Composition and structure of articular cartilage: a template for tissue repair

Advancements in hydrogel design for articular cartilage regeneration: A comprehensive review

This review paper explores the cutting-edge advancements in hydrogel design for articular cartilage regeneration (CR). Articular cartilage (AC) defects are a common occurrence worldwide that can lead to joint breakdown at a later stage of the disease, necessitating immediate intervention to prevent progressive degeneration of cartilage. Decades of research into the biomedical applications of hydrogels have revealed their tremendous potential, particularly in soft tissue engineering, including CR. Hydrogels are highly tunable and can be designed to meet the key criteria needed for a template in CR. This paper aims to identify those criteria, including the hydrogel components, mechanical properties, biodegradability, structural design, and integration capability with the adjacent native tissue and delves into the benefits that CR can obtain through appropriate design. Stratified-structural hydrogels that emulate the native cartilage structure, as well as the impact of environmental stimuli on the regeneration outcome, have also been discussed. By examining recent advances and emerging techniques, this paper offers valuable insights into developing effective hydrogel-based therapies for AC repair.

Extraction and Purification of Biopolymers from Marine Origin Sources Envisaging Their Use for Biotechnological Applications

Biopolymers are a versatile and diverse class of materials that has won high interest due to their potential application in several sectors of the economy, such as cosmetics, medical materials/devices, and food additives. In the last years, the search for these compounds has explored a wider range of marine organisms that have proven to be a great alternative to mammal sources for these applications and benefit from their biological properties, such as low antigenicity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, among others. Furthermore, to ensure the sustainable exploitation of natural marine resources and address the challenges of 3R's policies, there is a current necessity to valorize the residues and by-products obtained from food processing to benefit both economic and environmental interests. Many extraction methodologies have received significant attention for the obtention of diverse polysaccharides, proteins, and glycosaminoglycans to accomplish the increasing demands for these products. The present review gives emphasis to the ones that can be obtained from marine biological resources, as agar/agarose, alginate and sulfated polysaccharides from seaweeds, chitin/chitosan from crustaceans from crustaceans, collagen, and some glycosaminoglycans such as chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acids from fish. It is offered, in a summarized and easy-to-interpret arrangement, the most well-established extraction and purification methodologies used for obtaining the referred marine biopolymers, their chemical structure, as well as the characterization tools that are required to validate the extracted material and respective features. As supplementary material, a practical guide with the step-by-step isolation protocol, together with the various materials, reagents, and equipment, needed for each extraction is also delivered is also delivered. Finally, some remarks are made on the needs still observed, despite all the past efforts, to improve the current extraction and purification procedures to achieve more efficient and green methodologies with higher yields, less time-consuming, and decreased batch-to-batch variability.

Study on ultrasound-enhanced molecular transport in articular cartilage

Local intra-articular administration with minimal side effects and rapid efficacy is a promising strategy for treating osteoarthritis(OA). Most drugs are rapidly cleared from the joint space by capillaries and lymphatic vessels before free diffusion into cartilage. Ultrasound, as a non-invasive therapy, enhances molecular transport within cartilage through the mechanisms of microbubble cavitation and thermal effects. This study investigated the mass transfer behavior of solute molecules with different molecular weights (479 Da, 40 kDa, 150 kDa) within porcine articular cartilage under low-frequency ultrasound conditions of 40 kHz and ultrasound intensities of 0.189 W/cm2 and 0.359 W/cm2. The results revealed that under the conditions of 0.189 W/cm2 ultrasound intensity, the mass transfer concentration of solute molecules were higher compared to passive diffusion, and with an increase in ultrasound intensity to 0.359 W/cm2, the mass transfer effect within the cartilage was further enhanced. Ultrasound promotes molecular transport in different layers of cartilage. Under static conditions, after 2 h of mass transfer, the concentration of small molecules in the superficial layer is lower than that in the middle layer. After applying ultrasound at 0.189 W/cm2, the molecular concentration in the superficial layer significantly increases. Under conditions of 0.359 W/cm2, after 12 h of mass transfer, the concentration of medium and large molecules in the deep layer region increased by more than two times. In addition, this study conducted an assessment of damage to porcine articular cartilage under ultrasound exposure, revealing the significant potential of low-frequency, low-intensity ultrasound in drug delivery and treatment of OA.

Therapeutic Controlled Release Strategies for Human Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis is a progressive, irreversible debilitating whole joint disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Despite the availability of various options (non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatments and therapy, orthobiologics, and surgical interventions), none of them can definitively cure osteoarthritis in patients. Strategies based on the controlled release of therapeutic compounds via biocompatible materials may provide powerful tools to enhance the spatiotemporal delivery, expression, and activities of the candidate agents as a means to durably manage the pathological progression of osteoarthritis in the affected joints upon convenient intra-articular (injectable) delivery while reducing their clearance, dissemination, or side effects. The goal of this review is to describe the current knowledge and advancements of controlled release to treat osteoarthritis, from basic principles to applications in vivo using therapeutic recombinant molecules and drugs and more innovatively gene sequences, providing a degree of confidence to manage the disease in patients in a close future.

Strategies to engineer articular cartilage with biomimetic zonal features: a review

Articular cartilage (AC) is a highly specialized tissue with restricted ability for self-regeneration, given its avascular and acellular nature. Although a considerable number of surgical treatments is available for the repair, reconstruction, and regeneration of AC defects, most of them do not prioritize the development of engineered cartilage with zonal stratification derived from biomimetic biochemical, biomechanical and topographic cues. In the absence of these zonal elements, engineered cartilage will exhibit increased susceptibility to failure and will neither be able to withstand the mechanical loading to which AC is subjected nor will it integrate well with the surrounding tissue. In this regard, new breakthroughs in the development of hierarchical stratified engineered cartilage are highly sought after. Initially, this review provides a comprehensive analysis of the composition and zonal organization of AC, aiming to enhance our understanding of the significance of the structure of AC for its function. Next, we direct our attention towards the existing in vitro and in vivo studies that introduce zonal elements in engineered cartilage to elicit appropriate AC regeneration by employing tissue engineering strategies. Finally, the advantages, challenges, and future perspectives of these approaches are presented.

