Polymeric nanostructured materials for biomedical applications

Advanced Biomaterials Derived from Functional Polyphosphoesters: Synthesis, Properties, and Biomedical Applications

Polyphosphoesters (PPEs) represent an innovative class of biodegradable polymers, with the phosphate ester serving as the core repeating unit of their polymeric backbone. Recently, biomaterials derived from functionalized PPEs have garnered significant interest in biomedical applications because of their commendable biocompatibility, biodegradability, and the capacity for functional modification. This review commences with a brief overview of synthesis methodologies and the distinctive properties of PPEs, including thermoresponsiveness, degradability, stealth effect, and biocompatibility. Subsequently, the review delves into the latest applications of PPEs-based nanocarriers for drug or gene delivery and PPEs-based polymeric prodrugs and scaffolds in the biomedical field, presenting several illustrative examples for each application. By encapsulating the advancements of recent years, this review aims to offer an enhanced understanding and serve as a reference for the synthesis and biomedical applications of functional PPEs.

Enzymatically Activatable Polymers for Disease Diagnosis and Treatment

The irregular expression or activity of enzymes in the human body leads to various pathological disorders and can therefore be used as an intrinsic trigger for more precise identification of disease foci and controlled release of diagnostics and therapeutics, leading to improved diagnostic accuracy, sensitivity, and therapeutic efficacy while reducing systemic toxicity. Advanced synthesis strategies enable the preparation of polymers with enzymatically activatable skeletons or side chains, while understanding enzymatically responsive mechanisms promotes rational incorporation of activatable units and predictions of the release profile of diagnostics and therapeutics, ultimately leading to promising applications in disease diagnosis and treatment with superior biocompatibility and efficiency. By overcoming the challenges, new opportunities will emerge to inspire researchers to develop more efficient, safer, and clinically reliable enzymatically activatable polymeric carriers as well as prodrugs.

Recent Applications of Amphiphilic Copolymers in Drug Release Systems for Skin Treatment

Amphiphilic copolymers (ACs) are versatile systems with self-assembling and aggregating properties, enabling the formation of nanomaterials (NMs) such as micelles, vesicles, nanocapsules, and nanogels. These materials have been extensively explored for the delivery of various drugs and active compounds, enhancing the solubility and permeation of poorly water-soluble drugs into skin tissue. This improvement facilitates the treatment of skin diseases, including chronic conditions like cancer, as well as infections caused by bacteria, fungi, and viruses. This review summarizes recent applications of ACs in skin treatment, with a particular focus on their use in anti-cancer drug therapy. It covers the synthesis, classification, and characterization of ACs using various experimental techniques. Additionally, it discusses recent research on different drug delivery pathways using ACs, including encapsulation efficiency, release behavior, characteristics, applications, and responses to various chemical and physical stimuli (both in vivo and in vitro). Furthermore, this review provides a comprehensive analysis of the effects of ACs NMs on several skin diseases, highlighting their potential as alternative treatments.

Effect of Tetrapropylammonium Chloride Quaternary Ammonium Salt on Characterization, Cytotoxicity, and Antibacterial Properties of PLA/PEG Electrospun Mat

In this study, poly(lactic acid) (PLA)-tetrapropylammonium chloride (TCL)-poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) nonwoven networks were produced using PLA, PEG with different concentrations (3, 5, 7, and 9 wt%), and TCL. PEG is included as a plasticizer in PLA polymer, which has high biocompatibility but a brittle structure. The importance of this study is to investigate the effect of TCL salt on the characterization of PLA-PEG nanofibers. For this research, the cytotoxicity test system responsible for the fibroblast cell line (L929) was evaluated with the liquid absorption capacity (LAC) and drying time tests for its use in wound dressings. The addition of TCL salt reduced bead formation in PLA-PEG nanofibers and increased the homogeneity of fiber dispersion. The smoothest and most homogeneous nonwoven networks were obtained as PLA-5TCL-PEG. It was also reported that this nonwoven network exhibited liquid absorption behavior with a maximum increase of 150% compared to the PLA-PEG nonwoven network and had the highest Young's modulus value of 12.97 MPa. In addition to these tests, evaluations were made with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), drying time test, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and mechanical tests. In addition, high cell viability was observed in L292 mouse fibroblast cells at the end of the 24th hour, again with the effect of TCL salt. In addition, antibacterial activity was tested against gram-negative E. coli and gram-positive S. aureus bacteria, and it was observed that there was no antibacterial activity. Since PLA-TCL-PEG nonwoven webs have a maximum cell viability of 133.27%, they are recommended as a potential dermal wound dressing.

Unraveling the Effect of Strain Rate and Temperature on the Heterogeneous Mechanical Behavior of Polymer Nanocomposites via Atomistic Simulations and Continuum Models

Polymer nanocomposites are characterized by heterogeneous mechanical behavior and performance, which is mainly controlled by the interaction between the nanofiller and the polymer matrix. Optimizing their material performance in engineering applications requires understanding how both the temperature and strain rate of the applied deformation affect mechanical properties. This work investigates the effect of strain rate and temperature on the mechanical properties of poly(ethylene oxide)/silica (PEO/SiO2) nanocomposites, revealing their behavior in both the melt and glassy states, via atomistic molecular dynamics simulations and continuum models. In the glassy state, the results indicate that Young's modulus increases by up to 99.7% as the strain rate rises from 1.0 × 10-7 fs-1 to 1.0 × 10-4 fs-1, while Poisson's ratio decreases by up to 39.8% over the same range. These effects become even more pronounced in the melt state. Conversely, higher temperatures lead to an opposing trend. A local, per-atom analysis of stress and strain fields reveals broader variability in the local strain of the PEO/SiO2 nanocomposites as temperature increases and/or the deformation rate decreases. Both interphase and matrix regions lose rigidity at higher temperatures and lower strain rates, blurring their distinctiveness. The results of the atomistic simulations concerning the elastic modulus and Poisson's ratio are in good agreement with the predictions of the Richeton-Ji model. Additionally, these findings can be leveraged to design advanced polymer composites with tailored mechanical properties and could optimize structural components by enhancing their performance under diverse engineering conditions.

Recent Advances and Future Developments in the Preparation of Polypeptides via N-Carboxyanhydride (NCA) Ring-Opening Polymerization

Polypeptides have the same or similar backbone structures as proteins and peptides, rendering them as suitable and important biomaterials. Amino acid N-carboxyanhydrides (NCA) ring-opening polymerization has been the most efficient strategy for polypeptide preparation, with continuous advance in the design of initiators, catalysts and reaction conditions. This Perspective first summarizes the recent progress of NCA synthesis and purification. Subsequently, we focus on various initiators for NCA polymerization, catalysts for accelerating polymerization or enhancing the controllability of polymerization, and recent advances in the reaction approach of NCA polymerization. Finally, we discuss future research directions and open challenges.

