HIV requires multiple gp120 molecules for CD4-mediated infection

Slow Receptor Binding of the Noncytopathic HIV-2UC1 Envs Is Balanced by Long-Lived Activation State and Efficient Fusion Activity

Many HIV strains downregulate the levels of CD4 receptor on the surface of infected cells to prevent superinfection. In contrast, the rare HIV-2_UC1 strain is noncytopathic and has no effect on CD4 expression in infected cells but still replicates as efficiently as more cytopathic strains in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Here, we show that HIV-2_UC1 Env interactions with the CD4 receptor exhibit slow association kinetics, whereas the dissociation kinetics is within the range of cytopathic strains. Despite the resulting 10- to 100-fold decrease in binding affinity, HIV-2_UC1 Envs exhibit long-lived activation state and efficient fusion activity. These observations suggest that HIV-2_UC1 Envs evolved to balance low affinity with an improved and readily triggerable molecular machinery to mediate entry. Resistance to cold exposure, similar to many primary HIV-1 isolates, and to sCD4 neutralization suggests that HIV-2_UC1 Envs preferentially sample a closed Env conformation. Our data provide insights into the mechanism of HIV entry.

Single-Molecule Super-Resolution Imaging of T-Cell Plasma Membrane CD4 Redistribution upon HIV-1 Binding

The first step of cellular entry for the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) occurs through the binding of its envelope protein (Env) with the plasma membrane receptor CD4 and co-receptor CCR5 or CXCR4 on susceptible cells, primarily CD4+ T cells and macrophages. Although there is considerable knowledge of the molecular interactions between Env and host cell receptors that lead to successful fusion, the precise way in which HIV-1 receptors redistribute to sites of virus binding at the nanoscale remains unknown. Here, we quantitatively examine changes in the nanoscale organisation of CD4 on the surface of CD4+ T cells following HIV-1 binding. Using single-molecule super-resolution imaging, we show that CD4 molecules are distributed mostly as either individual molecules or small clusters of up to 4 molecules. Following virus binding, we observe a local 3-to-10-fold increase in cluster diameter and molecule number for virus-associated CD4 clusters. Moreover, a similar but smaller magnitude reorganisation of CD4 was also observed with recombinant gp120. For one of the first times, our results quantify the nanoscale CD4 reorganisation triggered by HIV-1 on host CD4+ T cells. Our quantitative approach provides a robust methodology for characterising the nanoscale organisation of plasma membrane receptors in general with the potential to link spatial organisation to function.

A biophysical perspective on receptor-mediated virus entry with a focus on HIV

As part of their entry and infection strategy, viruses interact with specific receptor molecules expressed on the surface of target cells. The efficiency and kinetics of the virus-receptor interactions required for a virus to productively infect a cell is determined by the biophysical properties of the receptors, which are in turn influenced by the receptors' plasma membrane (PM) environments. Currently, little is known about the biophysical properties of these receptor molecules or their engagement during virus binding and entry. Here we review virus-receptor interactions focusing on the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV), the etiological agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), as a model system. HIV is one of the best characterised enveloped viruses, with the identity, roles and structure of the key molecules required for infection well established. We review current knowledge of receptor-mediated HIV entry, addressing the properties of the HIV cell-surface receptors, the techniques used to measure these properties, and the macromolecular interactions and events required for virus entry. We discuss some of the key biophysical principles underlying receptor-mediated virus entry and attempt to interpret the available data in the context of biophysical mechanisms. We also highlight crucial outstanding questions and consider how new tools might be applied to advance understanding of the biophysical properties of viral receptors and the dynamic events leading to virus entry.

Estimating the basic reproduction number of a pathogen in a single host when only a single founder successfully infects

If viruses or other pathogens infect a single host, the outcome of infection may depend on the initial basic reproduction number R₀, the expected number of host cells infected by a single infected cell. This article shows that sometimes, phylogenetic models can estimate the initial R₀, using only sequences sampled from the pathogenic population during its exponential growth or shortly thereafter. When evaluated by simulations mimicking the bursting viral reproduction of HIV and simultaneous sampling of HIV gp120 sequences during early viremia, the estimated R₀ displayed useful accuracies in achievable experimental designs. Estimates of R₀ have several potential applications to investigators interested in the progress of infection in single hosts, including: (1) timing a pathogen’s movement through different microenvironments; (2) timing the change points in a pathogen’s mode of spread (e.g., timing the change from cell-free spread to cell-to-cell spread, or vice versa, in an HIV infection); (3) quantifying the impact different initial microenvironments have on pathogens (e.g., in mucosal challenge with HIV, quantifying the impact that the presence or absence of mucosal infection has on R₀); (4) quantifying subtle changes in infectability in therapeutic trials (either human or animal), even when therapies do not produce total sterilizing immunity; and (5) providing a variable predictive of the clinical efficacy of prophylactic therapies.

Harnessing Avidity: Quantifying the Entropic and Energetic Effects of Linker Length and Rigidity for Multivalent Binding of Antibodies to HIV-1

IgG antibodies increase their apparent affinities by using both of their Fabs to simultaneously attach to antigens. HIV-1 foils this strategy by having few, and highly separated, Envelope (Env) spike targets for antibodies, forcing most IgGs to bind monovalently. Here, we develop a statistical mechanics model of synthetic diFabs joined by DNA linkers of different lengths and flexibilities. This framework enables us to translate the energetic and entropic effects of the linker into the neutralization potency of a diFab. We demonstrate that the strongest neutralization potencies are predicted to require a rigid linker that optimally spans the distance between two Fab binding sites on an Env trimer and that avidity can be further boosted by incorporating more Fabs into these constructs. These results inform the design of multivalent anti-HIV-1 therapeutics that utilize avidity effects to remain potent against HIV-1 in the face of the rapid mutation of Env spikes.

•

Synthetic antibodies that bivalently bind to HIV-1 can markedly enhance avidity

•

Linkers that enable bivalent binding are fully characterized by the linker entropy

•

Properly sized rigid linkers outperform long, flexible linkers

•

Avidity can be further enhanced by increasing antibody valency

The Effect of Root, Shoot and Seed Extracts of The Iranian Thymus L. (Family: Lamiaceae) Species on HIV-1 Replication and CD4 Expression

Objective

The genus Thymus L. is a cushion plant that was previously used for the treatment of bronchitis and rheumatism. The present investigation was carried out to study the effects of root, shoot, leaf and seed extracts of five Thymus species and subspecies on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) toxicity and HIV-1 replication.