Key roles of the superficial zone in articular cartilage physiology, pathology, and regeneration

ABSTRACT

The superficial zone (SFZ) of articular cartilage is an important interface that isolates deeper zones from the microenvironment of the articular cavity and is directly exposed to various biological and mechanical stimuli. The SFZ is not only a crucial structure for maintaining the normal physiological function of articular cartilage but also the earliest site of osteoarthritis (OA) cartilage degeneration and a major site of cartilage progenitor cells, suggesting that the SFZ might represent a key target for the early diagnosis and treatment of OA. However, to date, SFZ research has not received sufficient attention, accounting for only about 0.58% of cartilage tissue research. The structure, biological composition, function, and related mechanisms of the SFZ in the physiological and pathological processes of articular cartilage remain unclear. This article reviews the key role of the SFZ in articular cartilage physiology and pathology and focuses on the characteristics of SFZ in articular cartilage degeneration and regeneration in OA, aiming to provide researchers with a systematic understanding of the current research status of the SFZ of articular cartilage, hoping that scholars will give more attention to the SFZ of articular cartilage in the future.

Loss of collagen content is localized near cartilage lesions on the day of injurious loading and intensified on day 12

Joint injury can lead to articular cartilage damage, excessive inflammation, and post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA). Collagen is an essential component for cartilage function, yet current literature has limited understanding of how biochemical and biomechanical factors contribute to collagen loss in injured cartilage. Our aim was to investigate spatially dependent changes in collagen content and collagen integrity of injured cartilage, with an explant model of early-stage PTOA. We subjected calf knee cartilage explants to combinations of injurious loading (INJ), interleukin-1α-challenge (IL) and physiological cyclic loading (CL). Using Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy, collagen content (Amide I band) and collagen integrity (Amide II/1338 cm-1 ratio) were estimated on days 0 and 12 post-injury. We found that INJ led to lower collagen content near lesions compared to intact regions on day 0 (p < 0.001). On day 12, near-lesion collagen content was lower compared to day 0 (p < 0.05). Additionally, on day 12, INJ, IL, and INJ + IL groups exhibited lower collagen content along most of tissue depth compared to free-swelling control group (p < 0.05). CL groups showed higher collagen content along most of tissue depth compared to corresponding groups without CL (p < 0.05). Immunohistochemical analysis revealed higher MMP-1 and MMP-3 staining intensities localized within cell lacunae in INJ group compared to CTRL group on day 0. Our results suggest that INJ causes rapid loss of collagen content near lesions, which is intensified on day 12. Additionally, CL could mitigate the loss of collagen content at intact regions after 12 days.

Cartilage Integrity: A Review of Mechanical and Frictional Properties and Repair Approaches in Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the most common causes of disability around the globe, especially in aging populations. The main symptoms of OA are pain and loss of motion and function of the affected joint. Hyaline cartilage has limited ability for regeneration due to its avascularity, lack of nerve endings, and very slow metabolism. Total joint replacement (TJR) has to date been used as the treatment of end-stage disease. Various joint-sparing alternatives, including conservative and surgical treatment, have been proposed in the literature; however, no treatment to date has been fully successful in restoring hyaline cartilage. The mechanical and frictional properties of the cartilage are of paramount importance in terms of cartilage resistance to continuous loading. OA causes numerous changes in the macro- and microstructure of cartilage, affecting its mechanical properties. Increased friction and reduced load-bearing capability of the cartilage accelerate further degradation of tissue by exerting increased loads on the healthy surrounding tissues. Cartilage repair techniques aim to restore function and reduce pain in the affected joint. Numerous studies have investigated the biological aspects of OA progression and cartilage repair techniques. However, the mechanical properties of cartilage repair techniques are of vital importance and must be addressed too. This review, therefore, addresses the mechanical and frictional properties of articular cartilage and its changes during OA, and it summarizes the mechanical outcomes of cartilage repair techniques.

A high throughput cell stretch device for investigating mechanobiology in vitro

Mechanobiology is a rapidly advancing field, with growing evidence that mechanical signaling plays key roles in health and disease. To accelerate mechanobiology-based drug discovery, novel in vitro systems are needed that enable mechanical perturbation of cells in a format amenable to high throughput screening. Here, both a mechanical stretch device and 192-well silicone flexible linear stretch plate were designed and fabricated to meet high throughput technology needs for cell stretch-based applications. To demonstrate the utility of the stretch plate in automation and screening, cell dispensing, liquid handling, high content imaging, and high throughput sequencing platforms were employed. Using this system, an assay was developed as a biological validation and proof-of-concept readout for screening. A mechano-transcriptional stretch response was characterized using focused gene expression profiling measured by RNA-mediated oligonucleotide Annealing, Selection, and Ligation with Next-Gen sequencing. Using articular chondrocytes, a gene expression signature containing stretch responsive genes relevant to cartilage homeostasis and disease was identified. The possibility for integration of other stretch sensitive cell types (e.g., cardiovascular, airway, bladder, gut, and musculoskeletal), in combination with alternative phenotypic readouts (e.g., protein expression, proliferation, or spatial alignment), broadens the scope of high throughput stretch and allows for wider adoption by the research community. This high throughput mechanical stress device fills an unmet need in phenotypic screening technology to support drug discovery in mechanobiology-based disease areas.

Advancements in gradient bone scaffolds: enhancing bone regeneration in the treatment of various bone disorders

Bone scaffolds are widely employed for treating various bone disorders, including defects, fractures, and accidents. Gradient bone scaffolds present a promising approach by incorporating gradients in shape, porosity, density, and other properties, mimicking the natural human body structure. This design offers several advantages over traditional scaffolds. A key advantage is the enhanced matching of human tissue properties, facilitating cell adhesion and migration. Furthermore, the gradient structure fosters a smooth transition between scaffold and surrounding tissue, minimizing the risk of inflammation or rejection. Mechanical stability is also improved, providing better support for bone regeneration. Additionally, gradient bone scaffolds can integrate drug delivery systems, enabling controlled release of drugs or growth factors to promote specific cellular activities during the healing process. This comprehensive review examines the design aspects of gradient bone scaffolds, encompassing structure and drug delivery capabilities. By optimizing the scaffold's inherent advantages through gradient design, bone regeneration outcomes can be improved. The insights presented in this article contribute to the academic understanding of gradient bone scaffolds and their applications in bone tissue engineering.