Opportunities for nanomaterials in enzyme therapy

In recent years, enzyme therapy strategies have rapidly evolved to catalyze essential biochemical reactions with therapeutic potential. These approaches hold particular promise in addressing rare genetic disorders, cancer treatment, neurodegenerative conditions, wound healing, inflammation management, and infectious disease control, among others. There are several primary reasons for the utilization of enzymes as therapeutics: their substrate specificity, their biological compatibility, and their ability to generate a high number of product molecules per enzyme unit. These features have encouraged their application in enzyme replacement therapy where the enzyme serves as the therapeutic agent to rectify abnormal metabolic and physiological processes, enzyme prodrug therapy where the enzyme initiates a clinical effect by activating prodrugs, and enzyme dynamic or starving therapy where the enzyme acts upon host substrate molecules. Currently, there are >20 commercialized products based on therapeutic enzymes, but approval rates are considerably lower than other biologicals. This has stimulated nanobiotechnology in the last years to develop nanoparticle-based solutions that integrate therapeutic enzymes. This approach aims to enhance stability, prevent rapid clearance, reduce immunogenicity, and even enable spatio-temporal activation of the therapeutic catalyst. This comprehensive review delves into emerging trends in the application of therapeutic enzymes, with a particular emphasis on the synergistic opportunities presented by incorporating enzymes into nanomaterials. Such integration holds the promise of enhancing existing therapies or even paving the way for innovative nanotherapeutic approaches.

Drug Efficacy Comparison of pH-Sensitive and Non-pH-Sensitive Taxol Delivery Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy

Taxol is one of the most widely used chemotherapeutic agents but is restricted by its poor solubility and severe side effects in clinical practice. To overcome these limitations, pH-sensitive nanoparticles, Acetalated Dextran6k-PEG5k-PLA2k-Taxol (ADPP-PTX), non-pH-sensitive nanoparticles, and Propionic Anhydride modified Dextran6k-PEG5k-PLA2k-Taxol (PDPP-PTX) are developed for the delivery of Taxol. Compared with PDPP-PTX, ADPP-PTX shows higher sensitivity to acid response and greater anti-proliferative effect on cancer cells. In the in vivo study, ADPP-PTX treatment effectively suppresses the growth of tumors, while only half the dose of Taxol is used, which significantly reduces systemic toxicity compared with Taxol and PDPP-PTX.

Recent advances in the development of poly(ester amide)s-based carriers for drug delivery

Biodegradable and biocompatible biomaterials have several important applications in drug delivery. The biomaterial family known as poly(ester amide)s (PEAs) has garnered considerable interest because it exhibits the benefits of both polyester and polyamide, as well as production from readily available raw ingredients and sophisticated synthesis techniques. Specifically, α-amino acid-based PEAs (AA-PEAs) are promising carriers because of their structural flexibility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. Herein, we summarize the latest applications of PEAs in drug delivery systems, including antitumor, gene therapy, and protein drugs, and discuss the prospects of drug delivery based on PEAs, which provides a reference for designing safe and efficient drug delivery carriers.

Toward the scale-up production of polymeric nanotherapeutics for cancer clinical trials

Nanotherapeutics have gained significant attention for the treatment of numerous cancers, primarily because they can accumulate in and/or selectively target tumors leading to improved pharmacodynamics of encapsulated drugs. The flexibility to engineer the nanotherapeutic characteristics including size, morphology, drug release profiles, and surface properties make nanotherapeutics a unique platform for cancer drug formulation. Polymeric nanotherapeutics including micelles and dendrimers represent a large number of formulation strategies developed over the last decade. However, compared to liposomes and lipid-based nanotherapeutics, polymeric nanotherapeutics have had limited clinical translation from the laboratory. One of the key limitations of polymeric nanotherapeutics formulations for clinical translation has been the reproducibility in preparing consistent and homogeneous large-scale batches. In this review, we describe polymeric nanotherapeutics and discuss the most common laboratory and scale-up formulation methods, specifically those proposed for clinical cancer therapies. We also provide an overview of the major challenges and opportunities for scaling polymeric nanotherapeutics to clinical-grade formulations. Finally, we will review the regulatory requirements and challenges in advancing nanotherapeutics to the clinic.

Biodynamer Nano-Complexes and -Emulsions for Peptide and Protein Drug Delivery

Background

Therapeutic proteins and peptides offer great advantages compared to traditional synthetic molecular drugs. However, stable protein loading and precise control of protein release pose significant challenges due to the extensive range of physicochemical properties inherent to proteins. The development of a comprehensive protein delivery strategy becomes imperative accounting for the diverse nature of therapeutic proteins.

Methods

Biodynamers are amphiphilic proteoid dynamic polymers consisting of amino acid derivatives connected through pH-responsive dynamic covalent chemistry. Taking advantage of the amphiphilic nature of the biodynamers, PNCs and DEs were possible to be prepared and investigated to compare the delivery efficiency in drug loading, stability, and cell uptake.

Results

As a result, the optimized PNCs showed 3-fold encapsulation (<90%) and 5-fold loading capacity (30%) compared to DE-NPs. PNCs enhanced the delivery efficiency into the cells but aggregated easily on the cell membrane due to the limited stability. Although DE-NPs were limited in loading capacity compared to PNCs, they exhibit superior adaptability in stability and capacity for delivering a wider range of proteins compared to PNCs.

Conclusion

Our study highlights the potential of formulating both PNCs and DE-NPs using the same biodynamers, providing a comparative view on protein delivery efficacy using formulation methods.

Design and Synthesis of Biomedical Polymer Materials

Due to their biocompatibility and non-toxic nature, biomedical polymer materials have found widespread applications and significantly propelled the progress of the biomedical field [...].

Design and applications of polymer-like peptides in biomedical nanogels

INTRODUCTION

Polymer nanogels are among the most promising nanoplatforms for use in biomedical applications. The substantial interest for these drug carriers is to enhance the transportation of bioactive substances, reduce the side effects, and achieve optimal action on the curative sites by targeting delivery and triggering the release of the drugs in a controlled and continuous mode.

AREA COVERED

The review discusses the opportunities, applications, and challenges of synthetic polypeptide nanogels in biomedicine, with an emphasis on the recent progress in cancer therapy. It is evidenced by the development of polypeptide nanogels for better controlled drug delivery and release, in complex in vivo microenvironments in biomedical applications.

EXPERT OPINION

Polypeptide nanogels can be developed by choosing the amino acids from the peptide structure that are suitable for the type of application. Using a stimulus - sensitive peptide nanogel, it is possible to obtain the appropriate transport and release of the drug, as well as to achieve desirable therapeutic effects, including safety, specificity, and efficiency. The final system represents an innovative way for local and sustained drug delivery at a specific site of the body.

Natural Nano-Minerals (NNMs): Conception, Classification and Their Biomedical Composites

Natural nano-minerals (NNMs) are minerals that are derived from nature with a size of less than 100 nm in at least one dimension in size. NNMs have a number of excellent properties due to their unique nanostructure and have been applied in various fields in recent years. They are rising stars in various disciplines, such as materials, biomedicine, and chemistry, taking advantage of their huge surface area, multiple active sites, excellent adsorption capacity, large quantity, low cost, and nontoxicity, etc. To provide a more comprehensive overview of NNMs and the biomedical applications of NNMs-based nanocomposites, this review classifies NNMs into three types by dimension, lists the structure and properties of typical NNMs, and illustrates their biomedical applications. Furthermore, a novel concept of natural nanomineral medical materials (NNMMs) is proposed, focusing on the medical value of NNMs. In addition, this review attempts to address the current challenges and delineate future directions for the advancement of NNMs. With the deepening of biomedical applications, it is believed that NNMMMs will inevitably play an important role in the field of human health and contribute to its promotion.