Materials and Methods

In this experimental study, the activity of the Thymus extracts on HIV-1 replication and lymphocytes population were examined respectively using HIV-1 p24 Antigen kit and flow-cytometer. The Thymus species effect was investigated, including Thymus kotschyanus, Thymus vulgaris, Thymus carmanicus, Thymus daenensis subspecies lancifolius and Thymus daenensis subspecies daenensis.

Results

The effect of root methanol extracts of all species on PBMCs proliferation was significantly higher than the other extracts. The intensity of CD4, CD3 and CD45 were decreased in the presence of all root extracts. Although the average median fluorescence intensity (MFI) values of CD19 were increased in the cells treated with these extracts. All methanol extracts showed anti-HIV-1 activity at high concentrations (200 and 500 µg/ml). Anti-HIV-1 activity of Thymus daenensis subspecies daenensis was significantly more than the other species.

Conclusion

These results demonstrated that root extracts of Thymus species might be a good candidate to investigate anti-HIV infection in vivo.

Molecular determinants of the ratio of inert to infectious virus particles

The ratio of virus particles to infectious units is a classic measurement in virology and ranges widely from several million to below 10 for different viruses. Much evidence suggests a distinction be made between infectious and infecting particles or virions: out of many potentially infectious virions, few infect under regular experimental conditions, largely because of diffusion barriers. Still, some virions are inert from the start; others become defective through decay. And with increasing cell- and molecular-biological knowledge of each step in the replicative cycle for different viruses, it emerges that many processes entail considerable losses of potential viral infectivity. Furthermore, all-or-nothing assumptions about virion infectivity are flawed and should be replaced by descriptions that allow for spectra of infectious propensities. A more realistic understanding of the infectivity of individual virions has both practical and theoretical implications for virus neutralization, vaccine research, antiviral therapy, and the use of viral vectors.

Membrane organization of virus and target cell plays a role in HIV entry

The initial steps of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) replication cycle play a crucial role that arbitrates viral tropism and infection efficiency. Before the release of its genome into the host cell cytoplasm, viruses operate a complex sequence of events that take place at the plasma membrane of the target cell. The first step is the binding of the HIV protein envelope (Env) to the cellular receptor CD4. This triggers conformational changes of the gp120 viral protein that allow its interaction with a co-receptor that can be either CCR5 or CXCR4, defining the tropism of the virus entering the cell. This sequential interaction finally drives the fusion of the viral and host cell membrane or to the endocytosis of the viruses. Here, we discuss how the membrane composition and organization of both the virus and the target cell can affect these steps and thus influence the capability of the viruses to infect cells.

•

An overview of lipid role in HIV infection is proposed.

•

We discuss the influence of lipid composition on HIV early steps of infection.

•

We discuss the role of membrane organization an dynamics in HIV entry.

Pannexin1 hemichannels are critical for HIV infection of human primary CD4+ T lymphocytes

HIV is a major public health issue, and infection of CD4(+) T lymphocytes is one of its key features. Whereas several cellular proteins have been identified that facilitate viral infection and replication, the role of hemichannels in these processes has not been fully characterized. We now show that the HIV isolates, R5 and X4, induced a transient-early (5-30 min) and a later, persistent (48-120 h) opening of Panx1 hemichannels, which was dependent on the binding of HIV to CD4 and CCR5/CXCR4 receptors. Blocking Panx1 hemichannels by reducing their opening or protein expression inhibited HIV replication in CD4(+) T lymphocytes. Thus, our findings demonstrate that Panx1 hemichannels play an essential role in HIV infection.

The trinity of the cortical actin in the initiation of HIV-1 infection

For an infecting viral pathogen, the actin cortex inside the host cell is the first line of intracellular components that it encounters. Viruses devise various strategies to actively engage or circumvent the actin structure. In this regard, the human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) exemplifies command of cellular processes to take control of actin dynamics for the initiation of infection. It has becomes increasingly evident that cortical actin presents itself both as a barrier to viral intracellular migration and as a necessary cofactor that the virus must actively engage, particularly, in the infection of resting CD4 blood T cells, the primary targets of HIV-1. The coercion of this most fundamental cellular component permits infection by facilitating entry, reverse transcription, and nuclear migration, three essential processes for the establishment of viral infection and latency in blood T cells. It is the purpose of this review to examine, in detail, the manifestation of viral dependence on the actin cytoskeleton, and present a model of how HIV utilizes actin dynamics to initiate infection.

THE IMPACT OF THE CD8+ CELL NON-CYTOTOXIC ANTIVIRAL RESPONSE (CNAR) AND CYTOTOXIC T LYMPHOCYTE (CTL) ACTIVITY IN A CELL-TO-CELL SPREAD MODEL FOR HIV-1 WITH A TIME DELAY

In this paper, neglecting the effects of free virus, we consider a simple model of cell-to-cell spread of HIV-1. We discuss the impact of the CD8+ cell non-cytotoxic anti-viral response (CNAR) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity on infection by HIV-1. Two types of models are considered: the ordinary differential equation (ODE) model and the discrete time delay differential equation (DDE) system. The steady states of the ODE model are globally asymptotically stable respectively under two threshold criteria. In the DDE model, the global stability of the infected steady state of the ODE model becomes only ultimately stable. Moreover, at a certain interval of the time delay, the DDE model will produce Hopf bifurcation or periodic solutions. The introduction of CTL and CNAR will change the values of these steady states and induce fluctuations in the cell concentration. It also affects the critical value of the time delay and is of utility in the interpretation of typical HIV-dynamics data resulting from clinical trials. The DDE model produces sustained infective oscillations in some real parameter values, which is different from the result of the similar cell-free viral spread model with delay.