FLight Biofabrication Supports Maturation of Articular Cartilage with Anisotropic Properties

Tissue engineering approaches that recapitulate cartilage biomechanical properties are emerging as promising methods to restore the function of injured or degenerated tissue. However, despite significant progress in this research area, the generation of engineered cartilage constructs akin to native counterparts still represents an unmet challenge. In particular, the inability to accurately reproduce cartilage zonal architecture with different collagen fibril orientations is a significant limitation. The arrangement of the extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a fundamental role in determining the mechanical and biological functions of the tissue. In this study, it is shown that a novel light-based approach, Filamented Light (FLight) biofabrication, can be used to generate highly porous, 3D cell-instructive anisotropic constructs that lead to directional collagen deposition. Using a photoclick-based photoresin optimized for cartilage tissue engineering, a significantly improved maturation of the cartilaginous tissues with zonal architecture and remarkable native-like mechanical properties is demonstrated.

Glycosaminoglycan-Mediated Interactions in Articular, Auricular, Meniscal, and Nasal Cartilage

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are ubiquitous components in the cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM). Ultrastructural arrangement of ECM and GAG-mediated interactions with collagen are known to govern the mechanics in articular cartilage, but these interactions are less clear in other cartilage types. Therefore, this article reviews the current literature on ultrastructure of articular, auricular, meniscal, and nasal septal cartilage, seeking insight into GAG-mediated interactions influencing mechanics. Ultrastructural features of these cartilages are discussed to highlight differences between them. GAG-mediated interactions are reviewed under two categories: interactions with chondrocytes and interactions with other fibrillar macromolecules of the ECM. Moreover, efforts to replicate GAG-mediated interactions to improve mechanical integrity of tissue-engineered cartilage constructs are discussed. In conclusion, studies exploring cartilage specific GAGs are poorly represented in the literature, and the ultrastructure of nasal septal and auricular cartilage is less studied compared with articular and meniscal cartilages. Understanding the contribution of GAGs in cartilage mechanics at the ultrastructural level and translating that knowledge to engineered cartilage will facilitate improvement of cartilage tissue engineering approaches.

Chitin: A versatile biopolymer-based functional therapy for cartilage regeneration

Chitin is the second most abundant biopolymer and its inherent biological characteristics make it ideal to use for tissue engineering. For many decades, its properties like non-toxicity, abundant availability, ease of modification, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and anti-microbial activity have made chitin an ideal biopolymer for drug delivery. Research studies have also shown many potential benefits of chitin in the formulation of functional therapy for cartilage regeneration. Chitin and its derivatives can be processed into 2D/3D scaffolds, hydrogels, films, exosomes, and nano-fibers, which make it a versatile and functional biopolymer in tissue engineering. Chitin is a biomimetic polymer that provides targeted delivery of mesenchymal stem cells, especially of chondrocytes at the injected donor sites to accelerate regeneration by enhancing cell proliferation and differentiation. Due to this property, chitin is considered an interesting polymer that has a high potential to provide targeted therapy in the regeneration of cartilage. Our paper presents an overview of the method of extraction, structure, properties, and functional role of this versatile biopolymer in tissue engineering, especially cartilage regeneration.

A review of advanced hydrogels for cartilage tissue engineering

With the increase in weight and age of the population, the consumption of tobacco, inappropriate foods, and the reduction of sports activities in recent years, bone and joint diseases such as osteoarthritis (OA) have become more common in the world. From the past until now, various treatment strategies (e.g., microfracture treatment, Autologous Chondrocyte Implantation (ACI), and Mosaicplasty) have been investigated and studied for the prevention and treatment of this disease. However, these methods face problems such as being invasive, not fully repairing the tissue, and damaging the surrounding tissues. Tissue engineering, including cartilage tissue engineering, is one of the minimally invasive, innovative, and effective methods for the treatment and regeneration of damaged cartilage, which has attracted the attention of scientists in the fields of medicine and biomaterials engineering in the past several years. Hydrogels of different types with diverse properties have become desirable candidates for engineering and treating cartilage tissue. They can cover most of the shortcomings of other treatment methods and cause the least secondary damage to the patient. Besides using hydrogels as an ideal strategy, new drug delivery and treatment methods, such as targeted drug delivery and treatment through mechanical signaling, have been studied as interesting strategies. In this study, we review and discuss various types of hydrogels, biomaterials used for hydrogel manufacturing, cartilage-targeting drug delivery, and mechanosignaling as modern strategies for cartilage treatment.

Immobilization by 21 days of bed rest results in type II collagen degradation in healthy individuals

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of 21 days of bed rest immobilization (with and without exercise and nutrition interventions) on type II collagen biomarker concentrations in healthy individuals.

DESIGN

Twelve healthy male participants (age 34.2 ± 8.3 years; body mass index 22.4 ± 1.7 kg/m²) were exposed to 6 days ambulatory baseline data collection (BDC), 21 days head-down-tilt bed rest (HDT, CON) + interventions (HDT + resistive vibration exercise (2 times/week, 25 minutes): RVE; HDT + RVE + whey protein (0.6 g/kg body weight/day) and bicarbonate supplementation (90 mmol KHCO3/day: NeX), and 6 days of re-ambulation (R) in a cross-over designed study. The starting HDT condition was randomized (CON-RVE-NEX, RVE-NEX-CON, NEX-CON-RVE). Blood and urine samples were collected before, during, and after HDT. Serum concentrations (s) of CPII, C2C, C1,2C, and urinary concentrations (u) of CTX-II and Coll2-1NO2 were measured.

RESULTS

Twenty-one days of HDT resulted in increased sCPII (p < 0.001), sC2C (p < 0.001), and sC1,2C (p = 0.001) (highest increases: sCPII (+24.2% - HDT5), sC2C (+24.4% - HDT7), sC1,2C (+13.5% - HDT2). sC2C remained elevated at R+1 (p = 0.002) and R+6 (p < 0.001) compared to baseline. NeX led to lower sCPII (p < 0.001) and sC1,2C (p = 0.003) compared to CON. uCTX-II (second void and 24-hour urine) increased during HDT (p < 0.001, highest increase on HDT21: second void +82.8% (p < 0.001); 24-hour urine + 77.8% (p < 0.001). NeX resulted in lower uCTX-II concentrations in 24-hour urine (p = 0.012) compared to CON.

CONCLUSIONS

Twenty-one days of bed rest immobilization results in type II collagen degradation that does not recover within 6 days of resuming ambulation. The combination of resistive vibration exercise and protein/bicarbonate supplementation minimally counteracted this effect.