Introducing urea into tirapazamine derivatives to enhance anticancer therapy

Tirapazamine (TPZ) has been approved for multiple clinical trials relying on its excellent anticancer potential. However, as a typical hypoxia-activated prodrug (HAP), TPZ did not exhibit survival advantages in Phase III clinical trials when used in combination therapy due to the insufficient hypoxia levels in patients' tumors. In this study, to improve the therapeutic effects of TPZ, we first introduced urea to synthesize a series of urea-containing derivatives of TPZ. All urea-containing TPZ derivatives showed increased hypoxic cytotoxicity (9.51-30.85-fold) compared with TPZ, while maintaining hypoxic selectivity. TPZP, one of these derivatives, showed 20-fold higher cytotoxicity than TPZ while maintaining a similar hypoxic cytotoxicity ratio. To highly efficiently deliver TPZP to the tumors and reduce its side effects on healthy tissues, we further prepared TPZP into a nanodrug with fibrin-targeting ability: FT11-TPZP-NPs. CA4-NPs, a vascular disrupting agent, was used to increase the fibrin level within tumors and exacerbate tumor hypoxia. By being combined with CA4-NPs, FT11-TPZP-NPs can accumulate in the hypoxia-aggravated tumors and activate sufficiently to kill tumor cells. After a single-dose treatment, FT11-TPZP-NPs + CA4-NPs showed a high inhibition rate of 98.1% against CT26 tumor models with an initial volume of ∼480 mm3 and four out of six tumors were completely eliminated; it thereby exerted a significant antitumor effect. This study provides a new strategy for improving the therapeutic effect of TPZ and other HAPs in anticancer therapy.

Nanogel-based composites for bacterial antibiofilm activity: advances, challenges, and prospects

Nano-based approaches, particularly nanogels, have recently emerged as a potential strategy for combating biofilm-related infections. Their exceptional characteristics including biocompatibility, biodegradability, stability, high water content, stimuli-responsiveness, and their nano size (which enables their penetration into biofilms) make nanogels a promising technology in the biomedical field. However, exploring nanogels for biofilm treatment remains in its early stages. This review examined the status of nanogels application for the treatment of bacterial biofilms. Recent investigations studied nanogels derived from natural polymers like chitosan (CS), hyaluronic acid (HA), and alginate, among others, for eliminating and inhibiting biofilms. These nanogels were utilized as carriers for diverse antibiofilm agents, encompassing antibiotics, antimicrobial peptides, natural extracts, and nanoparticles. Utilizing mechanisms like conventional antibody-mediated pathways, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, chemodynamic therapy, and EPS degradation, these nanogels effectively administered antibiofilm drugs, exhibiting efficacy across several bacterial strains, notably Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa), and Escherichia coli (E. coli), among others. Despite showing promise, nanogels remain relatively underexplored in biofilm treatment. This review concludes that research gaps are still present in biofilm treatment processes including (i) a better understanding of the stimuli-responsive behaviors of nanogels, (ii) active targeting strategies, and (iii) the narrow spectrum of antibiofilm agents loaded into nanogels. Hence, future studies could be directed towards the following elements: the exploration of multi-strain biofilms rather than single-strain biofilms, other endogenous and exogenous stimuli to trigger drug release, active targeting mechanisms, a broader range of antibiofilm agents when employing nanogels, and fostering more comprehensive and reliable biofilm treatment strategies. This review found that there are currently several research gaps as well in the use of nanogels for biofilm therapy, and these include: (i) very limited exogenous and endogenous stimuli were explored to trigger drug release from nanogels, (ii) the active targeting strategies were not explored, (iii) a very narrow spectrum of antibiofilm agents was loaded into nanogels, and (iv) only biofilms of single strains were investigated.

Ionic Liquid-Based Polymer Matrices for Single and Dual Drug Delivery: Impact of Structural Topology on Characteristics and In Vitro Delivery Efficiency

Previously reported amphiphilic linear and graft copolymers, derived from the ionic liquid [2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl]trimethylammonium chloride (TMAMA_Cl‾), along with their conjugates obtained through modification either before or after polymerization with p-aminosalicylate anions (TMAMA_PAS‾), were employed as matrices in drug delivery systems (DDSs). Based on the counterion type in TMAMA units, they were categorized into single drug systems, manifesting as ionic polymers with chloride counterions and loaded isoniazid (ISO), and dual drug systems, featuring ISO loaded in self-assembled PAS conjugates. The amphiphilic nature of these copolymers was substantiated through the determination of the critical micelle concentration (CMC), revealing an increase in values post-ion exchange (from 0.011-0.063 mg/mL to 0.027-0.181 mg/mL). The self-assembling properties were favorable for ISO encapsulation, with drug loading content (DLC) ranging between 15 and 85% in both single and dual systems. In vitro studies indicated ISO release percentages between 16 and 61% and PAS release percentages between 20 and 98%. Basic cytotoxicity assessments using the 2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) test affirmed the non-toxicity of the studied systems toward human non-tumorigenic lung epithelial cell line (BEAS-2B) cell lines, particularly in the case of dual systems bearing both ISO and PAS simultaneously. These results confirmed the effectiveness of polymeric carriers in drug delivery, demonstrating their potential for co-delivery in combination therapy.

Elimination of Pharmaceutical Compounds from Aqueous Solution through Novel Functionalized Pitch-Based Porous Adsorbents: Kinetic, Isotherm, Thermodynamic Studies and Mechanism Analysis

The long-term presence of PPCPs in the aqueous environment poses a potentially significant threat to human life and physical health and the safety of the water environment. In our previous work, we investigated low-cost pitch-based HCP adsorbents with an excellent adsorption capacity and magnetic responsiveness through a simple one-step Friedel-Crafts reaction. In this work, we further investigated the adsorption behavior of the prepared pitch-based adsorbents onto three PPCP molecules (DFS, AMP, and antipyrine) in detail. The maximum adsorption capacity of P-MPHCP for DFS was 444.93 mg g-1. The adsorption equilibrium and kinetic processes were well described through the Langmuir model and the proposed secondary kinetic model. The negative changes in Gibbs free energy and enthalpy reflected that the adsorption of HCPs onto PPCPs was a spontaneous exothermic process. The recoverability results showed that the adsorption of MPHCP and P-MPHCP onto DFS remained above 95% after 10 adsorption-desorption cycles. The present work further demonstrates that these pitch-based adsorbents can be used for multiple applications, which have a very extensive practical application prospect.

