scaffold complex in vivo. Further studies should be conducted to explore the underlying mechanisms of LIPUS.

Roles of SP600125 in expression of JNK, RANKL and OPG in cultured dental follicle cells

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the expression of C-JNK, RANKL and OPG after SP600125 administration in cultured dental follicle cells (DFCs).

METHODS

TRAP staining and electron microscope were carried out on day 7 and 9 after coculture of BMMs and DFCs with a ratio of 5:1 in different groups. To determine the effects of SP600125 on the expression of C-JNK, RANKL and OPG mRNA and protein, cultured DFCs were divided into control group, DMSO group and SP600125 groups. Real-time PCR and Western blot analysis were performed to investigate the expression of the mRNA and protein, respectively.

RESULTS

TRAP assay indicated that the number of multinucleated osteoclasts in the SP600125 group showed significant decrease compared with that of control (P < 0.05). The expression of JNK protein in the SP600125 groups showed significant decline compared with that of the control group and blank control (P < 0.05). Significant decrease was noticed in the RANKL protein expression with the elevation of SP600125.

CONCLUSIONS

SP600125 could inhibit the formation of osteoclast in the coculture system of DFCs and BMMs. After SP600125 treatment, the expression of RANKL and JNK showed a trend of decrease, and the expression of OPG showed gradual increase followed by gradual decrease.

Expression of odontogenic ameloblast-associated protein in the dental follicle and its role in osteogenic differentiation of dental follicle stem cells

OBJECTIVE

Odontogenic Ameloblast-Associated Protein (ODAM) is encoded by a secretory calcium-binding phosphoprotein cluster gene, which generally plays an important role for mineralization. Dental follicle (DF) is essential in regulating bone formation for tooth eruption. This study aims to reveal ODAM expression in the DFs of developing and erupting molars, and to determine the possible role of ODAM.

DESIGN

DFs were collected from human third molars and rat mandibular molars for gene expression assessment and for establishment of cell cultures. RT-PCR and western blot were conducted to determine ODAM expression. Over- or silencing expression of ODAM in the dental follicle stem cells (DFSCs) was done by transfecting the cells with ODAM plasmid or siRNA to evaluate ODAM effects on osteogenesis.

RESULTS

Rat DFs weakly expressed ODAM at early-postnatal days, but a chronological increment of ODAM expression from days 1 to 11 was observed. Differences in expression of ODAM were seen in the human DFs of different individuals. In vitro, ODAM was expressed in DFSCs, but almost no expression in DF-derived fibroblast-like cells. Forcing the DFSCs to overexpress ODAM accelerated osteogenesis, whereas continuously silencing the ODAM in the DFSCs reduced osteogenesis only at 2 weeks of osteogenic induction.

CONCLUSIONS

ODAM is differentially expressed in the DFs of different age molars. Its expression is coincident with the increased bone formation of tooth crypt during tooth eruption in rat DFs. Increase of ODAM expression may accelerate osteogenic differentiation of DFSCs. Thus, ODAM expression in the DF may regulate bone formation for timely tooth eruption.

Dickkopf-related protein 3 negatively regulates the osteogenic differentiation of rat dental follicle cells

The present study aimed to investigate the effect of Dickkopf-related protein 3 (DKK3) on osteogenic differentiation of rat dental follicle cells (DFCs). A PCR array analysis of Wnt pathway activation in DFCs identified genes dysregulated by mineral induction. Among them, DKK3expression levels were decreased, and further experiments were conducted to investigate its role in DFC osteogenesis. By comparing DFCs grown in normal growth and mineral-induction media for 4 weeks, the present study confirmed that DKK3 was a potential target gene of osteogenesis through reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blotting (WB). A short hairpin RNA (shRNA) was introduced into DFCs using a lentiviral vector to inhibit DKK3 expression. An alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity assay and Alizarin Red staining were performed to observe the DKK3-shRNA DFCs. In addition, the osteogenic differentiation of DKK3-shRNA DFCs was analyzed by RT-qPCR and WB. In vivo, DKK3-shRNA DFCs seeded on hydroxyapatite/β-tricalcium phosphate (HA/TCP) scaffolds were transplanted into the subcutaneous tissue of mice with severe combined immunodeficiency, followed by hematoxylin-eosin and Masson staining. The results confirmed that DKK3 expression was downregulated during mineral induction in rat DFCs. Lentivirus-mediated expression of DKK3 shRNA in DFCs promoted calcified-nodule formation, ALP activity and the expression of β-catenin, runt-related transcription factor 2 and osteocalcin, compared with control cells. In vivo, the implanted section presented the majority of newly formed osteoid matrices and collagen, with limited space between the HA/TCP scaffolds and matrices. In conclusion, DKK3 expression negatively regulates the osteogenic differentiation of DFCs and, conversely, downregulation of DKK3 may enhance DFC osteogenesis.

Proteomic analysis of the effects of CSF-1 and IL-1α on dental follicle cells

Tooth eruption is a complex physiological process involving both osteogenesis and bone resorption. Signals from the dental follicle (DF) regulate bone remodeling during tooth eruption. Interleukin-1α (IL-1α) may be the initial promoter of tooth eruption, whereas colony‑stimulating factor‑1 (CSF‑1) may attract monocytes into the DF and stimulate osteoclast differentiation. In the present study, differential proteomics was employed to explore protein changes in rat DF cells (DFCs) under the effects of CSF‑1 and IL‑1α. A total of 47 protein spots were differentially expressed in rat DFCs, and 40 protein spots were identified by MALDI‑TOF‑MS. The identified proteins were grouped into functional categories including cytoskeletal proteins, metal‑binding proteins, proteins involved in secretion and degradation, cell cycle proteins and stress proteins. In IL‑1α‑induced rat DFCs, 31 proteins were upregulated compared with the control and included heat shock protein β‑1 (HSP25, also known as HSP27/HSPβ1), vimentin, TMEM43, the GTP‑binding protein Rab‑3D, 6‑pyruvoyl tetrahydrobiopterin synthase and actin. In total, 7 proteins were downregulated, including serum albumin, GIPC1, DNA primase large subunit, cullin‑5 and cyclin‑G1. In CSF‑1‑induced rat DFCs, 3 proteins were upregulated and 7 proteins were downregulated when compared with the controls. The upregulated proteins included the GTP‑binding protein Rab‑3D and α‑actin. The downregulated proteins included cullin‑5, serum albumin, PDZ domain‑containing protein and cyclin‑G1. The differential expression of vimentin, actin, HSP25 and Rab‑3D was verified by western blotting and reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction analyses. The present findings provide an insight into the mechanisms involved in tooth eruption.