Estimating the threshold surface density of Gp120-CCR5 complexes necessary for HIV-1 envelope-mediated cell-cell fusion

Reduced expression of CCR5 on target CD4(+) cells lowers their susceptibility to infection by R5-tropic HIV-1, potentially preventing transmission of infection and delaying disease progression. Binding of the HIV-1 envelope (Env) protein gp120 with CCR5 is essential for the entry of R5 viruses into target cells. The threshold surface density of gp120-CCR5 complexes that enables HIV-1 entry remains poorly estimated. We constructed a mathematical model that mimics Env-mediated cell-cell fusion assays, where target CD4(+)CCR5(+) cells are exposed to effector cells expressing Env in the presence of a coreceptor antagonist and the fraction of target cells fused with effector cells is measured. Our model employs a reaction network-based approach to describe protein interactions that precede viral entry coupled with the ternary complex model to quantify the allosteric interactions of the coreceptor antagonist and predicts the fraction of target cells fused. By fitting model predictions to published data of cell-cell fusion in the presence of the CCR5 antagonist vicriviroc, we estimated the threshold surface density of gp120-CCR5 complexes for cell-cell fusion as ∼20 µm(-2). Model predictions with this threshold captured data from independent cell-cell fusion assays in the presence of vicriviroc and rapamycin, a drug that modulates CCR5 expression, as well as assays in the presence of maraviroc, another CCR5 antagonist, using sixteen different Env clones derived from transmitted or early founder viruses. Our estimate of the threshold surface density of gp120-CCR5 complexes necessary for HIV-1 entry thus appears robust and may have implications for optimizing treatment with coreceptor antagonists, understanding the non-pathogenic infection of non-human primates, and designing vaccines that suppress the availability of target CD4(+)CCR5(+) cells.

HIV-1 Entry, Inhibitors, and Resistance

Entry inhibitors represent a new class of antiretroviral agents for the treatment of infection with HIV-1. While resistance to other HIV drug classes has been well described, resistance to this new class is still ill defined despite considerable clinical use. Several potential mechanisms have been proposed: tropism switching (utilization of CXCR4 instead of CCR5 for entry), increased affinity for the coreceptor, increased rate of virus entry into host cells, and utilization of inhibitor-bound receptor for entry. In this review we will address the development of attachment, fusion, and coreceptor entry inhibitors and explore recent studies describing potential mechanisms of resistance.

HDAC6: a key regulator of cytoskeleton, cell migration and cell-cell interactions

Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) is a cytoplasmic enzyme that regulates many important biological processes, including cell migration, immune synapse formation, viral infection, and the degradation of misfolded proteins. HDAC6 deacetylates tubulin, Hsp90 and cortactin, and forms complexes with other partner proteins. Although HDAC6 enzymatic activity seems to be required for the regulation of cell morphology, the role of HDAC6 in lymphocyte chemotaxis is independent of its tubulin deacetylase activity. The diverse functions of HDAC6 suggest that it is a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of a range of diseases. This review examines the biological actions of HDAC6, focusing on its deacetylase activity and its potential scaffold functions in the regulation of cell migration and other key biological processes in which the cytoskeleton plays an important role.

Role of gp120 trimerization on HIV binding elucidated with Brownian adhesive dynamics

We simulated the docking of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) with a cell membrane using Brownian adhesive dynamics. The main advance in the current version of Brownian adhesive dynamics is that we use a simple bead-spring model to coarsely approximate the role of gp120 trimerization on HIV docking. We used our simulations to elucidate the effect of env spike density on the rate and probability of HIV binding, as well as the probability that each individual gp120 trimer is fully engaged. We found that for typical CD4 surface densities, viruses expressing as few as 8 env spikes will dock with binding rate constants comparable to viruses expressing 72 spikes. We investigated the role of cellular receptor diffusion on the degree of binding achieved by the virus on both short timescales (where binding has reached steady state but before substantial receptor accumulation in the viral-cell contact zone has occurred) and long timescales (where the system has reached steady state). On short timescales, viruses with 10-23 env trimers most efficiently form fully engaged trimers. On long timescales, all gp120 in the contact area will become bound to CD4. We found that it takes seconds for engaged trimers to cluster CD4 molecules in the contact zone, which partially explains the deleay in viral entry.

Photoinduced reactivity of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein with a membrane-embedded probe reveals insertion of portions of the HIV-1 Gp41 cytoplasmic tail into the viral membrane

The interactions of HIV-1 Env (gp120-gp41) with CD4 and coreceptors trigger a barrage of conformational changes in Env that drive the membrane fusion process. Various regions of gp41 have profound effects on HIV entry and budding. However, the precise interactions between gp41 and the membrane have not been elucidated. To examine portions of membrane proteins that are embedded in membrane lipids, we have studied photoinduced chemical reactions in membranes using the lipid bilayer specific probe iodonaphthyl azide (INA). Here we show that in addition to the transmembrane anchor, amphipatic sequences in the cytoplasmic tail (CT) of HIV-1 gp41 are labeled by INA. INA labeling of the HIV-1 gp41 CT was similar whether wild-type or a mutant HIV-1 was used with uncleaved p55 Gag, which does not allow entry. These results shed light on the disposition of the HIV-1 gp41 CT with respect to the membrane. Moreover, our data have general implications for topology of membrane proteins and their in situ interactions with the lipid bilayer.

CD4 interacts constitutively with multiple CCR5 at the plasma membrane of living cells. A fluorescence recovery after photobleaching at variable radii approach

The entry of human immunodeficiency virus into target cells requires successive interactions of the viral envelope glycoprotein gp120 with CD4 and the chemokine receptors CCR5 or CXCR4. We previously demonstrated, by Förster resonance energy transfer experiments, the constitutive association of CD4 and CCR5 at the surface of living cells. We therefore speculated that this interaction may correlate with compartmentalization of CD4 and CCR5 within the plasma membrane. Here, we characterize the lateral distribution, the dynamics, and the stoichiometry of these receptors in living cells stably expressing CD4 and/or CCR5 by means of fluorescence recovery after photobleaching at variable radii experiments. We found that (i) these receptors expressed alone are confined into 1-microm-sized domains, (ii) CD4-CCR5 associations occur outside and inside smaller domains, and (iii) these interactions involve multiple CCR5 molecules per CD4.