Insights into the heterogeneity of levan polymers synthesized by levansucrase Bs-SacB from Bacillus subtilis 168

Levan is an enzymatically synthesized fructose polymer with widely reported structural heterogeneity depending on the producing levansucrase, the reaction conditions employed for its synthesis and the characterization techniques. We studied here the specific properties of levan produced by recombinant levansucrase from B. subtilis 168 (Bs-SacB), often characterized as a bimodal distribution, that is, a mixture of low and high molecular weight levan. We found significant differences between both levans in terms of the already reported molecular weight, size and morphology using different analytical methods. The low molecular weight levan consists of a non-uniform polymer ranging from 50 to 230 kDa, synthesized through a non-processive mechanism that can spontaneously form spherical nanoparticles in the reaction medium. In contrast, high molecular weight levan is a uniform polymer, most probably synthesized through a processive mechanism, with an average molecular weight of 30,750 kDa and a poorly defined nano-structure. This is the first report exploring differences in morphology between low and high molecular weight levans. Our findings demonstrate that only the low molecular weight levan forms spherical nanoparticles in the reaction medium and that high molecular weight levan is mainly composed of a 33,000 kDa fraction with a microgel behavior.

Biodegradable Polymer-Based Drug-Delivery Systems for Ocular Diseases

Ocular drug delivery is a challenging field due to the unique anatomical and physiological barriers of the eye. Biodegradable polymers have emerged as promising tools for efficient and controlled drug delivery in ocular diseases. This review provides an overview of biodegradable polymer-based drug-delivery systems for ocular diseases with emphasis on the potential for biodegradable polymers to overcome the limitations of conventional methods, allowing for sustained drug release, improved bioavailability, and targeted therapy. Natural and synthetic polymers are both discussed, highlighting their biodegradability and biocompatibility. Various formulation strategies, such as nanoparticles, hydrogels, and microemulsions, among others, are investigated, detailing preparation methods, drug encapsulation, and clinical applications. The focus is on anterior and posterior segment drug delivery, covering glaucoma, corneal disorders, ocular inflammation, retinal diseases, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy. Safety considerations, such as biocompatibility evaluations, in vivo toxicity studies, and clinical safety, are addressed. Future perspectives encompass advancements, regulatory considerations, and clinical translation challenges. In conclusion, biodegradable polymers offer potential for efficient and targeted ocular drug delivery, improving therapeutic outcomes while reducing side effects. Further research is needed to optimize formulation strategies and address regulatory requirements for successful clinical implementation.

Trends in the Synthesis of Polymer Nano- and Microscale Materials for Bio-Related Applications

Polymeric nano- and microscale materials bear significant potential in manifold applications related to biomedicine. This is owed not only to the large chemical diversity of the constituent polymers, but also to the various morphologies these materials can achieve, ranging from simple particles to intricate self-assembled structures. Modern synthetic polymer chemistry permits the tuning of many physicochemical parameters affecting the behavior of polymeric nano- and microscale materials in the biological context. In this Perspective, an overview of the synthetic principles underlying the modern preparation of these materials is provided, aiming to demonstrate how advances in and ingenious implementations of polymer chemistry fuel a range of applications, both present and prospective.

Ring Opening Copolymerization of Boron-Containing Anhydride with Epoxides as a Controlled Platform to Functional Polyesters

Boron-functionalized polymers are used in opto-electronics, biology, and medicine. Methods to produce boron-functionalized and degradable polyesters remain exceedingly rare but relevant where (bio)dissipation is required, for example, in self-assembled nanostructures, dynamic polymer networks, and bio-imaging. Here, a boronic ester-phthalic anhydride and various epoxides (cyclohexene oxide, vinyl-cyclohexene oxide, propene oxide, allyl glycidyl ether) undergo controlled ring-opening copolymerization (ROCOP), catalyzed by organometallic complexes [Zn(II)Mg(II) or Al(III)K(I)] or a phosphazene organobase. The polymerizations are well controlled allowing for the modulation of the polyester structures (e.g., by epoxide selection, AB, or ABA blocks), molar masses (9.4 < M_n < 40 kg/mol), and uptake of boron functionalities (esters, acids, "ates", boroxines, and fluorescent groups) in the polymer. The boronic ester-functionalized polymers are amorphous, with high glass transition temperatures (81 < T_g < 224 °C) and good thermal stability (285 < T_d < 322 °C). The boronic ester-polyesters are deprotected to yield boronic acid- and borate-polyesters; the ionic polymers are water soluble and degradable under alkaline conditions. Using a hydrophilic macro-initiator in alternating epoxide/anhydride ROCOP, and lactone ring opening polymerization, produces amphiphilic AB and ABC copolyesters. Alternatively, the boron-functionalities are subjected to Pd(II)-catalyzed cross-couplings to install fluorescent groups (BODIPY). The utility of this new monomer as a platform to construct specialized polyesters materials is exemplified here in the synthesis of fluorescent spherical nanoparticles that self-assemble in water (D_h = 40 nm). The selective copolymerization, variable structural composition, and adjustable boron loading represent a versatile technology for future explorations of degradable, well-defined, and functional polymers.

Transforming Wound Management: Nanomaterials and Their Clinical Impact

Wound healing is a complex process that can be further complicated in chronic wounds, leading to prolonged healing times, high healthcare costs, and potential patient morbidity. Nanotechnology has shown great promise in developing advanced wound dressings that promote wound healing and prevent infection. The review article presents a comprehensive search strategy that was applied to four databases, namely Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar, using specific keywords and inclusion/exclusion criteria to select a representative sample of 164 research articles published between 2001 and 2023. This review article provides an updated overview of the different types of nanomaterials used in wound dressings, including nanofibers, nanocomposites, silver-based nanoparticles, lipid nanoparticles, and polymeric nanoparticles. Several recent studies have shown the potential benefits of using nanomaterials in wound care, including the use of hydrogel/nano silver-based dressings in treating diabetic foot wounds, the use of copper oxide-infused dressings in difficult-to-treat wounds, and the use of chitosan nanofiber mats in burn dressings. Overall, developing nanomaterials in wound care has complemented nanotechnology in drug delivery systems, providing biocompatible and biodegradable nanomaterials that enhance wound healing and provide sustained drug release. Wound dressings are an effective and convenient method of wound care that can prevent wound contamination, support the injured area, control hemorrhaging, and reduce pain and inflammation. This review article provides valuable insights into the potential role of individual nanoformulations used in wound dressings in promoting wound healing and preventing infections, and serves as an excellent resource for clinicians, researchers, and patients seeking improved healing outcomes.

In Vitro Study of the Anti-inflammatory and Antifibrotic Activity of Tannic Acid-Coated Curcumin-Loaded Nanoparticles in Human Tenocytes

Tendinitis is a tendon disorder related to inflammation and pain, due to an injury or overuse of the tissue, which is hypocellular and hypovascular, leading to limited repair which occurs in a disorganized deposition of extracellular matrix that leads to scar formation and fibrosis, ultimately resulting in impaired tendon integrity. Current conventional treatments are limited and often ineffective, highlighting the need for new therapeutic strategies. In this work, acetalated-dextran nanoparticles (AcDEX NPs) loaded with curcumin and coated with tannic acid (TA) are developed to exploit the anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic properties of the two compounds. For this purpose, a microfluidic technique was used in order to obtain particles with a precise size distribution, aiming to decrease the batch-to-batch variability for possible future clinical translation. Coating with TA increased not only the stability of the nanosystem in different media but also enhanced the interaction and the cell-uptake in primary human tenocytes and KG-1 macrophages. The nanosystem exhibited good biocompatibility toward these cell types and a good release profile in an inflammatory environment. The efficacy was demonstrated by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, in which the curcumin loaded in the particles showed good anti-inflammatory properties by decreasing the expression of NF-κb and TA-coated NPs showing anti-fibrotic effect, decreasing the gene expression of TGF-β. Overall, due to the loading of curcumin and TA in the AcDEX NPs, and their synergistic activity, this nanosystem has promising properties for future application in tendinitis.