The parathyroid hormone-related protein is secreted during the osteogenic differentiation of human dental follicle cells and inhibits the alkaline phosphatase activity and the expression of DLX3

The dental follicle is involved in tooth eruption and it expresses a great amount of the parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP). PTHrP as an extracellular protein is required for a multitude of different regulations of enchondral bone development and differentiation of bone precursor cells and of the development of craniofacial tissues. The dental follicle contains also precursor cells (DFCs) of the periodontium. Isolated DFCs differentiate into periodontal ligament cells, alveolar osteoblast and cementoblasts. However, the role of PTHrP during the human periodontal development remains elusive. Our study evaluated the influence of PTHrP on the osteogenic differentiation of DFCs under in vitro conditions for the first time. The PTHrP protein was highly secreted after 4days of the induction of the osteogenic differentiation of DFCs with dexamethasone (2160.5pg/ml±345.7SD. in osteogenic differentiation medium vs. 315.7pg/ml±156.2SD. in standard cell culture medium; Student's t Test: p<0.05 (n=3)). We showed that the supplementation of the osteogenic differentiation medium with PTHrP inhibited the alkaline phosphatase activity and the expression of the transcription factor DLX3, but the depletion of PTHrP did not support the differentiation of DFCs. Previous studies have shown that Indian Hedgehog (IHH) induces PTHrP and that PTHrP, in turn, inhibits IHH via a negative feedback loop. We showed that SUFU (Suppressor Of Fused Homolog) was not regulated during the osteogenic differentiation in DFCs. So, neither the hedgehog signaling pathway induced PTHrP nor PTHrP suppressed the hedgehog signaling pathway during the osteogenic differentiation in DFCs. In conclusion, our results suggest that PTHrP regulates independently of the hedgehog signaling pathway the osteogenic differentiated in DFCs.

ClC-7 Deficiency Impairs Tooth Development and Eruption

CLCN7 gene encodes the voltage gated chloride channel 7 (ClC-7) in humans. The mutations in CLCN7 have been associated with osteopetrosis in connection to the abnormal osteoclasts functions. Previously, we found that some osteopetrosis patients with CLCN7 mutations suffered from impacted teeth and root dysplasia. Here we set up two in vivo models under a normal or an osteoclast-poor environment to investigate how ClC-7 affects tooth development and tooth eruption. Firstly, chitosan-Clcn7-siRNA nanoparticles were injected around the first maxillary molar germ of newborn mice and caused the delay of tooth eruption and deformed tooth with root dysplasia. Secondly, E13.5 molar germs infected with Clcn7 shRNA lentivirus were transplanted under the kidney capsule and presented the abnormal changes in dentin structure, periodontal tissue and cementum. All these teeth changes have been reported in the patients with CLCN7 mutation. In vitro studies of ameloblasts, odontoblasts and dental follicle cells (DFCs) were conducted to explore the involved mechanism. We found that Clcn7 deficiency affect the differentiation of these cells, as well as the interaction between DFCs and osteoclasts through RANKL/OPG pathway. We conclude that ClC-7 may affect tooth development by directly targeting tooth cells, and regulate tooth eruption through DFC mediated osteoclast pathway.

Evaluation of bone regeneration potential of dental follicle stem cells for treatment of craniofacial defects

BACKGROUND AIMS

Stem cell-based tissue regeneration offers potential for treatment of craniofacial bone defects. The dental follicle, a loose connective tissue surrounding the unerupted tooth, has been shown to contain progenitor/stem cells. Dental follicle stem cells (DFSCs) have strong osteogenesis capability, which makes them suitable for repairing skeletal defects. The objective of this study was to evaluate bone regeneration capability of DFSCs loaded into polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffold for treatment of craniofacial defects.

METHODS

DFSCs were isolated from the first mandibular molars of postnatal Sprague-Dawley rats and seeded into the PCL scaffold. Cell attachment and cell viability on the scaffold were examined with the use of scanning electron microscopy and alamar blue reduction assay. For in vivo transplantation, critical-size defects were created on the skulls of 5-month-old immunocompetent rats, and the cell-scaffold constructs were transplanted into the defects.

RESULTS

Skulls were collected at 4 and 8 weeks after transplantation, and bone regeneration in the defects was evaluated with the use of micro-computed tomography and histological analysis. Scanning electron microscopy and Alamar blue assay demonstrated attachment and proliferation of DFSCs in the PCL scaffold. Bone regeneration was observed in the defects treated with DFSC transplantation but not in the controls without DFSC transplant. Transplanting DFSC-PCL with or without osteogenic induction before transplantation achieved approximately 50% bone regeneration at 8 weeks. Formation of woven bone was observed in the DFSC-PCL treatment group. Similar results were seen when osteogenic-induced DFSC-PCL was transplanted to the critical-size defects.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that transplantation of DFSCs seeded into PCL scaffolds can be used to repair craniofacial defects.

In vitro cementoblast-like differentiation of postmigratory neural crest-derived p75(+) stem cells with dental follicle cell conditioned medium

Cranial neural crest-derived cells (CNCCs) play important role in epithelial-mesenchymal interactions during tooth morphogenesis. However, the heterogeneity of CNCCs and their tendency to spontaneously differentiate along smooth muscle or osteoblast lineages in vitro limit further understanding of their biological properties. We studied the differentiation properties of isolated rat embryonic postmigratory CNCCs, expressing p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR). These p75NTR positive (p75(+)) CNCCs, isolated using fluorescence activated cell sorter, exhibited fibroblast-like morphology and characteristics of mesenchymal stem cells. Incubation of p75(+) CNCCs in dental follicle cell conditioned medium (DFCCM) combined with dentin non-collagenous proteins (dNCPs), altered their morphological features to cementoblast-like appearance. These cells also showed low proliferative activity, high ALP activity and significantly increased calcified nodule formation. Markers related to mineralization or specific to cementoblast lineage were highly expressed in dNCPs/DFCCM-treated p75(+) cells, suggesting their differentiation along cementoblast-like lineage. p75(+) stem cells selected from postmigratory CNCCs represent a pure stem cell population and could be used as a stem cell model for in vitro studies due to their intrinsic ability to differentiate to neuronal cells and transform from neuroectoderm to ectomesenchyme. They can provide a potential stem cell resource for tooth engineering studies and help to further investigate mechanisms of epithelial-mesenchymal interactions in tooth morphogenesis.