Modeling how many envelope glycoprotein trimers per virion participate in human immunodeficiency virus infectivity and its neutralization by antibody

Trimers of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env) effectuate viral entry into susceptible cells. Therefore Env trimers are the targets for neutralizing antibodies. This study models the number of trimers required for virion infectivity. It also delineates the minimum number of antibody molecules that would neutralize a virion. First, Env function was assumed to be incremental (all envelope glycoprotein units contribute equally) or liminal (characterized by thresholds). Then, such models were combined and shown to fit published data on phenotypically mixed pseudotype viruses. Virions with 9 trimers would require around a median of 5 of them for strong infectivity; the proportion varies among strains and mutants. In addition, the models account for both liminal and incremental protomeric effects at the trimer level: different inert Env mutants may affect trimer function in different degrees. Because of compensatory effects at the virion and trimer levels, however, current data cannot differentiate between all plausible models. But the biophysically and mathematically rationalized blurring of thresholds yields candidate models that fit different data excellently.

Electron tomography of the contact between T cells and SIV/HIV-1: implications for viral entry

The envelope glycoproteins of primate lentiviruses, including human and simian immunodeficiency viruses (HIV and SIV), are heterodimers of a transmembrane glycoprotein (usually gp41), and a surface glycoprotein (gp120), which binds CD4 on target cells to initiate viral entry. We have used electron tomography to determine the three-dimensional architectures of purified SIV virions in isolation and in contact with CD4+ target cells. The trimeric viral envelope glycoprotein surface spikes are heterogeneous in appearance and typically ∼120 Å long and ∼120 Å wide at the distal end. Docking of SIV or HIV-1 on the T cell surface occurs via a neck-shaped contact region that is ∼400 Å wide and consistently consists of a closely spaced cluster of five to seven rod-shaped features, each ∼100 Å long and ∼100 Å wide. This distinctive structure is not observed when viruses are incubated with T lymphocytes in the presence of anti-CD4 antibodies, the CCR5 antagonist TAK779, or the peptide entry inhibitor SIVmac251 C34. For virions bound to cells, few trimers were observed away from this cluster at the virion–cell interface, even in cases where virus preparations showing as many as 70 envelope glycoprotein trimers per virus particle were used. This contact zone, which we term the “entry claw”, provides a spatial context to understand the molecular mechanisms of viral entry. Determination of the molecular composition and structure of the entry claw may facilitate the identification of improved drugs for the inhibition of HIV-1 entry.

Retroviruses such as simian immunodeficiency virus and HIV-1 enter target cells by exploiting the interaction between their surface glycoproteins and cell surface receptors. Knowledge of the structures of these glycoproteins and of the molecular details of their interaction with cell surface receptors is of fundamental interest in understanding viral entry mechanisms. Electron tomo-graphy is a powerful approach to determining the three-dimensional structures of large and heterogeneous sub-cellular assemblies such as virus–cell contact regions that cannot easily be analyzed by high-resolution structural methods such as X-ray crystallography. Here, we have used electron tomographic approaches to show that SIV and HIV-1 viruses make contact with T cells via a unique structure that we term the viral “entry claw”, which is typically composed of about six clustered rods of density that span the contact region. Investigation of the structure of the entry claw and the factors that promote its formation could lead to new insights into the design of more effective drugs to inhibit HIV entry.

Dynamic tradeoffs in the raft-mediated entry of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 into cells

To initiate an infection human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) particles must first bind to receptors on the surface of their host cells, a process that eventually leads to fusion of viral and cellular membranes and release of the viral genome into the cytoplasm. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of these processes may enable the development of new anti-HIV strategies. Disagreement currently prevails on the role in virus entry of microdomains within the cellular plasma membrane known as lipid rafts. Experiments have suggested that lipid rafts, in their interactions with cellular receptors and viral particles, either promote or have minimal effect on viral entry. Here we develop a dynamic model for HIV-1 entry that enables us to identify and quantitatively assess tradeoffs that can arise from the clustering of receptors in rafts. Specifically, receptor clustering can be detrimental to the initiation of viral infection by reducing the probability that a virus particle finds its primary receptor, CD4. However, receptor clustering can also enable a virus particle, once bound, to rapidly form multivalent interactions with receptors and co-receptors that are required for virus-cell membrane fusion. We show how the resolution of such tradeoffs hinges on the level and spatial distribution of receptors and co-receptors on the cell surface, and we discuss implications of these effects for the design of therapeutics that inhibit HIV-1 entry.

The broad anti-viral agent glycyrrhizin directly modulates the fluidity of plasma membrane and HIV-1 envelope

Cell entry of enveloped viruses requires a wide-fusion-pore mechanism, involving clustering of fusion-activated proteins and fluidization of the plasma membrane and viral envelope. In the present study, GL (glycyrrhizin) is reported to lower membrane fluidity, thus suppressing infection by HIV, influenza A virus and vesicular stomatitis virus, but not by poliovirus. GL-treated HIV-1 particles showed reduced infectivity. GL also inhibited cell-to-cell fusion induced by HIV-1 and HTLV-I (human T-cell leukaemia virus type I). However, when cells treated with 1 mg/ml GL were placed in GL-free medium, they showed increased susceptibility to HIV-1 infection and HTLV-I fusion due to enhancement of membrane fluidity. The membrane dependence of GL and GL removal experiments suggest that GL does affect the cell entry of viruses. HIVs with more gp120 were less dependent on temperature and less sensitive to GL treatment than those with less gp120, indicating that the existence of more gp120 molecules resulted in a higher probability of forming a cluster of fusion-activated proteins.

Real-time analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Env-mediated membrane fusion by fluorescence resonance energy transfer

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope glycoprotein (Env)-mediated membrane fusion occurs as a sequence of events that is triggered by CD4 binding to the Env gp120 subunit. In this study, we analyzed the dynamics of Env-mediated membrane fusion at the single-cell level using fluorescent fusion proteins and confocal laser fluorescent microscopy. Either enhanced cyan or yellow fluorescent protein (CFP and YFP, respectively) was fused to the end of the cytoplasmic regions of the HIV-1 receptors (CD4 and CCR5) and Env proteins. Real-time imaging of membrane fusion mediated by these recombinant proteins revealed that the kinetics of fusion in our system was faster than that previously reported. Analysis of the receptor interaction by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) at the single-cell level demonstrated a tendency for oligomerization of CD4-CD4, but not of CD4-CCR5, in the absence of Env-expressing cells. However, when Env-expressing cells attached to the receptor cells, FRET produced by CD4-CCR5 interaction was increased; the FRET intensity began to decline before the formation of the fusion pore. These changes in FRET may represent the temporal association of these receptors, triggered by gp120 binding, and their dissociation during the formation of the fusion pore. In addition, the FRET analysis of receptor interactions in the presence of fusion inhibitors showed that not only inhibitors acting on CCR5 but also the gp41-derived peptide T-20 interfered with CD4-CCR5 interaction during fusion. These data suggest that T-20 could affect the formation of Env-receptors complexes during the membrane fusion.