Liquid platelet-rich fibrin produced via horizontal centrifugation decreases the inflammatory response and promotes chondrocyte regeneration in vitro

Objective: Recently, liquid platelet-rich fibrin (PRF), a rich source of concentrated platelets and growth factors, has emerged as a promising agent for stimulating tissue regeneration. However, its specific efficacy in chondrocyte proliferation and cartilage regeneration remains underexplored. To address this question, we investigated liquid PRF obtained through horizontal centrifugation and compared its effects with hyaluronic acid (HA), a high molecular weight glucosamine supplement widely used in clinical practice to safeguard against chondral damage. Materials and Methods: Liquid PRF, produced using horizontal centrifugation (liquid H-PRF) at 500 g for 8 min, served as our experimental agent. We conducted cell viability and proliferation assays using PRF-conditioned medium. We assessed the chondrocyte phenotype of ATDC5 cells through toluidine blue and alcian blue staining, real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Western blotting, and immunofluorescence staining. Furthermore, we examined the expression of genes involved in inflammation through RT-PCR and Western blot analysis. Results: Liquid H-PRF exerted notable effects on chondrocytes, influencing proliferation, inflammatory responses, and chondrogenic differentiation. The H-PRF group displayed significantly higher expression of chondrogenic markers, including Col2a1, compared to HA-treated cells, whereas aggrecan expression was significantly higher in the HA group. PRF also demonstrated the ability to reduce inflammatory levels in chondrogenic ATDC5 cells, and this effect was further enhanced when PRF from the buffy coat zone was added. In comparison, chondrocytes cultured in the HA group produced significantly fewer inflammatory factors than those in the PRF group, as confirmed qualitatively by Western blot analysis. Conclusion: Liquid H-PRF emerged as a potent stimulator for chondrogenesis and a regulator of the inflammatory response, achieving levels similar to HA. Moreover, liquid H-PRF exhibited strong potential for enhancing the production of cartilage extracellular matrix and promoting chondrogenic regeneration with notably increased Col2a1 levels. Future research should encompass animal studies and human trials to further evaluate the comparative effectiveness of liquid PRF versus HA, potentially as an alternative or complementary strategy for future clinical applications.

Cytomodulin-10 modified GelMA hydrogel with kartogenin for in-situ osteochondral regeneration

The incidence of osteochondral defect is increasing year by year, but there is still no widely accepted method for repairing the defect. Hydrogels loaded with bioactive molecules have provided promising alternatives for in-situ osteochondral regeneration. Kartogenin (KGN) is an effective and steady small molecule with the function of cartilage regeneration and protection which can be further boosted by TGF-β. However, the high cost, instability, and immunogenicity of TGF-β would limit its combined effect with KGN in clinical application. In this study, a composite hydrogel CM-KGN@GelMA, which contained TGF-β1 analog short peptide cytomodulin-10 (CM-10) and KGN, was fabricated. The results indicated that CM-10 modified on GelMA hydrogels exerted an equivalent role in enhancing chondrogenesis as TGF-β1, and this effect was also boosted when combined with KGN. Moreover, it was revealed that CM-10 and KGN had a synergistic effect on promoting the chondrogenesis of BMSCs by up-regulating the expression of RUNX1 and SOX9 at both mRNA and protein levels in vitro. Finally, the composite hydrogel exhibited a satisfactory osteochondral defect repair effect in vivo, showing similar structures close to the native tissue. Taken together, this study has revealed that CM-10 may serve as an alternative for TGF-β1 and can collaborate with KGN to accelerate chondrogenesis, which suggests that the fabricated CM-KGN@GelMA composite hydrogel can be acted as a potential scaffold for osteochondral defect regeneration. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Kartogenin and TGF-β have shown great value in promoting osteochondral defect regeneration, and their combined application can enhance the effect and show great potential for clinical application. Herein, a functional CM-KGN@GelMA hydrogel was fabricated, which was composed of TGF-β1 mimicking peptide CM-10 and KGN. CM-10 in hydrogel retained an activity like TGF-β1 to facilitate BMSC chondrogenesis and exhibited boosting chondrogenesis by up-regulating RUNX1 and SOX9 when being co-applied with KGN. In vivo, the hydrogel promoted cartilage regeneration and subchondral bone reconstruction, showing similar structures as the native tissue, which might be vital in recovering the bio-function of cartilage. Thus, this study developed an effective scaffold and provided a promising way for osteochondral defect repair.

GelMA-glycol chitosan hydrogels for cartilage regeneration: The role of uniaxial mechanical stimulation in enhancing mechanical, adhesive, and biochemical properties

Untreated osteochondral defects are a leading cause of osteoarthritis, a condition that places a heavy burden on both patients and orthopedic surgeons. Although tissue engineering has shown promise for creating mechanically similar cartilage-like constructs, their integration with cartilage remains elusive. Therefore, a formulation of biodegradable, biocompatible biomaterial with sufficient mechanical and adhesive properties for cartilage repair is required. To accomplish this, we prepared biocompatible, photo-curable, mechanically robust, and highly adhesive GelMA-glycol chitosan (GelMA-GC) hydrogels. GelMA-GC hydrogels had a modulus of 283 kPa and provided a biocompatible environment (>70% viability of embedded chondrocytes) in long-term culture within a bovine cartilage ring. The adhesive strength of bovine chondrocyte-laden GelMA-GC hydrogel to bovine cartilage increased from 38 to 52 kPa over four weeks of culture. Moreover, intermittent uniaxial mechanical stimulation enhanced the adhesive strength to ∼60 kPa, indicating that the cartilage-hydrogel integration could remain secure and functional under dynamic loading conditions. Furthermore, gene expression data and immunofluorescence staining revealed the capacity of chondrocytes in GelMA-GC hydrogel to synthesize chondrogenic markers (COL2A1 and ACAN), suggesting the potential for tissue regeneration. The promising in vitro results of this work motivate further exploration of the potential of photo-curable GelMA-GC bioadhesive hydrogels for cartilage repair and regeneration.

Fabricating the cartilage: recent achievements

This review aims to describe the most recent achievements and provide an insight into cartilage engineering and strategies to restore the cartilage defects. Here, we discuss cell types, biomaterials, and biochemical factors applied to form cartilage tissue equivalents and update the status of fabrication techniques, which are used at all stages of engineering the cartilage. The actualized concept to improve the cartilage tissue restoration is based on applying personalized products fabricated using a full cycle platform: a bioprinter, a bioink consisted of ECM-embedded autologous cell aggregates, and a bioreactor. Moreover, in situ platforms can help to skip some steps and enable adjusting the newly formed tissue in the place during the operation. Only some achievements described have passed first stages of clinical translation; nevertheless, the number of their preclinical and clinical trials is expected to grow in the nearest future.