Expression of Oct-4, SOX-2, and MYC in dental papilla cells and dental follicle cells during in-vivo tooth development and in-vitro co-culture

During tooth development, the special structure of dental follicle and dental papilla enables dental papilla cells (DPCs) and dental follicle cells (DFCs) to make contact with each other. Octamer-binding transcription factor 4 (Oct-4), sex determining region Y box-2 (SOX-2), and cellular homologue of avian myelocytomatosis virus oncogene (MYC) (OSM) are associated with reprogramming and pluripotency. However, whether the expression of OSM could be activated through cell-cell communication is not known. In this study, the distribution of OSM in rat tooth germ was investigated by immunohistochemical staining. An in-vitro co-culture system of DPCs and DFCs was established. Cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, cell cycle stages, and expression of OSM were investigated by Cell Counting Kit 8 (CCK8) analysis, flow cytometry, real-time PCR, and immunohistochemical staining. We found that Oct-4 and SOX-2 were strongly expressed in tooth germ on days 7 and 9 after birth, whereas MYC was expressed only on day 9. Cell proliferation and apoptosis were inhibited, the cell cycle was arrested in the G0/G1 phase, and the propidium iodide (PI) value was downregulated. Expression of Oct-4 and SOX-2 was significantly elevated in both cell types after 3 d of co-culture, whereas expression of MYC was not significantly elevated until day 5. These results indicate that the optimized microenvironment with cell-cell communication enhanced the expression of reprogramming markers associated with reprogramming capacity in DPCs and DFCs, both in vivo and in vitro.

The role of dentin matrix protein 1 (DMP1) in regulation of osteogenic differentiation of rat dental follicle stem cells (DFSCs)

OBJECTIVES

Primary isolated dental follicle stem cells (DFSCs) possess a strong osteogenesis capability, and such capability is reduced during in vitro culture. Because dentin matrix protein 1 (DMP1) is essential in the maturation of osteoblasts, our objectives were to determine (1) the expression of DMP1 in the DFSCs, (2) the correlation between DMP1 expression and osteogenic capability of DFSCs, and (3) the ability of DMP1 to promote osteogenic differentiation of DFSCs.

METHODS

DFSCs and their non-stem cell counterpart dental follicle cells (DFC) were established from postnatal rat pups. Expression of DMP1 in the DFSCs and DFC was determined using real-time RT-PCR and western blotting. Different passages of DFSCs were subjected to osteogenic induction. The correlation between osteogenesis and DMP1 expression was analyzed. Then, expression of DMP1 in the DFSCs was knocked-down using siRNA, followed by osteogenic induction to evaluate the effect of DMP1-knockdown. Finally, the late passage DFSCs with reduced DMP1 expression and osteogenic capability were cultured in osteogenic induction medium containing mouse recombinant DMP1 (mrDMP1) to determine if DMP1 can restore osteogenesis of DFSCs.

RESULTS

DFSCs expressed much higher levels of DMP1 than did DFC. DMP1 expression was correlated with the osteogenic capability of DFSCs. Knockdown of DMP1 expression markedly decreased the osteogenesis and osteogenic gene expression in the DFSCs whereas adding mrDMP1 protein to the osteogenic induction medium enhanced osteogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

DMP1 is highly expressed in the DFSCs, but minimally expressed in non-stem cell DFC. DMP1 appears to play an important role for osteogenic differentiation of the DFSCs.

A therapeutic strategy for spinal cord defect: human dental follicle cells combined with aligned PCL/PLGA electrospun material

Stem cell implantation has been utilized for the repair of spinal cord injury; however, it shows unsatisfactory performance in repairing large scale lesion of an organ. We hypothesized that dental follicle cells (DFCs), which possess multipotential capability, could reconstruct spinal cord defect (SCD) in combination with biomaterials. In the present study, mesenchymal and neurogenic lineage characteristics of human DFCs (hDFCs) were identified. Aligned electrospun PCL/PLGA material (AEM) was fabricated and it would not lead to cytotoxic reaction; furthermore, hDFCs could stretch along the oriented fibers and proliferate efficiently on AEM. Subsequently, hDFCs seeded AEM was transplanted to restore the defect in rat spinal cord. Functional observation was performed but results showed no statistical significance. The following histologic analyses proved that AEM allowed nerve fibers to pass through, and implanted hDFCs could express oligodendrogenic lineage maker Olig2 in vivo which was able to contribute to remyelination. Therefore, we concluded that hDFCs can be a candidate resource in neural regeneration. Aligned electrospun fibers can support spinal cord structure and induce cell/tissue polarity. This strategy can be considered as alternative proposals for the SCD regeneration studies.

Hertwig's epithelial root sheath cells regulate osteogenic differentiation of dental follicle cells through the Wnt pathway

The development of periodontal ligament-cementum complex (PLCC) originates from the interaction between epithelial cells of Hertwig's epithelial root sheath (HERS) and mesenchymal cells of the dental follicle. While previous studies have suggested that the Wnt pathway is involved in osteogenic differentiation of dental follicle cells (DFCs) during tooth root development, its involvement in the interaction between DFCs and HERS cells (HERSCs) in tooth root mineralization remains unclear. Here, we investigated the hypothesis that HERSCs control osteogenic differentiation of DFCs via the Wnt pathway. We found that during co-culture with HERSCs, DFCs exhibited a greater tendency to form mineralized nodules. Moreover, under these conditions, DFCs expressed high levels of cementoblast/osteoblast differentiation-related markers, such as bone sialoprotein (BSP) and osteocalcin (OCN), the periodontal ligament phenotype-related gene type I collagen (COL1), and β-catenin (CTNNB1), a core player in the canonical Wnt pathway. In contrast, expression in DFCs of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was greatly decreased in the presence of HERSCs. Expression of CTNNB1 in DFCs was stimulated by Wnt3a, a representative canonical member of the Wnt family of ligands, but suppressed by Dickkopf1 (DKK1), a Wnt/CTNNB1 signaling inhibitor. Furthermore, in the presence of treated dentin matrix (TDM), differentiation of DFCs was enhanced by Wnt3a when they were in direct contact with HERSCs, but was curtailed by DKK1. Taken together, these results indicate that during tooth root formation, HERSCs induce osteogenic differentiation of DFCs in a process involving the Wnt pathway and the dentin matrix. Our study not only contributes to our understanding of tooth root development and diseases of tooth root mineralization, but also proffers a novel potential strategy for controlling mineralization during tooth root regeneration.

Expression of bone morphogenetic protein-6 in dental follicle stem cells and its effect on osteogenic differentiation

The dental follicle (DF) plays an essential role in tooth eruption via regulation of bone resorption and bone formation. Bone morphogenetic protein-6 (BMP6) expression in the DF is coincident with bone growth in the tooth crypt. DF stem cells (DFSCs) have been shown to possess strong osteogenic capability. This study aims to determine the expression of BMP6 in DFSCs and to elucidate the role of BMP6 in the osteogenesis of DFSCs. DFSCs and their non-stem cell counterpart, DF cells (DFCs), were obtained from the DFs of rat pups. We showed that expression of BMP6 was significantly higher in the DFSCs than in the DFCs. DFSCs lost osteogenic capability during in vitro expansion, and DFSCs in late passages had reduced BMP6 expression as compared to early passages of DFSCs when they were subjected to osteogenic induction. Addition of exogenous human recombinant BMP6 (hrBMP6) to the osteogenic medium dramatically enhanced the osteogenesis of the late-passage DFSCs. Knockdown of BMP6 by short interfering RNA in the DFSCs in early passages resulted in a decrease in osteogenesis, which could be restored by addition of hrBMP6. We concluded that DFSCs need to express high levels of BMP6 to maintain their osteogenesis capability. Increased BMP6 expression seen in vivo in the DF may reflect the activation of DFSCs for osteogenic differentiation for bone growth during tooth eruption.