Anti-HIV agents targeting the interaction of gp120 with the cellular CD4 receptor

Perhaps one of the most effective approaches to prevent and inhibit viral infections is to block host cell receptors that are used by viruses to gain cell entry. Major advances have been made over the past decade in the understanding of the molecular mechanism of HIV entry into target cells. A crucial step in this entry process is the interaction of the external HIV envelope glycoprotein, gp120, with the cellular CD4 receptor molecule. This binding step represents a potential target for new antiviral agents, and current efforts to develop safe and effective HIV entry inhibitors are focused on natural ligands and/or monoclonal antibodies that interfere with gp120/CD4 interaction. Also, small synthetic compounds obtained either by high-throughput screening of large compound libraries or by structure-guided rational design have recently entered the antiretroviral arena. In this review, the anti-HIV activity of novel entry inhibitors targeting gp120/CD4 interaction is outlined, and special attention is given to the cyclotriazadisulfonamide compounds, which are the most specific CD4-targeted antiviral drugs described so far.

Histone deacetylase 6 regulates human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection

Efficient human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 infection depends on multiple interactions between the viral gp41/gp120 envelope (Env) proteins and cell surface receptors. However, cytoskeleton-associated proteins that modify membrane dynamics may also regulate the formation of the HIV-mediated fusion pore and hence viral infection. Because the effects of HDAC6-tubulin deacetylase on cortical alpha-tubulin regulate cell migration and immune synapse organization, we explored the possible role of HDAC6 in HIV-1-envelope-mediated cell fusion and infection. The binding of the gp120 protein to CD4+-permissive cells increased the level of acetylated alpha-tubulin in a CD4-dependent manner. Furthermore, overexpression of active HDAC6 inhibited the acetylation of alpha-tubulin, and remarkably, prevented HIV-1 envelope-dependent cell fusion and infection without affecting the expression and codistribution of HIV-1 receptors. In contrast, knockdown of HDAC6 expression or inhibition of its tubulin deacetylase activity strongly enhanced HIV-1 infection and syncytia formation. These results demonstrate that HDAC6 plays a significant role in regulating HIV-1 infection and Env-mediated syncytia formation.

Cyclotriazadisulfonamides: promising new CD4-targeted anti-HIV drugs

It is imperative to continue efforts to identify novel effective therapies that can assist in containing the spread of HIV. Recently acquired knowledge about the HIV entry process points to new strategies to block viral entry. For most HIV strains, the successful infection of their target cells is mainly dependent on the presence of the CD4 surface molecule, which serves as the primary virus receptor. The attachment of the viral envelope to this cellular CD4 receptor can be considered as an ideal target with multiple windows of opportunity for therapeutic intervention. Therefore, drugs that interfere with the CD4 receptor, and thus inhibit viral entry, may be promising agents for the treatment of AIDS. The CD4-targeted HIV entry inhibitors cyclotriazadisulfonamides represent a novel class of small molecule antiviral agents with a unique mode of action. The lead compound, CADA, specifically interacts with the cellular CD4 receptor and is active against a wide variety of HIV strains at submicromolar levels when evaluated in different cell-types such as T cells, monocytes and dendritic cells. Moreover, a strict correlation has been demonstrated between anti-HIV activity and CD4 interaction of about 20 different CADA analogues. In addition, CADA acted synergistically in combination with all other FDA-approved anti-HIV drugs as well as with compounds that target the main HIV co-receptors. In this article, the characteristics of cyclotriazadisulfonamide compounds are presented and the possible application of CADA as a microbicide is also discussed.

Influence of membrane fluidity on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 entry

For penetration of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), formation of fusion-pores might be required for accumulating critical numbers of fusion-activated gp41, followed by multiple-site binding of gp120 with receptors, with the help of fluidization of the plasma membrane and viral envelope. Correlation between HIV-1 infectivity and fluidity was observed by treatment of fluidity-modulators, indicating that infectivity was dependent on fluidity. A 5% decrease in fluidity suppressed the HIV-1 infectivity by 56%. Contrarily, a 5% increase in fluidity augmented the infectivity by 2.4-fold. An increased temperature of 40 degrees C or treatment of 0.2% xylocaine after viral adsorption at room temperature enhanced the infectivity by 2.6- and 1.5-fold, respectively. These were inhibited by anti-CXCR4 peptide, implying that multiple-site binding was accelerated at 40 degrees C or by xylocaine. Thus, fluidity of both the plasma membrane and viral envelope was required to form the fusion-pore and to complete the entry of HIV-1.

Effects of virion surface gp120 density on infection by HIV-1 and viral production by infected cells

The quantity of envelope glycoprotein molecules (Env) on HIV-1 particles is still an issue of debate and, depending on the strain of virus and the nature of the producer cells, it can vary greatly. Here, we have attempted to address how Env density influences HIV-1 fitness. To this aim, we have produced HIV-1-derived viral particles with various amounts of R5 Env (low Env: Envlo; high Env: Envhi), using a regulatable expression system. The infectivity was assayed on human cells, engineered to express the HIV receptor CD4 and the co-receptor CCR5, as well as on peripheral blood lymphocytes and macrophages. In these experiments, low levels of Env were sufficient for cell infection, albeit at low efficiency. Increasing the amount of Env resulted in cooperatively improved infectivity, but a threshold was rapidly attained, indicating that only a fraction of Env was required for efficient infection. Unexpectedly, Env incorporation beyond what gives maximal infection transiently stimulated the expression of proviral genes, as well as retrovirus production, in newly infected cells. This was likely a consequence of induced NF-kappaB activity, as this transcription factor is triggered by Envhi, but not by Envlo, virions. Thus, our data suggest that one major effect of high Env density on the surface of HIV may not be better infection yields but rather improved viral production by newly infected cells.