Treatment of Chondral Lesions in the Knee

Articular cartilage injuries are common and lead to early joint deterioration and osteoarthritis. Articular cartilage repair techniques aim at forming a cartilaginous neo-tissue to support the articular load and prevent progressive degeneration. Several techniques are available for this purpose, such as microfracture and chondrocyte transplantation. However, the procedural outcome is often fibrocartilage, which does not have the same mechanical resistance as cartilaginous tissue. Procedures with autologous osteochondral graft have a morbidity risk, and tissue availability limits their use. As such, larger lesions undergo osteochondral transplantation using fresh or frozen grafts. New techniques using minced or particulate cartilage fragments or mesenchymal stem cells are promising. This paper aims to update the procedures for treating chondral lesions of the knee.

Biomechanics of Chondrocytes and Chondrons in Healthy Conditions and Osteoarthritis: A Review of the Mechanical Characterisations at the Microscale

Biomechanical studies are expanding across a variety of fields, from biomedicine to biomedical engineering. From the molecular to the system level, mechanical stimuli are crucial regulators of the development of organs and tissues, their growth and related processes such as remodelling, regeneration or disease. When dealing with cell mechanics, various experimental techniques have been developed to analyse the passive response of cells; however, cell variability and the extraction process, complex experimental procedures and different models and assumptions may affect the resulting mechanical properties. For these purposes, this review was aimed at collecting the available literature focused on experimental chondrocyte and chondron biomechanics with direct connection to their biochemical functions and activities, in order to point out important information regarding the planning of an experimental test or a comparison with the available results. In particular, this review highlighted (i) the most common experimental techniques used, (ii) the results and models adopted by different authors, (iii) a critical perspective on features that could affect the results and finally (iv) the quantification of structural and mechanical changes due to a degenerative pathology such as osteoarthritis.

Formononetin, a Beer Polyphenol with Catabolic Effects on Chondrocytes

Beer consumption has been identified as a risk factor for osteoarthritis (OA), a rheumatic disease characterised by cartilage degradation, joint inflammation, and eventual joint failure. One of the main isoflavonoids in beer is formononetin (FNT), an estrogenic compound also found in multiple plants and herbs. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of FNT on chondrocyte viability, inflammation, and metabolism. Cells were treated with FNT with or without IL-1β for 48 h and during 7 days of differentiation. Cell viability was determined via MTT assay. Nitrite accumulation was determined by Griess reaction. The expression of genes involved in inflammation and metabolism was determined by RT-PCR. The results revealed that a low concentration of FNT had no deleterious effect on cell viability and decreased the expression of inflammation-related genes. However, our results suggest that FNT overexposure negatively impacts on chondrocytes by promoting catabolic responses. Finally, these effects were not mediated by estrogen receptors (ERs) or aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). In conclusion, factors that favour FNT accumulation, such as long exposure times or metabolic disorders, can promote chondrocyte catabolism. These data may partially explain why beer consumption increases the risk of OA.

Cartilage-Related Collagens in Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis: From Pathogenesis to Therapeutics

Collagens serve essential mechanical functions throughout the body, particularly in the connective tissues. In articular cartilage, collagens provide most of the biomechanical properties of the extracellular matrix essential for its function. Collagen plays a very important role in maintaining the mechanical properties of articular cartilage and the stability of the ECM. Noteworthily, many pathogenic factors in the course of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis, such as mechanical injury, inflammation, and senescence, are involved in the irreversible degradation of collagen, leading to the progressive destruction of cartilage. The degradation of collagen can generate new biochemical markers with the ability to monitor disease progression and facilitate drug development. In addition, collagen can also be used as a biomaterial with excellent properties such as low immunogenicity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and hydrophilicity. This review not only provides a systematic description of collagen and analyzes the structural characteristics of articular cartilage and the mechanisms of cartilage damage in disease states but also provides a detailed characterization of the biomarkers of collagen production and the role of collagen in cartilage repair, providing ideas and techniques for clinical diagnosis and treatment.

A novel device for investigating structure-function relationships and mechanoadaptation of biological tissues

Exploring the structure-function relationships of cartilage on a microstructural level is crucial for tissue engineering approaches aiming to restore function. Therefore, a combination of mechanical testing with cell and tissue-level imaging would allow for longitudinal studying loading mechanisms, biological responses and mechanoadaptation of tissues at a microstructural level. This paper describes the design and validation of FELIX, a custom-built device for non-destructive image-guided micromechanical evaluation of biological tissues and tissue-engineered constructs. It combines multiphoton microscopy with non-destructive mechanical testing of native soft tissues. Ten silicone samples of the same size were mechanically tested with FELIX by different users to assess the repeatability and reproducibility. The results indicate that FELIX can successfully substitute mechanical testing protocols with a commercial device without compromising precision. Furthermore, FELIX demonstrated consistent results across repeated measurements, with very small deviations. Therefore, FELIX can be used to accurately measure biomechanical properties by different users for separate studies. Additionally, cell nuclei and collagen of porcine articular cartilage were successfully imaged under compression. Cell viability remained high in chondrocytes cultured in agarose over 21 days. Furthermore, there were no signs of contamination indicating a cell friendly, sterile environment for longitudinal studies. In conclusion, this work demonstrates that FELIX can consistently quantify mechanical measures without compromising precision. Furthermore, it is biocompatible allowing for longitudinal measurements.

Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy of the cartilage tissue in the fourth optical window

Studies of the optical properties of biological tissues in the infrared range have demonstrated significant potential for diagnostic tasks. One of the insufficiently explored ranges for diagnostic problems at the moment is the fourth transparency window, or short wavelength infrared region II (SWIR II). A Cr²⁺:ZnSe laser with tuning capability in the range from 2.1 to 2.4 µm was developed to explore the possibilities in this region. The capability of diffuse reflectance spectroscopy to analyze water and collagen content in biosamples was investigated using the optical gelatin phantoms and the cartilage tissue samples during their drying process. It was demonstrated that decomposition components of the optical density spectra correlated with the partial content of the collagen and water in the samples. The present study indicates the possibility of using this spectral range for the development of diagnostic methods, in particular, for observation of the changes in the content of cartilage tissue components in degenerative diseases such as osteoarthritis.