Activation of proliferation and differentiation of dental follicle stem cells (DFSCs) by heat stress

OBJECTIVES

Adult stem cells (ASCs) remain in a slowly cycling/quiescent state under normal physiological conditions, but they can be awakened from this by certain factors, such as injury signals. Previously, our group has shown that dental follicle stem cells (DFSCs) appear to proliferate more rapidly than their non-stem cell counterparts at elevated temperatures. The study described here has aimed to (i) elucidate optimal temperature in which to culture DFSCs, (ii) determine whether elevated temperatures could enhance differentiation capability of DFSCs and (iii) characterize stem cell and osteogenic marker expression of DFSCs at elevated temperatures.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

DFSCs obtained from rat first molars were cultured at 37 (control), 38, 39, 40 and 41 ºC. Cell proliferation was evaluated by Alamar blue reduction assay and mean numbers of viable dissociated cells. Osteogenic differentiation was evaluated after 7 or 14 days osteogenic induction. Expression of selected marker genes was also assessed during proliferation and differentiation of the cells.

RESULTS

Increased cell proliferation was seen at heat-stress temperatures of 38º, 39º and 40 ºC. DFSCs revealed maximal osteogenesis when cultured at 39 and 40 ºC. Moreover, some stem cell and osteogensis-associated markers had elevated expression in heat-stress conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Under determined heat-stress conditions, DFSCs increased their proliferation, osteogenic differentiation and expression of some marker genes. Thus, it is likely that elevated temperature could serve as a factor to activate adult stem cells.

Isolation, culture and characterization of a primary fibroblast cell line from channel catfish

A primary cell line (designated as CCf) derived from caudal fin tissue of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, was developed using explant techniques. The cell line grew fastest in media supplied with FBS and channel catfish serum. The duplication time of the cell line under optimal conditions was ∼56 h at a plating density of 1.1 × 10(5) cells/ml. The cell line has been propagated continuously for 25 passages (1:4 dilution per passage), cryopreserved, and recovered successfully at different passages. The cultured cells had fibroblastic morphology, and synthesized fibronectin and Type I and III collagens in the cytoplasm. The cell line maintained the normal diploid chromosome number (58) of channel catfish throughout the experiment. Nucleolus organizer regions were located on the short arms of a pair of medium-sized submetacentrics, which is typical for channel catfish. This study provides a method for acquiring a cell line from juvenile catfish without sacrifice, and is especially useful for early screening of valuable fishes.

Wnt/β-catenin signaling participates in cementoblast/osteoblast differentiation of dental follicle cells

Dental follicle cells (DFCs) are reported to contain stem cells. The canonical Wnt signaling pathway plays an important role in stem cell self-renewal and tooth development through β-catenin expression. The objective of this study was to investigate whether Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway participates in the cementoblast/osteoblast differentiation of rat DFCs. Immunohistochemistry was used to compare the expression of β-catenin in rat mandibular first molars from postnatal days 1-13. The effects of Wnt/β-catenin signaling on DFCs in vitro were examined by lithium chloride (LiCl) treatment by immunofluorescence, cell counting, dual-luciferase reporter assays, western blotting, and alkaline phosphatase activity analysis. β-Catenin expression was absent in the dental follicles on days 1 and 3 in vivo. It then progressively increased from days 5 to 13. In vitro studies of the DFCs showed that LiCl stimulation caused β-catenin, which was mainly located in the cell membrane and cytoplasm of DFCs, to be immediately transferred to the nucleus and led to the inhibition of proliferation at 12 and 24 hr. LiCl treatment also downregulated the levels of phosphorylated-β-catenin, while upregulating the levels of total β-catenin, nuclear β-catenin, osteocalcin, runt-related transcription factor 2, and collagen type I. In addition, LiCl enhanced the β-catenin/T-cell factor luciferase activity and alkaline phosphatase activity. These results suggest that Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway positively regulates the cementoblast/osteoblast differentiation of the DFCs.

Requirement of alveolar bone formation for eruption of rat molars

Tooth eruption is a localized event that requires a dental follicle (DF) to regulate the resorption of alveolar bone to form an eruption pathway. During the intra-osseous phase of eruption, the tooth moves through this pathway. The mechanism or motive force that propels the tooth through this pathway is controversial but many studies have shown that alveolar bone growth at the base of the crypt occurs during eruption. To determine if this bone growth (osteogenesis) was causal, experiments were designed in which the expression of an osteogenic gene in the DF, bone morphogenetic protein-6 (Bmp6), was inhibited by injection of the first mandibular molar of the rat with a small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeted against Bmp6. The injection was followed by electroporation to promote uptake of the siRNA. In 45 first molars injected, eruption was either delayed or completely inhibited (seven molars). In the impacted molars, an eruption pathway formed but bone growth at the base of the crypt was greatly reduced compared with the erupted first-molar controls. These studies show that alveolar bone growth at the base of the crypt is required for tooth eruption and that Bmp6 may be essential for promoting this growth.

Regulation of SFRP-1 expression in the rat dental follicle

Tooth eruption requires osteoclastogenesis and subsequent bone resorption. Secreted frizzled-related protein-1 (SFRP-1) negatively regulates osteoclastogenesis. Our previous studies indicated that SFRP-1 is expressed in the rat dental follicle (DF), with reduced expression at days 3 and 9 close to the times for the major and minor bursts of osteoclastogenesis, respectively; but it remains unclear as to what molecules contribute to its reduced expression at these critical times. Thus, it was the aim of this study to determine which molecules regulate the expression of SFRP-1 in the DF. To that end, the DF cells were treated with cytokines that are maximally expressed at days 3 or 9, and SFRP-1 expression was determined. Our study indicated that colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1), a molecule maximally expressed in the DF at day 3, down-regulated SFRP-1 expression. As to endothelial monocyte-activating polypeptide II (EMAP-II), a highly expressed molecule in the DF at day 3, it had no effect on the expression of SFRP-1. However, when EMAP-II was knocked down by siRNA, the expression of SFRP-1 was elevated, and this elevated SFRP-1 expression could be reduced by adding recombinant EMAP-II protein. This suggests that EMAP-II maintained a lower level of SFRP-1 in the DF. TNF-α is a molecule maximally expressed at day 9, and this study indicated that it also down-regulated the expression of SFRP-1 in the DF cells. In conclusion, CSF-1 and EMAP-II may contribute to the reduced SFRP-1 expression seen on day 3, while TNF-α may contribute to the reduced SFRP-1 expression at day 9.