Mechanisms of nonrandom human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and double infection: preference in virus entry is important but is not the sole factor

We previously demonstrated that human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection is nonrandom and that double infection occurs more frequently than predicted from random events. To probe the possible mechanisms for nonrandom infection, we examined the role of HIV-1 entry pathways by using viruses pseudotyped with either CCR5-tropic HIV-1 Env or vesicular stomatitis virus G protein (VSV G). These two proteins use different receptors and entry pathways. We found that regardless of the protein used, double infection occurred more frequently than random events, indicating nonrandom HIV-1 infection in both entry pathways. However, the frequency of double infection differed significantly, depending on the envelope protein. In primary CD4(+) T cells, double infection occurred most frequently when both viruses had CCR5-tropic HIV-1 Env and least frequently when the two viruses had different envelopes. These results indicated that the preference in virus entry was a significant but not the only factor contributing to nonrandom double infection. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the CD4 expression level in primary T cells affects their susceptibility to CCR5-tropic HIV-1 infection but not VSV G-pseudotyped HIV-1 infection. We have also examined infection with two viruses pseudotyped with CCR5- or CXCR4-tropic HIV-1 Env and have found that double infection occurred more frequently than random events. These results indicate that coreceptor usage is not a barrier to recombination between the two virus populations. In our previous study, we also demonstrated nonrandom double infection via dendritic cell (DC)-mediated HIV-1 transmission. To test our hypothesis that multiple HIV-1 virions are transmitted during DC-T-cell contact, we used two populations of DCs, each capturing one vector virus, and added both DC populations to T cells. We observed a decreased frequency of double infection compared with experiments in which DCs captured both viruses simultaneously. Therefore, these results support our hypothesis that multiple virions are transmitted from DCs to T cells during cell-mediated HIV-1 transmission.

Galectin-1 Acts as a Soluble Host Factor That Promotes HIV-1 Infectivity through Stabilization of Virus Attachment to Host Cells

The establishment of HIV type 1 (HIV-1) infection is initiated by the stable attachment of the virion to the target cell surface. Although this process relies primarily upon interaction between virus-encoded gp120 and cell surface CD4, a number of distinct interactions influence binding of HIV-1 to host cells. In this study, we report that galectin-1, a dimeric beta-galactoside-binding protein, promotes infection with R5, X4, and R5X4 variants. Galectin-1 acts as a soluble adhesion molecule by facilitating attachment of HIV-1 to the cell surface. This postulate is based on experiments where galectin-1 rendered HIV-1 particles more refractory to various agents that block HIV-1 adsorption and coreceptor binding (i.e., a blocking anti-CD4, soluble CD4, human anti-HIV-1 polyclonal Abs; stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha; RANTES). Experiments performed with the fusion inhibitor T-20 confirmed that galectin-1 is primarily affecting HIV-1 attachment. The relevance of the present findings for the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection is provided by the fact that galectin-1 is abundantly expressed in the thymus and lymph nodes, organs that represent major reservoirs for HIV-1. Moreover, galectin-1 is secreted by activated CD8(+) T lymphocytes, which are found in high numbers in HIV-1-positive patients. Therefore, it is proposed that galectin-1, which is released in an exocrine fashion at HIV-1 replication sites, can cross-link HIV-1 and target cells and promote a firmer adhesion of the virus to the cell surface, thereby augmenting the efficiency of the infection process. Overall, our findings suggest that galectin-1 might affect the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection.

[Lipid raft and influenza virus--viral glycoproteins on a raft]

Lipid molecules of the plasma membrane are not distributed homogeneously, but form a lateral organization resulting from preferential packaging of sphingolipid and cholesterol into lipid microdomain rafts, in which specific membrane proteins become incorporated. Evidence has accumulated that a variety of viruses including influenza virus use the raft during some steps of their replication cycles. Influenza virus glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase, associate intrinsically with the rafts. The HA protein is distributed in clusters at the plasma membrane and concentrated in the small area by interacting with the raft. A mutant influenza virus, whose HA protein lacks the ability to associate with the raft, contains reduced amounts of the HA proteins and exhibits a decreased virus to cell fusion activity, resulting in greatly reduced infectivity. Thus, the raft may play an important role in virus production by acting as a concentrating devise or an efficient carrier to transport the HA protein to the site of virus budding.

Mobility of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) receptor CD4 and coreceptor CCR5 in living cells: implications for HIV fusion and entry events

The sequence of events leading to human immunodeficiency virus fusion and entry likely involves the recruitment of multiple receptor and coreceptor proteins to a specific complex by the viral envelope. Using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching technology, we find that both CD4 and CCR5 are mobile in the cell membrane. Interestingly, our findings also suggest that the seven-span transmembrane coreceptor is significantly more mobile than CD4 and requires membrane cholesterol for mobility.

HIV-1 cell to cell transfer across an Env-induced, actin-dependent synapse

Direct cell–cell transfer is an efficient mechanism of viral dissemination within an infected host, and human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) can exploit this mode of spread. Receptor recognition by HIV-1 occurs via interactions between the viral surface envelope glycoprotein (Env), gp120, and CD4 and a chemokine receptor, CCR5 or CXCR4. Here, we demonstrate that the binding of CXCR4-using HIV-1–infected effector T cells to primary CD4⁺/CXCR4⁺ target T cells results in rapid recruitment to the interface of CD4, CXCR4, talin, and lymphocyte function–associated antigen 1 on the target cell, and of Env and Gag on the effector cell. Recruitment of these membrane molecules into polarized clusters was dependent on Env engagement of CD4 and CXCR4 and required remodelling of the actin cytoskeleton. Transfer of Gag from effector to target cell was observed by 1 h after conjugate formation, was independent of cell–cell fusion, and was probably mediated by directed virion fusion with the target cell. We propose that receptor engagement by Env directs the rapid, actin-dependent recruitment of HIV receptors and adhesion molecules to the interface, resulting in a stable adhesive junction across which HIV infects the target cell.