Tissue Clearing and Its Application in the Musculoskeletal System

The musculoskeletal system is an integral part of the human body. Currently, most skeletal muscle research is conducted through conventional histological sections due to technological limitations and the structure of skeletal muscles. For studying and observing bones and muscles, there is an urgent need for three-dimensional, objective imaging technologies. Optical tissue-clearing technologies seem to offer a novel and accessible approach to research of the musculoskeletal system. Using this approach, the components which cause refraction or prevent light from penetrating into the tissue are physically and chemically eliminated; then the liquid in the tissue is replaced with high-refractive-index chemicals. This innovative method, which allows three-dimensional reconstruction at the cellular and subcellular scale, significantly improves imaging depth and resolution. Nonetheless, this technology was not originally developed to image bones or muscles. When compared with brain and nerve organs which have attracted considerable attention in this field, the musculoskeletal system contains fewer lipids and has high levels of hemoglobin, collagen fibers, and inorganic hydroxyapatite crystals. Currently, three-dimensional imaging methods are widely used in the diagnosis and treatment of skeletal and muscular illnesses. In this regard, it is vitally important to review and evaluate the optical tissue-clearing technologies currently employed in the musculoskeletal system, so that researchers may make an informed decision. In the meantime, this study offers guidelines and recommendations for expanding the use of this technology in the musculoskeletal system.

Alginate Hydrogels Reinforced by Dehydration under Stress-Application to a Soft Magnetic Actuator

We investigated the effect of partial dehydration under mechanical stress in the properties of alginate hydrogels. For this aim, we characterized the mechanical properties of the hydrogels under tensile and shear stress, as well as their swelling behavior, macroscopic appearance, and microscopic structure. We found that the processes of dehydration under a mechanical stress were irreversible with fully rehydration being impossible. What is more, these processes gave rise to an enhancement of the mechanical robustness of the hydrogels beyond the effect due to the increase in polymer concentration caused by dehydration. Finally, we analyzed the applicability of these results to alginate-based magnetic hydrogel grippers that bended in response to an applied magnetic field. Remarkably, our study demonstrated that the dehydration of the magnetic hydrogels under compression facilitated their bending response.

Fabrication of Collagen-Hyaluronic Acid Cryogels by Directional Freezing Mimicking Cartilage Arcade-like Structure

The internal architecture of tissue-like constructs is fundamental to their structural and biological functions. Here, we introduce a simple and robust method to fabricate cryogels based on derivatized extracellular matrix (ECM) macromolecules with porosity arranged according to the typical Benninghoff zonal architecture of articular cartilage. To obtain this arcade-like structure, the technique used the growth of ice crystals from copper pins at cryogenic temperatures. The directional cryogel formation enabled the organized growth of ice crystals over a large distance (>4 mm). The compositional properties were achieved by forming double networks (DNs) of hyaluronic acid and collagen derivatives (MeHA and CollGTA, respectively), which also served to improve the mechanical properties of the otherwise weak collagen scaffolds. Compositionally biomimetic and more resilient MeHA-CollGTA DNs (Young's modulus ≈ 200 kilopascals) were therefore produced. The technique presented expands the fabrication methods available for providing ECM macromolecules with architectural elements mimicking cartilage complexity.

A composite device for viscosupplementation treatment resistant to degradation by reactive oxygen species and hyaluronidase

Osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the most common musculoskeletal disorders in the world. OA is often associated with the loss of viscoelastic and tribological properties of synovial fluid (SF) due to degradation of hyaluronic acid (HA) by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and hyaluronidases. Viscosupplementation is one of the ways how to effectively restore SF functions. However, current viscosupplementation products provide only temporal therapeutic effect because of short biological half-life. In this article we describe a novel device for viscosupplementation (NV) based on the cross-linked tyramine derivative of HA, chondroitin sulfate (CS), and high molecular weight HA by online determination of viscoelastic properties loss during degradation by ROS and hyaluronidase. Rheological and tribological properties of developed viscosupplement were compared with HA solutions with different molecular weights in the range 500-2000 kDa, which are currently commonly used as medical devices for viscosupplementation treatment. Moreover, based on clinical practice and scientific literature all samples were also diluted by model OA SF in the ratio 1:1 (vol/vol) to better predict final properties after injection to the joint. The observed results confirmed that NV exhibits appropriate rheological properties (viscosity, elastic, and viscous moduli) comparable with healthy SF and maintain them during degradation for a significantly longer time than HA solutions with molecular weight in the range 500-2000 kDa and cross-linked material without CS.

Formulation, characterization of glucosamine loaded transfersomes and in vivo evaluation using papain induced arthritis model

The aim of current study was to develop the transdermal transfersomes of glucosamine for better drug delivery. Stretch ability and plasticity of transfersomes membranes mitigate the risk of vesicle rupture in the skin and allows the drug carrying transfersome to pass through the epidermis following the natural water gradient. Transdermal delivery of Glucosamine has an advantage over oral route, having greater local concentration and fewer systemic effects. Thin Film Rotary method was use to prepare transfersomes, and characterization was carried out physio-chemically using electron microscopic studies, zeta potential evaluation, entrapment efficiency studies. To add on in the stability, development of a secondary topical vehicle using Carbopol 940 was carried out to enhance the shelf life of transfersomes. Furthermore, in vivo studies on rabbits were also carried out using the papain induced arthritis model to support the effectiveness of treatment. The radiology studies of knee joint of rabbits proved the effectiveness of glucosamine loaded transfersomes in healing the osteoarthritis with the blood plasma analysis remain unaltered. In vitro characterization showed the successful development of nano-deformable entities with good entrapment efficiency but with little stability, therefore modified into a gel. In a nut shell this modified new dosage from can be best alternative to other conventional options that owe lot of demerits.