Wnt/β-catenin pathway regulates bone morphogenetic protein (BMP2)-mediated differentiation of dental follicle cells

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2)-induced osteogenic differentiation has been shown to occur through the canonical Wnt/βcatenin pathway, whereas factors promoting canonical Wnt signaling in cementoblasts inhibit cell differentiation and promote cell proliferation in vitro. The aim of this study was to investigate whether putative precursor cells of cementoblasts, dental follicle cells (murine SVF4 cells), when stimulated with BMP2, would exhibit changes in genes/proteins associated with the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

SVF4 cells were stimulated with BMP2, and the following assays were carried out: (i) Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation assessed by western blotting, β-catenin/transcription factor (TCF) reporter assays and expression of the lymphoid enhancer-binding factor-1 (Lef1), transcription factor 7 (Tcf7), Wnt inhibitor factor 1 (Wif1) and Axin2 (Axin2) genes; and (ii) cementoblast/osteoblast differentiation assessed by mineralization in vitro, and by the mRNA levels of runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2), osterix (Osx), alkaline phosphatase (Alp), osteocalcin (Ocn) and bone sialoprotein (Bsp), determined by quantitative PCR after treatment with wingless-type MMTV integration site family, member 3A (WNT3A) and knockdown of β-catenin.

RESULTS

WNT3A induced β-catenin nuclear translocation and up-regulated the transcriptional activity of a canonical Wnt-responsive reporter, suggesting that the Wnt/β-catenin pathway functions in SVF4 cells. Activation of Wnt signaling with WNT3A suppressed BMP2-mediated induction of cementoblast/osteoblast maturation of SVF4 cells. However, β-catenin knockdown showed that the BMP2-induced expression of cementoblast/osteoblast differentiation markers requires endogenous β-catenin. WNT3A down-regulated transcripts for Runx2, Alp and Ocn in SVF4 cells compared with untreated cells. In contrast, BMP2 induction of Bsp transcripts occurred independently of Wnt/β-catenin signaling.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that stabilization of β-catenin by WNT3A inhibits BMP2-mediated induction of cementoblast/osteoblast differentiation in SVF4 cells, although BMP2 requires endogenous Wnt/β-catenin signaling to promote cell maturation.

Proliferation of dental follicle-derived cell populations in heat-stress conditions

OBJECTIVES

Isolation and purification of adult stem cells (ASC) are a great challenge. Our objectives were to determine whether ASC are more heat-tolerant than non-stem cells, and to explore if ASC could be enriched by heat-stress treatments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rat dental follicle cells were cultured in a variety of media to obtain either a heterogeneous cell population (H-DFC) consisting of stem cells and non-stem cells, or a homogenous cell population (DFC) containing non-stem cells only. Real-time RT-PCR was conducted to compare expression of heat-shock proteins (HSPs) between the two populations. To study heat tolerance, H-DFC and DFC were incubated under heat-stress conditions and cell proliferation was evaluated by alamar blue reduction assay. Furthermore, cells resulting from heat-stress treatments were evaluated for differentiation capability and expression of stem cell markers.

RESULTS

H-DFC expressed higher levels of HSP110, HSP70s and HSP27s than did DFC. H-DFC increased levels of proliferation at 40 °C compared to controls grown at 37 °C; no significant reduction in proliferation occurred at temperatures below 40.5 °C. In contrast, DFC showed significant reduction in proliferation under all heat-stress treatments. Heat-stressed H-DFC had increased differentiation capability and increased expression of stem cell markers.

CONCLUSION

Stem cells appear to be more tolerant to heat stress than non-stem cells. Incubation of a heterogeneous cell population in heat-stress conditions resulted in increased stem cell numbers.

Hypoxia promotes growth of stem cells in dental follicle cell populations

Adult stem cells (ASC) have been found in many tissues and are of great therapeutic potential due to their capability of differentiation. However, ASC comprise only a small fraction of the tissues. In order to use ASC for therapeutic purposes, it is important to obtain relatively pure stem cells in large quantities. Current methods for stem cell purification are mainly based on marker-dependent cell sorting techniques, which have various technical difficulties. In this study, we have attempted to develop novel conditions to favor the growth of the dental follicle stem cells (DFSC) such that the resultant cell populations are enriched in stem cells. Specifically, a heterogeneous dental follicle cell (H-DFC) population containing stem cells and homogenous non-stem cell dental follicle cell population were cultured at 1% or 5% hypoxic conditions. Only the heterogeneous population could increase proliferation in the hypoxic condition whereas the homogenous DFC did not change their proliferation rate. In addition, when the resultant cells from the heterogonous population were subjected to differentiation, they appeared to have a higher capacity of adipogenesis and osteogenesis as compared to the controls grown in the normal atmosphere (normoxic condition). These hypoxia-treated cells also express higher levels of some stem cell markers. Together, these data suggest that stem cells are enriched by culturing the heterogeneous cell populations in a reduced O(2) condition.

Cementum- and periodontal ligament-like tissue formation by dental follicle cell sheets co-cultured with Hertwig's epithelial root sheath cells

Dental follicle cells (DFCs) are believed contain the precursor cells of the periodontium and can form cell sheets by secreting extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. Cell sheet engineering has been recently developed and applied successfully in the field of tissue regeneration. However, research on the in vitro characteristics of DFC sheets is lacking and an assessment of whether DFC sheets can produce periodontal tissues in vivo has not been reported. To test the characteristics and applicability of DFC sheets in this field, we established a co-culture system of rat DFCs and Hertwig's epithelial root sheath (HERS) cells in vitro, and included the following controls: a co-culture of DFCs and alveolar mucosa epithelial cells, DFCs with no cells in the upper chamber, and DFCs cultured without an upper chamber. After 3 weeks of co-culturing the cells, the DFC sheets were transplanted into adult male rats' omenta. One week after co-culturing DFCs with HERS cells, mRNA levels of collagen type I (COL-1), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), runt related transcription factor 2 (Runx 2) and bone sialoprotein (BSP) were increased significantly. In addition, after 3 weeks of co-culturing the cells, the numbers of ALP-, osteocalcin (OCN)-, BSP- and osteoprotegerin (OPG)-positive DFCs increased. The DFCs also produced more calcified nodules and exhibited an increased number of subcellular organelles, which are important for protein synthesis and secretion. Moreover, gap junctions were found between the experimental DFCs within the sheet. Five weeks of in vivo growth of DFC sheets pre-exposed to HERS cells led to the formation of cementum-like tissues, which were positive for OCN, BSP and OPG, as well as the formation of periodontal ligament-like tissues, which were positive for COL-1. In contrast, control cells only produced fibrous tissues. These results indicate that the DFC sheets induced by HERS cells are able to produce periodontal tissues through epithelial-mesenchymal interactions. Therefore, DFC sheets may be useful in the field of periodontium regeneration.