Adsorption and infectivity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 are modified by the fluidity of the plasma membrane for multiple-site binding

Based on the assumption that fluidity of the plasma membrane and viral envelope is necessary for recruiting additional receptors and ligands to the initial attachment site for "multiple-site binding," we determined the effect of increased temperature on viral infectivity. Infection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and a pseudotyped luciferase-expressing chimeric virus using MAGI and GHOST/CXCR4 cells showed that in 1 hr of viral adsorption the extent of virus infection and the amount of tightly adsorbed viruses depended on temperature; and that membrane fluidity increased according to increased temperature. Augmented infection was observed as post-attachment enhancement (PAE) when cells were washed and incubated at 40 C for 1 hr after viral adsorption. PAE was completely inhibited by 1 micro M of anti-CXCR4 peptide T140, and addition of T140 at 20 min resulted in a gradual loss of inhibition of PAE, indicating the need for a 30 to 40 min timelag to ensure tight multiple-site binding. These data suggest that the accumulation of gp120 and receptor complex (multiple-site binding) was needed to complete the infection. Treatments of cells with 0.05% Tween 20 or 2 micro g/ml of anti-HLA-II antibody resulted in increases or decreases, respectively, of attached viruses and the infectivity. As well, Tween 20 and anti-HLAII antibody enhanced and suppressed the fluidity of the plasma membrane, respectively. Amounts of adsorbed viruses and degrees of viral infectivity correlated with the intensity of fluidity of the plasma membrane, probably due to the formation of multiple-site binding.

Inhibiting sexual transmission of HIV-1 infection

The worldwide infection rate for HIV-1 is estimated to be 14,000 per day, but only now, more than 20 years into the epidemic, are the immediate events between exposure to infectious virus and the establishment of infection becoming clear. Defining the mechanisms of HIV-1 transmission, the target cells involved and how the virus attaches to and fuses with these cells, could reveal ways to block the sexual spread of the virus. In this review, we will discuss how our increasing knowledge of the ways in which HIV-1 is transmitted is shaping the development of new, more sophisticated intervention strategies based on the application of vaginal or rectal microbicides.

Cell surface receptors for gammaretroviruses

Evidence obtained during the last few years has greatly extended our understanding of the cell surface receptors that mediate infections of retroviruses and has provided many surprising insights. In contrast to other cell surface components such as lectins or proteoglycans that influence infections indirectly by enhancing virus adsorption onto specific cells, the true receptors induce conformational changes in the viral envelope glycoproteins that are essential for infection. One surprise is that all of the cell surface receptors for gamma-retroviruses are proteins that have multiple transmembrane (TM) sequences, compatible with their identification in known instances as transporters for important solutes. In striking contrast, almost all other animal viruses use receptors that exclusively have single TM sequences, with the sole proven exception we know of being the coreceptors used by lentiviruses. This evidence strongly suggests that virus genera have been prevented because of their previous evolutionary adaptations from switching their specificities between single-TM and multi-TM receptors. This evidence also implies that gamma-retroviruses formed by divergent evolution from a common origin millions of years ago and that individual viruses have occasionally jumped between species (zoonoses) while retaining their commitment to using the orthologous receptor of the new host. Another surprise is that many gamma-retroviruses use not just one receptor but pairs of closely related receptors as alternatives. This appears to have enhanced viral survival by severely limiting the likelihood of host escape mutations. All of the receptors used by gamma-retroviruses contain hypervariable regions that are often heavily glycosylated and that control the viral host range properties, consistent with the idea that these sequences are battlegrounds of virus-host coevolution. However, in contrast to previous assumptions, we propose that gamma-retroviruses have become adapted to recognize conserved sites that are important for the receptor's natural function and that the hypervariable sequences have been elaborated by the hosts as defense bulwarks that surround the conserved viral attachment sites. Previously, it was believed that binding to receptors directly triggers a series of conformational changes in the viral envelope glycoproteins that culminate in fusion of the viral and cellular membranes. However, new evidence suggests that gamma-retroviral association with receptors triggers an obligatory interaction or cross-talk between envelope glycoproteins on the viral surface. If this intermediate step is prevented, infection fails. Conversely, in several circumstances this cross-talk can be induced in the absence of a cell surface receptor for the virus, in which case infection can proceed efficiently. This new evidence strongly implies that the role of cell surface receptors in infections of gamma-retroviruses (and perhaps of other enveloped animal viruses) is more complex and interesting than was previously imagined. Recently, another gammaretroviral receptor with multiple transmembrane sequences was cloned. See Prassolov, Y., Zhang, D., Ivanov, D., Lohler, J., Ross, S.R., and Stocking, C. Sodium-dependent myo-inositol transporter 1 is a receptor for Mus cervicolor M813 murine leukemia virus.

HIV-1 entry and its inhibition

Entry of HIV-1 virions into cells is a complex and dynamic process carried out by envelope (Env) glycoproteins on the surface of the virion that promote the thermodynamically unfavorable fusion of highly stable viral and target cell membranes. Insight gained from studies of the mechanism of viral entry allowed insight into the design of novel inhibitors of HIV-1 entry, several of which are now in clinical trials. This review highlights the mechanism by which viral and cellular proteins mediate entry of HIV-1 into permissive cells, with an emphasis on targeting this process in the design of novel therapies that target distinct steps of the entry process, including antagonizing receptor binding events and blocking conformational changes intimately involved in membrane fusion.

Specific CD4 down-modulating compounds with potent anti-HIV activity

Despite the availability of the current clinically approved anti-HIV drugs, new classes of effective antiviral agents are still urgently needed to combat AIDS. A promising approach for drug development and vaccine design involves targeting research on HIV-1 entry, a multistep process that comprises viral attachment, coreceptor interactions, and fusion. Determination of the viral entry process in detail has enabled the design of specific agents that can inhibit each step in the HIV entry process. Therapeutic agents that interfere with the binding of the HIV envelope glycoprotein gp120 to the CD4 receptor (e.g., PRO 542, PRO 2000, and CV-N) or the coreceptors CCR5 and CXCR4 (e.g., SCH-C and AMD3100) are briefly outlined in this review. The anti-HIV activity of cyclotriazadisulfonamides, a novel class of compounds with a unique mode of action by down-modulating the CD4 receptor in lymphocytic and monocytic cells, is especially highlighted. On the basis of the successful results of T-20, the first approved entry inhibitor, the development of effective antiretrovirals that block HIV entry will certainly be further encouraged.