Thermo-induced physically crosslinked polypeptide-based block copolymer hydrogels for biomedical applications

Stimuli-responsive synthetic polypeptide-containing block copolymers have received considerable attention in recent years. Especially, unique thermo-induced sol-gel phase transitions were observed for elaborately-designed amphiphilic diblock copolypeptides and a range of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-polypeptide block copolymers. The thermo-induced gelation mechanisms involve the evolution of secondary conformation, enhanced intramolecular interactions, as well as reduced hydration and increased chain entanglement of PEG blocks. The physical parameters, including polymer concentrations, sol-gel transition temperatures and storage moduli, were investigated. The polypeptide hydrogels exhibited good biocompatibility in vitro and in vivo, and displayed biodegradation periods ranging from 1 to 5 weeks. The unique thermo-induced sol-gel phase transitions offer the feasibility of minimal-invasive injection of the precursor aqueous solutions into body, followed by in situ hydrogel formation driven by physiological temperature. These advantages make polypeptide hydrogels interesting candidates for diverse biomedical applications, especially as injectable scaffolds for 3D cell culture and tissue regeneration as well as depots for local drug delivery. This review focuses on recent advances in the design and preparation of injectable, thermo-induced physically crosslinked polypeptide hydrogels. The influence of composition, secondary structure and chirality of polypeptide segments on the physical properties and biodegradation of the hydrogels are emphasized. Moreover, the studies on biomedical applications of the hydrogels are intensively discussed. Finally, the major challenges in the further development of polypeptide hydrogels for practical applications are proposed.

Polymer-Based Nanostructures for Pancreatic Beta-Cell Imaging and Non-Invasive Treatment of Diabetes

Diabetes poses major economic, social, and public health challenges in all countries worldwide. Besides cardiovascular disease and microangiopathy, diabetes is a leading cause of foot ulcers and lower limb amputations. With the continued rise of diabetes prevalence, it is expected that the future burden of diabetes complications, early mortality, and disabilities will increase. The diabetes epidemic is partly caused by the current lack of clinical imaging diagnostic tools, the timely monitoring of insulin secretion and insulin-expressing cell mass (beta (β)-cells), and the lack of patients' adherence to treatment, because some drugs are not tolerated or invasively administrated. In addition to this, there is a lack of efficient topical treatment capable of stopping the progression of disabilities, in particular for treating foot ulcers. In this context, polymer-based nanostructures garnered significant interest due to their tunable physicochemical characteristics, rich diversity, and biocompatibility. This review article emphasizes the last advances and discusses the prospects in the use of polymeric materials as nanocarriers for β-cell imaging and non-invasive drug delivery of insulin and antidiabetic drugs in the management of blood glucose and foot ulcers.

Microfluidics in drug delivery: review of methods and applications

Microfluidics technology has emerged as a promising methodology for the fabrication of a wide variety of advanced drug delivery systems. Owing to its ability for accurate handling and processing of small quantities of fluidics as well as immense control over physicochemical properties of fabricated micro and nanoparticles (NPs), microfluidic technology has significantly improved the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs. This emerging technology has offered numerous advantages over the conventional drug delivery methods for fabricating of a variety of micro and nanocarriers for poorly soluble drugs. In addition, a microfluidic system can be designed for targeted drug delivery aiming to increase the local bioavailability of drugs. This review spots the light on the recent advances made in the area of microfluidics including various methods of fabrication of drug carriers, their characterization, and unique features. Furthermore, applications of microfluidic technology for the robust fabrication and development of drug delivery systems, the existing challenges associated with conventional fabrication methodologies as well as the proposed solutions offered by microfluidic technology have been discussed in details.HighlightsMicrofluidic technology has revolutionized fabrication of tunable micro and nanocarriers.Microfluidic platforms offer several advantages over the conventional fabrication methods.Microfluidic devices hold great promise in controlling the physicochemical features of fabricated drug carriers.Micro and nanocarriers with controllable release kinetics and site-targeting efficiency can be fabricated.Drug carriers fabricated by microfluidic technology exhibited improved pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles.

Polymeric biomolecules based nanomaterials: Production strategies and pollutant mitigation as an emerging tool for environmental application

The ever-exploding global population coupled with its anthropogenic impact has imparted unparalleled detrimental effects on the environment and mitigating them has emerged as the prime challenge and focus of the current century. The niche of nanotechnology empowered by composites of biopolymers in the handling of xenobiotics and environmental clean-up has an unlimited scope. The appositeness of biopolymer-nanoparticles (Bp-NPs) for environmental contaminant mitigation has received unique consideration due to its exclusive combination of physicochemical characteristics and other attributes. The current review furnishes exhaustive scrutiny of the current accomplishments in the development of Bp-NPs and biopolymer nanomaterials (Bp-NMs) from various polymeric biomolecules. Special attention was provided for polymeric biomolecules such as cellulose, lignin, starch, chitin, and chitosan, whereas limited consideration on gelatin, alginate, and gum for the development of Bp-NPs and Bp-NMs; together with coverage of literature. Promising applications of tailored biopolymer hybrids such as Bp-NPs and Bp-NMs on environmentally hazardous xenobiotics handling and pollution management are discussed as to their notable environmental applications.

Resorbable Nanomatrices from Microbial Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Design Strategy and Characterization

From a series of biodegradable natural polymers of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)-poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (P(3HB) and copolymers containing, in addition to 3HB monomers, monomers of 3-hydroxyvalerate (3HV), 3-hydroxyhexanoate (3HHx), and 4-hydroxybutyrate (4HB), with different ratios of monomers poured-solvent casting films and nanomembranes with oriented and non-oriented ultrathin fibers were obtained by electrostatic molding. With the use of SEM, AFM, and measurement of contact angles and energy characteristics, the surface properties and mechanical and biological properties of the polymer products were studied depending on the method of production and the composition of PHAs. It has been shown in cultures of mouse fibroblasts of the NIH 3T3 line and diploid human embryonic cells of the M22 line that elastic films and nanomembranes composed of P(3HB-co-4HB) copolymers have high biocompatibility and provide adhesion, proliferation and preservation of the high physiological activity of cells for up to 7 days. Polymer films, namely oriented and non-oriented nanomembranes coated with type 1 collagen, are positively evaluated as experimental wound dressings in experiments on laboratory animals with model and surgical skin lesions. The results of planimetric measurements of the dynamics of wound healing and analysis of histological sections showed the regeneration of model skin defects in groups of animals using experimental wound dressings from P(3HB-co-4HB) of all types, but most actively when using non-oriented nanomembranes obtained by electrospinning. The study highlights the importance of nonwoven nanomembranes obtained by electrospinning from degradable low-crystalline copolymers P(3HB-co-4HB) in the effectiveness of the skin wound healing process.