Adipose tissue-deprived stem cells acquire cementoblast features treated with dental follicle cell conditioned medium containing dentin non-collagenous proteins in vitro

Adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ADSCs), which are easily harvested and show excellent pluripotency potential, have generated considerable interest in regenerative medicine. In this study, the differentiation of ADSCs was assessed after treatment with dental follicle cell conditioned medium (DFCCM) containing dentin non-collagenous proteins (dNCPs). ADSCs exhibited a fibroblast-like morphology and high proliferative capacity. However, after treatment with dNCPs/DFCCM, ADSCs changed from a fibroblast-like to cementoblast-like morphology and significantly lost their proliferative capacity. Alkaline phosphatase activity and in vitro mineralization behaviour of ADSCs were significantly enhanced. Mineralization-related markers including cementum attachment protein, bone sialoprotein, osteocalcin, osteopontin and osteonectin were detected at mRNA or protein levels, whereas dentin sialophosphoprotein and dentin sialoprotein were not detected, implying a cementoblast-like phenotype. These results demonstrate that ADSCs acquired cementoblast features in vitro with dNCPs/DFCCM treatment and could be a potential source of cementogenic cells for periodontal regeneration.

MyD88 expression in the rat dental follicle: implications for osteoclastogenesis and tooth eruption

Myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) is a key adaptor molecule in the interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-18 toll-like receptor signaling pathways. Because MyD88 is present in dental follicle (DF) cells in vitro, the purpose of this study was to determine its chronological expression in vivo, as well as its possible role in osteoclastogenesis and tooth eruption. An oligo DNA microarray was used to determine expression of the Myd88 gene in vivo in the DFs from the first mandibular molars of postnatal rats from days 1 to 11. The results showed that MyD88 was expressed maximally on day 3. Using small interfering RNA (siRNA) to knock down MyD88 expression in the DF cells also reduced the expression of the nuclear factor-kappa B-1 (NFKB1) and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) genes. Interleukin-1alpha up-regulated the expression of NFKB1, MCP-1, and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL), but knockdown of MyD88 nullified this IL-1alpha effect. Conditioned medium from DF cells with MyD88 knocked down had reduced chemotactic activity for mononuclear cells and reduced osteoclastogenesis, as opposed to controls. In conclusion, the maximal expression of MyD88 in the DF of postnatal day 3 rats may contribute to the major burst of osteoclastogenesis needed for eruption by up-regulating MCP-1 and RANKL expression.

Multilineage differentiation of dental follicle cells and the roles of Runx2 over-expression in enhancing osteoblast/cementoblast-related gene expression in dental follicle cells

OBJECTIVES

Dental follicle cells (DFCs) provide the origin of periodontal tissues, and Runx2 is essential for bone formation and tooth development. In this study, pluripotency of DFCs was evaluated and effects of Runx2 on them were investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The DFCs were induced to differentiate towards osteoblasts, adipocytes or chondrocytes, and alizarin red staining, oil red O staining or alcian blue staining was performed to reveal the differentiated states. Bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) and primary mouse fibroblasts served as controls. DFCs were also infected with recombinant retroviruses encoding either full-length Runx2 or mutant Runx2 without the VWRPY motif. Western blot analysis, real-time real time RT-PCR and in vitro mineralization assay were performed to evaluate the effects of full-length Runx2 or mutant Runx2 on osteogenic/cementogenic differentiation of the cells.

RESULTS

The above-mentioned staining methods demonstrated that DFCs were successfully induced to differentiate towards osteoblasts, adipocytes or chondrocytes respectively, confirming the existence of pluripotent mesenchymal stem cells in dental follicle tissues. However, staining intensity in DFC cultures was weaker than in BMSC cultures. Real-time PCR analysis indicated that mutant Runx2 induced a more pronounced increase in expression levels of OC, OPN, Col I and CP23 than full-length Runx2. Mineralization assay also showed that mutant Runx2 increased mineralization nodule formation more prominently than full-length Runx2.

CONCLUSIONS

Multipotent DFCs can be induced to differentiate towards osteoblasts, adipocytes or chondrocytes in vitro. Runx2 over-expression up-regulated expression levels of osteoblast/cementoblast-related genes and in vitro enhanced osteogenic differentiation of DFCs. In addition, mutant Runx2-induced changes in DFCs were more prominent than those induced by full-length Runx2.

TNF-alpha upregulates expression of BMP-2 and BMP-3 genes in the rat dental follicle--implications for tooth eruption

The dental follicle appears to regulate both the alveolar bone resorption and bone formation needed for tooth eruption. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) gene expression is maximally upregulated at postnatal day 9 in the rat dental follicle of the first mandibular molar, a time that correlates with rapid bone growth at the base of the tooth crypt, as well as a minor burst of osteoclastogenesis. TNF-alpha expression is correlated with the expression of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2), a molecule expressed in the dental follicle that can promote bone formation. Because BMP-2 signaling may be augmented by bone morphogenetic protein-3 (BMP-3), our objective in this study was to determine if the dental follicle expresses BMP-3 and if TNF-alpha stimulates the dental follicle cells to express BMP-2 and BMP-3. Dental follicles were collected from different postnatal ages of rat pups. Dental follicle cells were incubated with TNF-alpha to study its dosage and time-course effects on gene expression of BMP-2 and BMP-3, as determined by real-time RT-PCR. Next, immunostaining was conducted to confirm if the protein was synthesized and ELISA of the conditioned medium was conducted to determine if BMP-2 was secreted. We found that BMP-3 expression is correlated with the expression of TNF-alpha in the dental follicle and TNF-alpha significantly increased BMP-2 and BMP-3 expression in vitro. Immunostaining and ELISA showed that BMP-2 and BMP-3 were synthesized and secreted. This study suggests that TNF-alpha can upregulate the expression of bone formation genes that may be needed for tooth eruption.

Electroporation optimization to deliver plasmid DNA into dental follicle cells

Electroporation is a simple and versatile approach for DNA transfer but needs to be optimized for specific cells. We conducted square wave electroporation experiments for rat dental follicle cells under various conditions. These experiments indicated that the optimal electroporation electric field strength was 375 V/cm, and that plasmid concentrations greater than 0.18 microg/microL were required to achieve high transfection efficiency. BSA or fetal bovine serum in the pulsing buffer significantly improved cell survival and increased the number of transfected cells. The optimal pulsing duration was in the range of 45-120 ms at 375 V/cm. This electroporation protocol can be used to deliver DNA into dental follicle cells to study the roles of candidate genes in regulating tooth eruption. This is the first report showing the transfection of dental follicle cells using electroporation. The parameters determined in this study are likely to be applied to transfection of other fibroblast cells.