The HIV Env-mediated fusion reaction

The current general model of HIV viral entry involves the binding of the trimeric viral envelope glycoprotein gp120/gp41 to cell surface receptor CD4 and chemokine co-receptor CXCR4 or CCR5, which triggers conformational changes in the envelope proteins. Gp120 then dissociates from gp41, allowing for the fusion peptide to be inserted into the target membrane and the pre-hairpin configuration of the ectodomain to form. The C-terminal heptad repeat region and the leucine/isoleucine zipper region then form the thermostable six-helix coiled-coil, which drives the membrane merger and eventual fusion. This model needs updating, as there has been a wealth of data produced in the last few years concerning HIV entry, including target cell dependencies, fusion kinetic data, and conformational intermediates. A more complete model must include the involvement of membrane microdomains, actin polymerization, glycosphingolipids, and possibly CD4 and chemokine signaling in entry. In addition, kinetic experiments involving the addition of fusion inhibitors have revealed some of the rate-limiting steps in this process, adding a temporal component to the model. A review of these data that may require an updated version of the original model is presented here.

Localization of CD4 and CCR5 in living cells

The events preceding human immunodeficiency virus fusion and entry are influenced by the concentration and distribution of receptor and coreceptor molecules on the cell surface. However, the extent to which these proteins colocalize with one another in the cell membrane remains unclear. Using high-resolution deconvolution fluorescent microscopy of living cells, we found that both CD4 and CCR5 accumulate in protruding membrane structures containing actin and ezrin. Although CD4 and CCR5 extensively colocalize in these structures, they do not exist in a stable complex.

Nonneutralizing antibodies to the CD4-binding site on the gp120 subunit of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 do not interfere with the activity of a neutralizing antibody against the same site

We have investigated whether nonneutralizing monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to the gp120 subunit of the envelope glycoprotein (Env) complex of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) can interfere with HIV-1 neutralization by another anti-gp120 MAb. We used neutralizing (b12) and nonneutralizing (205-42-15, 204-43-1, 205-46-9) MAbs to the epitope cluster overlapping the CD4-binding site (CD4BS) on gp120. All the MAbs, neutralizing or otherwise, cross-competed for binding to monomeric gp120, indicating the close topological proximity of their epitopes. However, the nonneutralizing CD4BS MAbs did not interfere with the neutralization activity of MAb b12. In contrast, in a binding assay using oligomeric Env expressed on the surface of Env-transfected cells, the nonneutralizing MAbs did partially compete with b12 for Env binding. The surface of Env-transfected cells contains two categories of binding site for CD4BS MAbs. One type of site is recognized by both b12 and nonneutralizing CD4BS MAbs; the other is recognized by only b12. Binding assays for Env-gp120 interactions based on the use of monomeric gp120 or Env-transfected cells do not predict the outcome of HIV-1 neutralization assays, and they should therefore be used only with caution when gauging the properties of anti-Env MAbs.

The Anti-HIV potency of cyclotriazadisulfonamide analogs is directly correlated with their ability to down-modulate the CD4 receptor

9-Benzyl-3-methylene-1,5-di-p-toluenesulfonyl-1,5,9-triazacyclododecane (CADA) has been identified as a novel antiviral lead compound with significant anti-human immunodeficiency virus and anti-human herpesvirus 7 activity. Surprisingly, this compound selectively decreased the expression of the CD4 glycoprotein, the primary receptor needed for the entry of both viruses. Herein, we describe the CD4 down-modulating and antiviral potencies of more than 25 CADA derivatives. Flow cytometric evaluation of cellular CD4 receptor expression in T cells demonstrated the specific CD4 down-modulating capacity of the CADA derivatives, with IC(50) values similar to those obtained in the antiviral assays. The close correlation observed between the CD4 down-regulating and anti-HIV potencies of the CADA derivatives further points to CD4 receptor down-modulation as the primary mode of antiviral action for this group of compounds.

CADA inhibits human immunodeficiency virus and human herpesvirus 7 replication by down-modulation of the cellular CD4 receptor

The novel antiviral agent cyclotriazadisulfonamide (CADA) inhibited human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (IC50, 0.3-3.2 microM) and human herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7) infection (IC50, 0.3-1.5 microM) in T-cell lines and PBMCs. When T-cells were pretreated with CADA for 24 h, they became markedly protected from viral infection. Flow cytometric analysis revealed a significant decrease in the expression of the CD4 glycoprotein, the primary receptor needed for entry of both viruses. Moreover, the antiviral activity of CADA correlated with its ability to down-modulate the CD4 receptor. CADA did not alter the expression of any other cellular receptor (or HIV coreceptor) examined. Time course experiments showed that CD4 down-modulation by CADA differs in mechanism from the effects of aurintricarboxylic acid, which binds directly to CD4, and phorbol myristate acetate, which activates protein kinase C. Further analysis of CD4 mRNA levels suggested that CADA was not involved in the regulation of CD4 expression at a transcriptional level, but very likely at (post) translational levels. This unique mechanism of action makes CADA an important lead in developing new drugs for treatment of AIDS, autoimmune diseases, and inflammatory disorders.

Role for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 membrane cholesterol in viral internalization

The membrane of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) virions contains high levels of cholesterol and sphingomyelin, an enrichment that is explained by the preferential budding of the virus through raft microdomains of the plasma membrane. Upon depletion of cholesterol from HIV-1 virions with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin, infectivity was almost completely abolished. In contrast, this treatment had only a mild effect on the infectiousness of particles pseudotyped with the G envelope of vesicular stomatitis virus. The cholesterol-chelating compound nystatin had a similar effect. Cholesterol-depleted HIV-1 virions exhibited wild-type patterns of viral proteins and contained normal levels of cyclophilin A and glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins. Nevertheless, and although they could still bind target cells, these virions were markedly defective for internalization. These results indicate that the cholesterol present in the HIV-1 membrane plays a prominent role in the fusion process that is key to viral entry and suggest that drugs capable of disturbing the lipid composition of virions could serve as a basis for the development of microbicides.

Occupancy and mechanism in antibody-mediated neutralization of animal viruses

Neutralization of virus infectivity by antibodies is an important component of immunity to several virus infections. Here, the immunochemical basis for the action of neutralizing antibodies, and what role their induction of conformational changes in the antigen might play, is reviewed. Theories of the mechanisms by which antibodies neutralize virus infectivity in vitro are also presented. The theoretical and empirical foundation of the hypothesis that viruses are neutralized by a single antibody per virion is critically reviewed. The relationship between antibody occupancy on virions and the mechanism of neutralization is explored. Examples of neutralization mediated through antibody interference with virus attachment and entry are discussed and test implications of refined theories of neutralization by antibody coating of virions are formulated.