Prospection of Microfluidics for Local Drug Delivery

Significant endeavors can be made to develop effective drug delivery systems. Nowadays, many of these novel systems have gained attention as they focus primarily on increasing the bioavailability and bioaccessibility of several drugs to finally minimize the side effects, thus improving the treatment's efficacy. Microfluidics systems are unquestionably a superior technology, which is currently revolutionizing the current chemical and biological studies, providing diminutive chip-scale devices that offer precise dosage, target-precise delivery, and controlled release. Microfluidic systems have emerged as a promising delivery vehicle owing to their potential for defined handling and transporting of small liquid quantities. The latest microfabrication developments have been made for application to several biological systems. Here, we review the fundamentals of microfluidics and their application for local drug delivery.

Dynamics of Polymer Chains in Poly(ethylene oxide)/Silica Nanocomposites via a Combined Computational and Experimental Approach

The dynamics of polymer chains in poly(ethylene oxide)/silica (PEO/SiO₂) nanoparticle nanohybrids have been investigated via a combined computational and experimental approach involving atomistic molecular dynamics simulations and dielectric relaxation spectroscopy (DRS) measurements. The complementarity of the approaches allows us to study systems with different polymer molecular weights, nanoparticle radii, and compositions across a broad range of temperatures. We study the effects of spatial confinement, which is induced by the nanoparticles, and chain adsorption on the polymer's structure and dynamics. The investigation of the static properties of the nanocomposites via detailed atomistic simulations revealed a heterogeneous polymer density layer at the vicinity of the PEO/SiO₂ interface that exhibited an intense maximum close to the inorganic surface, whereas the bulk density was reached for distances ∼1-1.2 nm away from the nanoparticle. For small volume fractions of nanoparticles, the polymer dynamics, probed by the atomistic simulations of low-molecular-weight chains at high temperatures, are consistent with the presence of a thin adsorbed layer that exhibits slow dynamics, with the dynamics far away from the nanoparticle being similar to those in the bulk. However, for high volume fractions of nanoparticles (strong confinement), the dynamics of all polymer chains were predicted slower than that in the bulk. On the other hand, similar dynamics were found experimentally for both the local β-process and the segmental dynamics for high-molecular-weight systems measured at temperatures below the melting temperature of the polymer, which were probed by DRS. These differences can be attributed to various parameters, including systems of different molecular weights and nanoparticle states of dispersion, the different temperature range studied by the different methods, the potential presence of a reduced-mobility PEO/SiO₂ interfacial layer that does not contribute to the dielectric spectrum, and the presence of amorphous-crystalline interfaces in the experimental samples that may lead to a different dynamical behaviors of the PEO chains.

Size-adjustable self-assembled nanoparticles through microfluidic platform promotes neuronal differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells

Neuronal differentiation from stem cells is one of the most potent therapeutic approaches for recovering neurological function in individuals with neurodegenerative disorders. Herein, an on-demand intracellular retinoic acid released nanoparticles with tunable size and accurately controlled physico-biological properties have been prepared for achieving efficient neuronal differentiation. The amphiphilic chitosan oligosaccharide-cholesterol copolymers were synthesized by varying cholesterol content and self-assembled into spherical micelle in a microfluidic chip with different flow rates. Notably, the results indicated that by increasing the lipophilicity of the chitosan chain as well as mixing rate, the size of micelles was decreased. Retinoic acid (RA) was efficiently encapsulated in the core of micelles. The retinoic acid-containing nanoparticles could escape lysosome, accumulate in the cytoplasm, and release payload with a sustained pattern. The cytotoxicity assay of free retinoic acid and retinoic acid-loaded formulations against P19 embryonic stem cells confirmed the desirable safety of micelles. The result obtained from the uptake study showed that internalization of micelles occurs predominantly via lipid-raft endocytosis in the presence of higher cholesterol content. Moreover, the intracellular RA release upregulated the expression levels of neuronal factors. The micelles described here offer a promising nanomedicine strategy for neuronal differentiation of stem cells.

Review of Flexible Wearable Sensor Devices for Biomedical Application

With the development of cross-fertilisation in various disciplines, flexible wearable sensing technologies have emerged, bringing together many disciplines, such as biomedicine, materials science, control science, and communication technology. Over the past few years, the development of multiple types of flexible wearable devices that are widely used for the detection of human physiological signals has proven that flexible wearable devices have strong biocompatibility and a great potential for further development. These include electronic skin patches, soft robots, bio-batteries, and personalised medical devices. In this review, we present an updated overview of emerging flexible wearable sensor devices for biomedical applications and a comprehensive summary of the research progress and potential of flexible sensors. First, we describe the selection and fabrication of flexible materials and their excellent electrochemical properties. We evaluate the mechanisms by which these sensor devices work, and then we categorise and compare the unique advantages of a variety of sensor devices from the perspective of in vitro and in vivo sensing, as well as some exciting applications in the human body. Finally, we summarise the opportunities and challenges in the field of flexible wearable devices.

Advances in polysaccharide-based nano/microcapsules for biomedical applications: A review

Biocompatible and biodegradable polysaccharides are abundant and renewable natural materials. Polysaccharides and their derivatives are developed into various carrier materials for biomedical applications. In particular, advanced polysaccharide-based nano/microcapsules have received extensive attention in biomedical applications due to their good encapsulation ability and tunability. In recent years, polysaccharide-based nano/microcapsules have been widely used in drug carriers, gene carriers, antigen carriers, wound dressings, bioimaging and biosensors. Numerous research results have confirmed the feasibility, safety, and effectiveness of polysaccharide-based nano/microcapsules in the above-mentioned biomedical applications. This review discussed and analyzed the latest research strategies and design considerations for these applications in detail. The preparation methods, application strategies, and design considerations of polysaccharide-based nano/microcapsules are summarized and analyzed, and their challenges and future research prospects in biomedicine are further discussed. It is expected to provide researchers with inspiration and design ideas.

Progress in Polymeric Micelles for Drug Delivery Applications

Polymeric micelles (PMs) have made significant progress in drug delivery applications. A robust core-shell structure, kinetic stability and the inherent ability to solubilize hydrophobic drugs are the highlights of PMs. This review presents the recent advances and understandings of PMs with a focus on the latest drug delivery applications. The types, methods of preparation and characterization of PMs are described along with their applications in oral, parenteral, transdermal, intranasal and other drug delivery systems. The applications of PMs for tumor-targeted delivery have been provided special attention. The safety, quality and stability of PMs in relation to drug delivery are also provided. In addition, advanced polymeric systems and special PMs are also reviewed. The in vitro and in vivo stability assessment of PMs and recent understandings in this area are provided. The patented PMs and clinical trials on PMs for drug delivery applications are considered indicators of their tremendous future applications. Overall, PMs can help overcome many unresolved issues in drug delivery.