Effects of core binding factor alpha1 or bone morphogenic protein-2 overexpression on osteoblast/cementoblast-related gene expressions in NIH3T3 mouse cells and dental follicle cells

OBJECTIVES

Bone morphogenic protein-2 (BMP-2) has long been used to promote bone and periodontal regeneration, while core binding factor alpha1 (CBFA1) plays important roles in both osteogenic differentiation and tooth morphogenesis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of CBFA1 or BMP-2 overexpression on osteoblast/cementoblast-related gene expressions in NIH3T3 cells and dental follicle cells (DFCs).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

CBFA1 or BMP-2 overexpression in NIH3T3 and DFCs was achieved by infection with retroviral vectors containing CBFA1 or BMP-2 cDNA. Cells stably integrated with CBFA1 or BMP-2 cDNA were selected with G418 for 14 days. Western blotting, real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, and in vitro mineralization assay were performed to evaluate effects of CBFA1 or BMP-2 overexpression in cells undergoing osteoblast/cementoblast differentiation.

RESULTS

Our results demonstrated that osteoblast/cementoblast-related gene expression levels in CBFA1-overexpressing NIH3T3 cells were higher than those in BMP-2-overexpressing cells. More mineral nodules were observed in CBFA1-overexpressing NIH3T3 cells than in BMP-2-overexpressing cells. CBFA1 overexpression in DFCs also increased osteoblast/cementoblast-related gene expression and promoted mineral nodule formation. However, no significant changes in gene expression levels nor mineral nodule formation were found in BMP-2-overexpressing DFCs when compared with empty vector transduced DFCs.

CONCLUSIONS

CBFA1 overexpression up-regulated expression levels of osteoblast/cementoblast-related genes and enhanced in vitro osteogenic differentiation more efficiently than BMP-2 in both NIH3T3 cells and DFCs.

Expression of endothelial monocyte-activating polypeptide II in the rat dental follicle and its potential role in tooth eruption

Endothelial monocyte-activating polypeptide II (EMAP-II) is an inflammatory cytokine with chemotactic activity. Because the dental follicle (DF) recruits mononuclear cells (osteoclast precursors) to promote the osteoclastogenesis needed for tooth eruption, it was the aim of this study to determine if EMAP-II contributes to this recruitment. Using a DNA microarray, EMAP-II was found to be highly expressed in vivo in the DFs of day 1 to day 11 postnatal rats, with its expression elevated on days 1 and 3. Use of a short interfering RNA (siRNA) to knock down EMAP-II expression resulted in a reduction in the expression of colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) in the DF cells. Addition of EMAP-II protein to the DF cells partially restored the expression of CSF-1 and MCP-1. In chemotaxis assays using either conditioned medium of the DF cells with anti-(EMAP-II) immunoglobulin G added or conditioned medium of DF cells with EMAP-II knocked down by siRNA, migration indexes of bone marrow mononuclear cells were significantly reduced. These results suggest that EMAP-II is another chemotactic molecule in the dental follicle involved in the recruitment of mononuclear cells, and that EMAP-II may exert its chemotactic function directly by recruiting mononuclear cells and indirectly by enhancing the expression of other chemotactic molecules (CSF-1 and MCP-1).

Differentiation of stem cells in the dental follicle

The dental follicle (DF) differentiates into the periodontal ligament. In addition, it may be the precursor of other cells of the periodontium, including osteoblasts and cementoblasts. We hypothesized that stem cells may be present in the DF and be capable of differentiating into cells of the periodontium. Stem cells were identified in the DF of the rat first mandibular molar by Hoechst staining, alkaline phosphatase staining, and expression of side-population stem cell markers. These cells were shown to be able to differentiate into osteoblasts/cementoblasts, adipocytes, and neurons. Treating the DF cell population with doxorubicin, followed by incubation in an adipogenesis medium, suggested that the adipocytes originated from stem cells. Thus, a possibly puripotent stem cell population is present in the rat DF.

A DNA microarray analysis of chemokine and receptor genes in the rat dental follicle--role of secreted frizzled-related protein-1 in osteoclastogenesis

The dental follicle, a loose connective tissue sac that surrounds the unerupted tooth, appears to regulate the osteoclastogenesis needed for eruption; i.e., bone resorption to form an eruption pathway. Thus, DNA microarray studies were conducted to determine which chemokines and their receptors were expressed chronologically in the dental follicle, chemokines that might attract osteoclast precursors. In the rat first mandibular molar, a major burst of osteoclastogenesis occurs at day 3 with a minor burst at day 10. The results of the microarray confirmed our previous studies showing the gene expression of molecules such as CSF-1 and MCP-1 in the dental follicle cells. Other new genes also were detected, including secreted frizzled-related protein-1 (SFRP-1), which was found to be downregulated at days 3 and 9. Using rat bone marrow cultures to conduct in vitro osteoclastogenic assays, it was demonstrated that SFRP-1 inhibited osteoclast formation in a concentration-dependent fashion. However, with increasing concentrations of SFRP-1, the number of TRAP-positive mononuclear cells increased suggesting that SFRP-1 inhibits osteoclast formation by inhibiting the fusion of mononuclear cells (osteoclast precursors). Co-culturing bone marrow mononuclear cells and dental follicle cells demonstrated that the dental follicle cells were secreting a product(s) that inhibited osteoclastogenesis, as measured by counting of TRAP-positive osteoclasts. Adding an antibody either to SFRP-1 or OPG partially restored osteoclastogenesis. Adding both anti-SFRP-1 and anti-OPG fully negated the inhibitory effect of the follicle cells upon osteoclastogenesis. These results strongly suggest that SFRP-1 and OPG, both secreted by the dental follicle cells, use different pathways to exert their inhibitory effect on osteoclastogenesis. Based on these in vitro studies of osteoclastogenesis, it is likely that the downregulation of SFRP-1 gene expression in the dental follicle at days 3 and 9 is a contributory factor in allowing the major and minor bursts of osteoclastogenesis to occur. Thus, inhibition of SFRP-1 gene expression in combination with inhibition of OPG gene expression likely are critical events in enabling alveolar bone resorption to occur such that teeth will erupt.