Portable hand-held bioprinters promote in situ tissue regeneration

Three-dimensional bioprinting, as a novel technique of fabricating engineered tissues, is positively correlated with the ultimate goal of regenerative medicine, which is the restoration, reconstruction, and repair of lost and/or damaged tissue function. The progressive trend of this technology resulted in developing the portable hand-held bioprinters, which could be used quite easily by surgeons and physicians. With the advent of portable hand-held bioprinters, the obstacles and challenges of utilizing statistical bioprinters could be resolved. This review attempts to discuss the advantages and challenges of portable hand-held bioprinters via in situ tissue regeneration. All the tissues that have been investigated by this approach were reviewed, including skin, cartilage, bone, dental, and skeletal muscle regeneration, while the tissues that could be regenerated via this approach are targeted in the authors' perspective. The design and applications of hand-held bioprinters were discussed widely, and the marketed printers were introduced. It has been prospected that these facilities could ameliorate translating the regenerative medicine science from the bench to the bedside actively.

In Situ Assessment of Porcine Osteochondral Repair Tissue in the Visible-Near Infrared Spectral Region

Standard assessment of cartilage repair progression by visual arthroscopy can be subjective and may result in suboptimal evaluation. Visible-near infrared (Vis-NIR) fiber optic spectroscopy of joint tissues, including articular cartilage and subchondral bone, provides an objective approach for quantitative assessment of tissue composition. Here, we applied this technique in the 350-2,500 nm spectral region to identify spectral markers of osteochondral tissue during repair with the overarching goal of developing a new approach to monitor repair of cartilage defects in vivo. Full thickness chondral defects were created in Yucatan minipigs using a 5-mm biopsy punch, and microfracture (MFx) was performed as a standard technique to facilitate repair. Tissues were evaluated at 1 month (in adult pigs) and 3 months (in juvenile pigs) post-surgery by spectroscopy and histology. After euthanasia, Vis-NIR spectra were collected in situ from the defect region. Additional spectroscopy experiments were carried out in vitro to aid in spectral interpretation. Osteochondral tissues were dissected from the joint and evaluated using the conventional International Cartilage Repair Society (ICRS) II histological scoring system, which showed lower scores for the 1-month than the 3-month repair tissues. In the visible spectral region, hemoglobin absorbances at 540 and 570 nm were significantly higher in spectra from 1-month repair tissue than 3-month repair tissue, indicating a reduction of blood in the more mature repair tissue. In the NIR region, we observed qualitative differences between the two groups in spectra taken from the defect, but differences did not reach significance. Furthermore, spectral data also indicated that the hydrated environment of the joint tissue may interfere with evaluation of tissue water absorbances in the NIR region. Together, these data provide support for further investigation of the visible spectral region for assessment of longitudinal repair of cartilage defects, which would enable assessment during routine arthroscopy, particularly in a hydrated environment.

Value of 3D Printed PLGA Scaffolds for Cartilage Defects in Terms of Repair

Objective

To examine the poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) and sodium alginate (SA) scaffolds produced by 3D printing technology, access the healing morphology of bones following PLGA/SA implantation within rat cartilage, and examine osteogenesis-related factors in rat serum to determine the efficacy of PLGA/SA scaffolds in healing animal cartilage injuries. To identify the potential of this material to repair a tissue engineering osteochondral injury.

Methods

Polylactic acid-glycolic acid copolymer and sodium alginate were used as raw materials to create PLGA/SA scaffolds. We observed the scaffold's macrostructure and microstructure, and the scaffold's microstructure was observed through a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The mechanical toughness of a stent was assessed using a biomechanical device. Hematoxylin-eosin staining revealed immune rejection after embedding the scaffolds under the skin of SD rats. The CCK-8 cell proliferation test kit was used to measure cell proliferation. An experimental model of cartilage injury in the knee joint was created in rats. Rats were used to establish an experimental model of cartilage damage in the knee joint. 120 female rats aged 5 weeks were chosen at random from the pool and divided into the experimental and control groups. They were all completely anesthetized with an anesthetic before having the lateral skin of the knee articular cartilage incised. Implanted PLGA/SA scaffolds were not used in the control group and only in the experiment group. Both groups of rats had their muscles and skin sutured and covered in plaster bandages. On the third, seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, twenty-eighth, and thirty-fifth days after the procedure, the two groups of rats were divided into groups. At various stages, bone tissue, blood samples, and cartilage were examined and evaluated. Immunohistochemistry was used to identify the local bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP2).

Results

(1) PLGA/SA was successfully used to build an artificial cartilage scaffold. (2) Macroscopic and SEM observation results showed the material had increased density and numerous microvoids on the surface. (3) The result of the biomechanical test showed that the PLGA/SA scaffold had superior biomechanical characteristics. (4) The stent did not exhibit any noticeable immunological rejection, according to the results of the subcutaneous embedding experiment performed on rats. (5) The CCK-8 data demonstrated that as the cell development time rose, the number of cells gradually increased. However, there was not statistically significant difference between the growth of the cells in the scaffold extract and the control group (P > 0.05). (6) A successful rat model based on a cartilage defect of the medial knee joint has been built. (7) Observations of specimens revealed that the experimental group's bone tissue score was higher than that of the control group. (8) Using immunohistochemistry, it was found that the experimental group's BMP2 expression was higher on the 7th, 14th, and 28th days than it was in the control group (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

Strong mechanical and biological properties are present in stable, biodegradable PLGA/SA scaffolds that mimic cartilage. We demonstrated that the cartilage biomimetic PLGA/SA scaffold may repair cartilage and prevent negative reactions such as osteoarthritis in rat knee cartilage, making it suitable as a cartilage scaffolding material for tissue engineering. The PLGA/SA scaffold was also able to promote BMP2 expression in the bone healing zone when inserted into a knee cartilage lesion. Improved cartilage damage is the outcome of BMP2's promotion of bone formation and restriction of bone resorption in the bone healing zone.

Development of Tri-Layered Biomimetic Atelocollagen Scaffolds with Interfaces for Osteochondral Tissue Engineering

The development of biomimetic scaffolds containing cartilage, calcified cartilage, and bone regeneration for precise osteochondral repair remains a challenge. Herein, a novel tri-layered scaffold-with a top layer containing type II atelocollagen and chondroitin sulphate for cartilage regeneration, an intermediate layer with type II atelocollagen and hydroxyapatite for calcified cartilage formation, and a bottom layer with type I atelocollagen and hydroxyapatite for bone growth-that can be built using liquid-phase cosynthesis, is described. The tri-layered scaffolds are mechanically demonstrably superior and have a lower risk of delamination than monolayer scaffolds. This is due to higher cohesion arising from the interfaces between each layer. In vitro results show that although monolayer scaffolds can stimulate bone marrow stem cells to differentiate and form cartilage, calcified cartilage, and bone separately (detected using quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis and staining with safranin-O and Alizarin Red S), the tri-layered scaffolds support the regeneration of cartilage, calcified cartilage, and bone simultaneously after 2 and 4 months of implantation (detected using gross and micro-computed tomography images, histological staining, and Avizo, a software used to detect microlevel defects in metals). This work presents data on a promising approach in devising strategies for the precise repair of osteochondral defects.