Temozolomide: an Overview of Biological Properties, Drug Delivery Nanosystems, and Analytical Methods

Temozolomide (TMZ) is an imidazotetrazine prodrug used to treat glioblastoma multiforme. Its physicochemical prop-erties and small size confer the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. The antitumor activity depends on pH-dependent hydrolysis of the methyldiazonium cation, which is capable of methylating purine bases (O6-guanine; N7-guanine, and N3-adenine) and causing DNA damage and cell death. TMZ is more stable in acidic media (pH ≤ 5.0) than in basic media (pH ≥ 7.0) due to the protonated form that minimizes the catalytic process. Because of this, TMZ has high oral bioavailability, but it has a half-life of 1.8 h and low brain distribution (17.8%), requiring a repeated dos-ing regimen that limits its efficacy and increases adverse events. Drug delivery Nanosystems (DDNs) improve the phys-icochemical properties of TMZ and may provide controlled and targeted delivery. Therefore, DDNs can increase the efficacy and safety of TMZ. In this context, to ensure the efficiency of DDNs, analytical methods are used to evaluate TMZ pharmacokinetic parameters, encapsulation efficiency, and the release profile of DDNs. Among the methods, high-performance liquid chromatography is the most used due to its detection sensitivity in complex matrices such as tissues and plasma. Micellar electrokinetic chromatography features fast analysis and no sample pretreatment. Spec-trophotometric methods are still used to determine encapsulation efficiency due to their low cost, despite their low sen-sitivity. This review summarizes the physicochemical and pharmacological properties of free TMZ and TMZ-loaded DDNs. In addition, this review addresses the main analytical methods employed to characterize TMZ in different ma-trices.

Synthesis of enzyme-responsive theranostic amphiphilic conjugated bottlebrush copolymers for enhanced anticancer drug delivery

Synthesis of polyfluorene (PF) based theranostic amphiphilic copolymers with simultaneously high drug loading efficiency and tumor microenvironment-specific responsiveness for promoted intracellular drug release and enhanced cancer therapy has been rarely reported likely due to the lack of efficient synthetic approaches to integrate these desirable properties. In this work, we recorded the successful preparation of well-defined theranostic amphiliphilic bottlebrush copolymers composing of fluorescent backbone of PF and tunable enzyme-degradable side chains of polytyrosine (PTyr) and POEGMA by integrating Suzuki coupling, NCA ROP and ATRP techniques. Notably, the resulting copolymer, PF₂₅-g-(PTyr₂₆-b-(POEGMA₂₈)₂ (P₄) with two branched POEGMA brushes tethered to one PTyr termini for each unit could form steady unimolecular micelles with higher fluorescence quantum yield of 18.3% in aqueous and greater entrapment efficiency (EE) of 91.0% for DOX ascribed to the efficient π-π stacking interactions between PTyr blocks and drug molecules and the unique structure of branched hydrophilic brushes with a moderate chain length. DOX@P₄ micelles revealed visualization of intracellular trafficking and accelerated drug release due to the enzyme-triggered degradation of PTyr blocks with proteinase K and subsequent deshielding of POEGMA corona for micelle destruction. In vitro and In vivo animal study further verified the intensive therapeutic efficiency with attenuated systematic toxicity. Taken together, we provided a universal strategy toward multifunctional polymeric delivery vehicles based on conjugated PF and biocompatible and degradable polypeptide by integratied Suzuki coupling and NCA ROP, and identified the branched structure of hydrophilic brushes for better performance of bottlebrush copolymers-based micelles for drug delivery applications. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Synthesis of polyfluorene (PF)-based theranostic amphiphilic copolymers with simultaneously high drug loading efficiency and tumor microenvironment-specific responsiveness for promoted intracellular drug release and enhanced cancer therapy has been rarely reported likely due to the lack of efficient synthetic approaches to integrate these desirable properties. We reported herein successful preparation of enzyme-responsive theranostic amphiliphilic bottlebrush copolymers with simultaneously high drug loading efficiency and tumor microenvironment-specific responsiveness for enhanced chemotherapy in vivo. This study therefore not only developed a universal strategy for the construction of multifunction polymeric vehicles based on the conjugated polymer of PF and degradable polypeptide by integrated Suzuki coupling and NCA ROP, but also emphasized the better stability of micelles endowed by the branched hydrophilic brushes than linear ones.

Recent Advances in Poly(α-L-glutamic acid)-Based Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery

Poly(α-L-glutamic acid) (PGA) is a class of synthetic polypeptides composed of the monomeric unit α-L-glutamic acid. Owing to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-immunogenicity, PGA-based nanomaterials have been elaborately designed for drug delivery systems. Relevant studies including the latest research results on PGA-based nanomaterials for drug delivery have been discussed in this work. The following related topics are summarized as: (1) a brief description of the synthetic strategies of PGAs; (2) an elaborated presentation of the evolving applications of PGA in the areas of drug delivery, including the rational design, precise fabrication, and biological evaluation; (3) a profound discussion on the further development of PGA-based nanomaterials in drug delivery. In summary, the unique structures and superior properties enables PGA-based nanomaterials to represent as an enormous potential in biomaterials-related drug delivery areas.

Biomedical polymers: synthesis, properties, and applications

Biomedical polymers have been extensively developed for promising applications in a lot of biomedical fields, such as therapeutic medicine delivery, disease detection and diagnosis, biosensing, regenerative medicine, and disease treatment. In this review, we summarize the most recent advances in the synthesis and application of biomedical polymers, and discuss the comprehensive understanding of their property-function relationship for corresponding biomedical applications. In particular, a few burgeoning bioactive polymers, such as peptide/biomembrane/microorganism/cell-based biomedical polymers, are also introduced and highlighted as the emerging biomaterials for cancer precision therapy. Furthermore, the foreseeable challenges and outlook of the development of more efficient, healthier and safer biomedical polymers are discussed. We wish this systemic and comprehensive review on highlighting frontier progress of biomedical polymers could inspire and promote new breakthrough in fundamental research and clinical translation.

Recent Advances of Poly(ester amide)s-Based Biomaterials

Biodegradable and biocompatible biomaterials have offered much more opportunities from an engineering standpoint for treating diseases and maintaining health. Poly(ester amide)s (PEAs), as an outstanding family among such biomaterials, have risen overwhelmingly in the past decades. These synthetic polymers have easily and widely available raw materials and a diversity of synthetic approaches, which have attracted considerable attention. More importantly, combining the superiorities of polyamides and polyesters, PEAs have emerged with better functions. They could have improved biodegradability, biocompatibility, and cell-material interactions. The PEAs derived from α-amino acids even allow the introduction of pendant sites for further modification or functionalization. Meanwhile, it is gradually recognized that the chemical structures are closely related to the physiochemical and biological properties of PEAs so that their properties can be precisely controlled. PEAs therefore become significant materials in the biomedical fields. This review will attempt to summarize the recent progress in the development of PEAs with respect to the preparation materials and methods, structure-property relationships along with their latest biomedical accomplishments, especially for drug delivery and tissue engineering.