Defining the roots of cementum formation

Significant progress has been seen in research aimed at regeneration of the disease-damaged periodontium. Our own strategy has been to approach periodontal tissue development (i.e. root, cementum, periodontal ligament, and bone) as a source for the identification of key regulators of cellular processes that may be applicable to periodontal tissue repair. Specifically, enamel-like molecules, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), and phosphates have been investigated for their role in altering gene expression and cell functions in follicle cells, periodontal ligament cells, and cementoblasts. Amelogenin, leucine-rich amelogenin peptide, and tyrosine-rich amelogenin peptide have been found to similarly affect cementoblast gene expression and cementoblast-mediated mineralization in vitro; however, these enamel-like factors do not increase cell proliferation as has been observed in cells treated with Emdogain (Biora AB, Malmö, Sweden), an enamel matrix derivative. BMP-2 has been found to promote differentiation of follicle cells into a cementoblast/osteoblast phenotype, and BMP-3 is being investigated as a negative regulator of mineralization. The increased ratio of phosphate to pyrophosphate in the local region during root development has been found to significantly enhance the extent of cementum formation in animal models. Furthermore, phosphate has been identified as a regulator of cementoblast SIBLING (small integrin-binding ligand N-linked glycoprotein) gene expression in vitro. These investigations of candidate factors for periodontal regeneration have uncovered mechanisms regulating gene expression and cell function in cells controlling the behavior of periodontal tissues (i.e. follicle cells, periodontal cells, and cementoblasts) and offer new directions to consider for clinical repair of periodontal defects.

Effect of interleukin-10 on gene expression of osteoclastogenic regulatory molecules in the rat dental follicle

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of interleukin-10 (IL-10) on the gene expression of osteoclastogenic regulatory molecules in rat dental follicle cells. Interleukin-10 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that inhibits alveolar bone resorption, but the molecular basis for this is unknown. Alveolar bone resorption is required for tooth eruption and the dental follicle functions to regulate the osteoclastogenesis needed for eruption. It does this by regulating its expression of receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand (RANKL), colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1), and osteoprotegerin (OPG). In this study, dental follicle cells were treated with IL-10, and the effect on gene expression of CSF-1, RANKL, and OPG was measured by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Interleukin-10 enhanced the expression of OPG and down-regulated the expression of RANKL and CSF-1. Laser capture microdissection was carried out to detect IL-10 gene expression in the dental follicle. Knockdown of the IL-10 gene expression in the follicle cells was accomplished using a short interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting IL-10 mRNA. In these knockdowns, RANKL expression was increased and OPG expression was decreased. All of these results suggest that IL-10 inhibits bone resorption by up-regulating OPG expression while down-regulating expression of RANKL and CSF-1.

CSF-1 regulation of osteoclastogenesis for tooth eruption

The dental follicle regulates the alveolar bone resorption needed for tooth eruption. In the rat first mandibular molar, a decrease in the expression of osteoprotegerin (OPG) in the dental follicle at day 3 enables the osteoclastogenesis needed for eruption to occur. Because colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) is maximally expressed in the dental follicle at day 3, it was hypothesized that CSF-1 down-regulates OPG gene expression in the dental follicle in vivo. To test this, we compared the expression of OPG in osteopetrotic toothless (tl/tl) rats deficient in CSF-1 with expression in their normal littermates for given ages. OPG gene expression was found to be higher in the dental follicle of the tl/tl mutants than in normals. Transfecting short interfering RNA specific for CSF-1 mRNA into dental follicle cells resulted in an up-regulation of OPG expression. Thus, these studies support our hypothesis that the down-regulation of OPG needed for tooth eruption is mediated by CSF-1.

Chronology and regulation of gene expression of RANKL in the rat dental follicle

Tooth eruption in the rat requires bone resorption resulting from a major burst of osteoclastogenesis on postnatal day 3 and a minor burst of osteoclastogenesis on postnatal day 10 in the alveolar bone of the first mandibular molar. The dental follicle regulates the major burst on postnatal day 3 by down-regulating its osteoprotegerin (OPG) gene expression to enable osteoclastogenesis to occur. To determine the role of receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand (RANKL) in tooth eruption, its gene expression was measured on postnatal days 1-11 in the dental follicle. The results show that RANKL expression was significantly elevated on postnatal days 9-11 in comparison to low expression levels at earlier time-points. As OPG expression is high at this latter time-point, this increase in RANKL expression would be needed for stimulating the minor burst of osteoclastogenesis. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha enhances RANKL gene expression in vitro and it may be responsible for up-regulating RANKL in vivo. Transforming growth factor-beta1 and interleukin-1alpha also enhance RANKL gene expression in vitro but probably have no effect in vivo because they are maximally expressed early. Bone morphogenetic protein-2 acts to down-regulate RANKL expression in vitro and, in vivo, may promote alveolar bone growth in the basal region of the tooth.

Isolation of precursor cells (PCs) from human dental follicle of wisdom teeth

The dental follicle is an ectomesenchymal tissue surrounding the developing tooth germ. It is believed that this tissue contains stem cells and lineage committed progenitor cells or precursor cells (PCs) for cementoblasts, periodontal ligament cells, and osteoblasts. In this study, we report the isolation of PCs derived from dental follicle of human third molar teeth. These fibroblast-like, colony forming and plastic adherent cells expressed putative stem cell markers Notch-1 and Nestin. We compared gene expressions of PCs, human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs), periodontal ligament cells (PDL-cells) and osteoblasts (MG63) for delimitation of PCs. Interestingly, PCs expressed higher amounts of insulin-like growth factor-2 (IGF-2) transcripts than hMSCs. Differentiation capacity was demonstrated under in vitro conditions for PCs. Long-term cultures with dexamethasone produced compact calcified nodules or appeared as plain membrane structures of different dimensions consisting of a connective tissue like matrix encapsulated by a mesothelium-like cellular structure. PCs differentially express osteocalcin (OCN) and bone sialoprotein (BS) after transplantation in immunocompromised mice but without any sign of cementum or bone formation. Therefore, our results demonstrate that cultured PCs are unique undifferentiated lineage committed cells residing in the periodontium prior or during tooth eruption.

Regulation of secretion of osteoprotegerin in rat dental follicle cells

Tooth eruption requires alveolar bone resorption and formation, both of which appear to be regulated by the dental follicle. Osteoclastogenesis needed for this bone resorption appears to occur as a result of a reduction in the expression of the osteoprotegerin (OPG) gene in the dental follicle at a specific time. This reduction in expression is mediated in vitro in the follicle cells by colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) and parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP). Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and immunoblotting, this study shows that the reduction in expression of OPG after incubation of the dental follicle cells in either CSF-1 or PTHrP also results in a reduction in its secretion. We also show, by laser capture microdissection, that PTHrP is expressed in vivo in the stellate reticulum such that it could inhibit OPG expression via a paracrine effect on the follicle. Bone formation is enhanced by OPG secretion, and incubation of the follicle cells with bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) enhances OPG secretion. Thus, a reduction in secretion of the OPG protein at defined times may promote the osteoclastogenesis and alveolar bone resorption needed for eruption, and enhancement of OPG secretion at other times may promote alveolar bone formation.