Structure-Based Varieties of Polymeric Nanocarriers and Influences of Their Physicochemical Properties on Drug Delivery Profiles

Carriers are equally important as drugs. They can substantially improve bioavailability of cargos and safeguard healthy cells from toxic effects of certain therapeutics. Recently, polymeric nanocarriers (PNCs) have achieved significant success in delivering drugs not only to cells but also to subcellular organelles. Variety of natural sources, availability of different synthetic routes, versatile molecular architectures, exploitable physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, and biodegradability have presented polymers as one of the most desired materials for nanocarrier design. Recent innovative concepts and advances in PNC-associated nanotechnology are providing unprecedented opportunities to engineer nanocarriers and their functions. The efficiency of therapeutic loading has got considerably increased. Structural design-based varieties of PNCs are widely employed for the delivery of small therapeutic molecules to genes, and proteins. PNCs have gained ever-increasing attention and certainly paves the way to develop advanced nanomedicines. This article presents a comprehensive investigation of structural design-based varieties of PNCs and the influences of their physicochemical properties on drug delivery profiles with perspectives highlighting the inevitability of incorporating both the multi-stimuli-responsive and multi-drug delivery properties in a single carrier to design intelligent PNCs as new and emerging research directions in this rapidly developing area.

Research Progress and Prospects for Polymeric Nanovesicles in Anticancer Drug Delivery

Polymeric vesicles served as the most promising candidates of drug delivery nanocarriers are attracting increasing attention in cancer therapy. Significant advantages have been reported, including hydrophilic molecules with high loading capacity, controllable drug release, rapid and smart responses to stimuli and versatile functionalities. In this study, we have made a systematic review of all aspects of nano-vesicles as drug delivery vectors for cancer treatment, mainly including the following aspect: characteristics of polymeric nanovesicles, polymeric nanovesicle synthesis, and recent progress in applying polymeric nanovesicles in antitumor drug delivery. Polymer nanovesicles have the advantages of synergistic photothermal and imaging in improving the anticancer effect. Therefore, we believe that drug carrier of polymer nanovesicles is a key direction for cancer treatment.

Dexamethasone-loaded ROS-responsive poly(thioketal) nanoparticles suppress inflammation and oxidative stress of acute lung injury

Acute lung injury (ALI) is associated with excessive inflammatory response, leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) without timely treatment. A fewer effective drugs are available currently to treat the ALI/ARDS. Herein, a therapeutic nanoplatform with reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsiveness was developed for the regulation of inflammation. Dexamethasone acetate (Dex) was encapsulated into poly(thioketal) polymers to form polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) (PTKNPs@Dex). The NPs were composed of poly(1,4-phenyleneacetonedimethylene thioketal) (PPADT) and polythioketal urethane (PTKU), in which the thioketal bonds could be cleaved by the high level of ROS at the ALI site. The PTKNPs@Dex could accumulate in the pulmonary inflammatory sites and release the encapsulated payloads rapidly, leading to the decreased ROS level, less generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and reduced lung injury and mortality of mice. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis showed that the therapeutic efficacy of the NPs was associated with the modulation of many immune and inflammation-linked pathways. These findings provide a newly developed nanoplatform for the efficient treatment of ALI/ARDS.

•

A therapeutic nanoplatform with ROS-responsiveness was developed for the regulation of inflammation.

•

NPs composed of low Mw of PPADT and high Mw of PTKU were loaded with dexamethasone to obtain a self-adaptive system.

•

The Dex-loaded NPs significantly decreased lung inflammation, and reduced lung injury and mortality in vivo.

Cancer cell membrane-coated nanoparticles for bimodal imaging-guided photothermal therapy and docetaxel-enhanced immunotherapy against cancer

BACKGROUND

Mono-therapeutic modality has limitations in combating metastatic lesions with complications. Although emerging immunotherapy exhibits preliminary success, solid tumors are usually immunosuppressive, leading to ineffective antitumor immune responses and immunotherapeutic resistance. The rational combination of several therapeutic modalities may potentially become a new therapeutic strategy to effectively combat cancer.

RESULTS

Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA, 50 mg) nanospheres were constructed with photothermal transduction agents (PTAs)-Prussian blue (PB, 2.98 mg) encapsulated in the core and chemotherapeutic docetaxel (DTX, 4.18 mg)/ immune adjuvant-imiquimod (R837, 1.57 mg) loaded in the shell. Tumor cell membranes were further coated outside PLGA nanospheres (designated "M@P-PDR"), which acted as "Nano-targeted cells" to actively accumulate in tumor sites, and were guided/monitored by photoacoustic (PA)/ magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. Upon laser irradiation, photothermal effects were triggered. Combined with DTX, PTT induced in situ tumor eradication. Assisted by the immune adjuvant R837, the maturation rate of DCs increased by 4.34-fold compared with that of the control. In addition, DTX polarized M2-phenotype tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) to M1-phenotype, relieving the immunosuppressive TME. The proportion of M2-TAMs decreased from 68.57% to 32.80%, and the proportion of M1-TAMs increased from 37.02% to 70.81%. Integrating the above processes, the infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) increased from 17.33% (control) to 35.5%. Primary tumors and metastasis were significantly inhibited when treated with "Nano-targeted cells"-based cocktail therapy.

CONCLUSION

"Nano-targeted cells"-based therapeutic cocktail therapy is a promising approach to promote tumor regression and counter metastasis/recurrence.

Collagen Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery Systems and Tissue Engineering

The versatile natural polymer, collagen, has gained vast attention in biomedicine. Due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, weak antigenicity, biomimetics and well-known safety profile, it is widely used as a drug, protein and gene carrier, and as a scaffold matrix in tissue engineering. Nanoparticles develop favorable chemical and physical properties such as increased drug half-life, improved hydrophobic drug solubility and controlled and targeted drug release. Their reduced toxicity, controllable characteristics of scaffolds and stimuli-responsive behavior make them suitable in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Collagen associates and absorbs nanoparticles leading to significant impacts on their biological functioning in any biofluid. This review will discuss collagen nanoparticle preparation methods and their applications and developments in drug delivery systems and tissue engineering.

Polymer nano-systems for the encapsulation and delivery of active biomacromolecular therapeutic agents

Biomacromolecular therapeutic agents, particularly proteins, antigens, enzymes, and nucleic acids are emerging as powerful candidates for the treatment of various diseases and the development of the recent vaccine based on mRNA highlights the enormous potential of this class of drugs for future medical applications. However, biomacromolecular therapeutic agents present an enormous delivery challenge compared to traditional small molecules due to both a high molecular weight and a sensitive structure. Hence, the translation of their inherent pharmaceutical capacity into functional therapies is often hindered by the limited performance of conventional delivery vehicles. Polymer drug delivery systems are a modular solution able to address those issues. In this review, we discuss recent developments in the design of polymer delivery systems specifically tailored to the delivery challenges of biomacromolecular therapeutic agents. In the future, only in combination with a multifaceted and highly tunable delivery system, biomacromolecular therapeutic agents will realize their promising potential for the treatment of diseases and for the future of human health.