Articulation inspired by nature: a review of biomimetic and biologically active 3D printed scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering

In the human body, articular cartilage facilitates the frictionless movement of synovial joints. However, due to its avascular and aneural nature, it has a limited ability to self-repair when damaged due to injury or wear and tear over time. Current surgical treatment options for cartilage defects often lead to the formation of fibrous, non-durable tissue and thus a new solution is required. Nature is the best innovator and so recent advances in the field of tissue engineering have aimed to recreate the microenvironment of native articular cartilage using biomaterial scaffolds. However, the inability to mirror the complexity of native tissue has hindered the clinical translation of many products thus far. Fortunately, the advent of 3D printing has provided a potential solution. 3D printed scaffolds, fabricated using biomimetic biomaterials, can be designed to mimic the complex zonal architecture and composition of articular cartilage. The bioinks used to fabricate these scaffolds can also be further functionalised with cells and/or bioactive factors or gene therapeutics to mirror the cellular composition of the native tissue. Thus, this review investigates how the architecture and composition of native articular cartilage is inspiring the design of biomimetic bioinks for 3D printing of scaffolds for cartilage repair. Subsequently, we discuss how these 3D printed scaffolds can be further functionalised with cells and bioactive factors, as well as looking at future prospects in this field.

Micro- and nanotechnology in biomedical engineering for cartilage tissue regeneration in osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis, which typically arises from aging, traumatic injury, or obesity, is the most common form of arthritis, which usually leads to malfunction of the joints and requires medical interventions due to the poor self-healing capacity of articular cartilage. However, currently used medical treatment modalities have reported, at least in part, disappointing and frustrating results for patients with osteoarthritis. Recent progress in the design and fabrication of tissue-engineered microscale/nanoscale platforms, which arises from the convergence of stem cell research and nanotechnology methods, has shown promising results in the administration of new and efficient options for treating osteochondral lesions. This paper presents an overview of the recent advances in osteochondral tissue engineering resulting from the application of micro- and nanotechnology approaches in the structure of biomaterials, including biological and microscale/nanoscale topographical cues, microspheres, nanoparticles, nanofibers, and nanotubes.

Recent strategies of collagen-based biomaterials for cartilage repair: from structure cognition to function endowment

Collagen, characteristic in biomimetic composition and hierarchical structure, boasts a huge potential in repairing cartilage defect due to its extraordinary bioactivities and regulated physicochemical properties, such as low immunogenicity, biocompatibility and controllable degradation, which promotes the cell adhesion, migration and proliferation. Therefore, collagen-based biomaterial has been explored as porous scaffolds or functional coatings in cell-free scaffold and tissue engineering strategy for cartilage repairing. Among those forming technologies, freeze-dry is frequently used with special modifications while 3D-printing and electrospinning serve as the structure-controller in a more precise way. Besides, appropriate cross-linking treatment and incorporation with bioactive substance generally help the collagen-based biomaterials to meet the physicochemical requirement in the defect site and strengthen the repairing performance. Furthermore, comprehensive evaluations on the repair effects of biomaterials are sorted out in terms of in vitro, in vivo and clinical assessments, focusing on the morphology observation, characteristic production and critical gene expression. Finally, the challenge of biomaterial-based therapy for cartilage defect repairing was summarized, which is, the adaption to the highly complex structure and functional difference of cartilage.

Graphical abstract

Increased migratory activity and cartilage regeneration by superficial-zone chondrocytes in enzymatically treated cartilage explants

Background

Limited chondrocyte migration and impaired cartilage-to-cartilage healing is a barrier in cartilage regenerative therapy. Collagenase treatment and delivery of a chemotactic agent may play a positive role in chondrocyte repopulation at the site of cartilage damage. This study evaluated chondrocyte migratory activity after enzymatic treatment in cultured cartilage explant. Differential effects of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) dimeric isoforms on the migratory activity were investigated to define major chemotactic factors for cartilage.

Methods

Full-thickness cartilage (4-mm³ blocks) were harvested from porcine femoral condyles and subjected to explant culture. After 15 min or 60 min of actinase and collagenase treatments, chondrocyte migration and infiltration into a 0.5-mm cartilage gap was investigated. Cell morphology and lubricin, keratan sulfate, and chondroitin 4 sulfate expression in superficial- and deep-zone chondrocytes were assessed. The chemotactic activities of PDGF-AA, −AB, and -BB were measured in each zone of chondrocytes, using a modified Boyden chamber assay. The protein and mRNA expression and histological localization of PDGF-β were analyzed by western blot analysis, real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and immunohistochemistry, and results in each cartilage zone were compared.

Results

Superficial-zone chondrocytes had higher migratory activity than deep-zone chondrocytes and actively bridged the cartilage gap, while metachromatic staining by toluidine blue and immunoreactivities of keratan sulfate and chondroitin 4 sulfate were detected around the cells migrating from the superficial zone. These superficial-zone cells with weak immunoreactivity for lubricin tended to enter the cartilage gap and possessed higher migratory activity, while the deep-zone chondrocytes remained in the lacuna and exhibited less migratory activity. Among PDGF isoforms, PDGF-AB maximized the degree of chemotactic activity of superficial zone chondrocytes. Increased expression of PDGF receptor-β was associated with higher migratory activity of the superficial-zone chondrocytes.

Conclusions

In enzymatically treated cartilage explant culture, chondrocyte migration and infiltration into the cartilage gap was higher in the superficial zone than in the deep zone. Preferential expression of PDGF receptor-β combined with the PDGF-AB dimeric isoform may explain the increased migratory activity of the superficial-zone chondrocytes. Cells migrating from superficial zone may contribute to cartilage regeneration.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12891-022-05210-2.

Multiscale Strain Transfer in Cartilage

The transfer of stress and strain signals between the extracellular matrix (ECM) and cells is crucial for biochemical and biomechanical cues that are required for tissue morphogenesis, differentiation, growth, and homeostasis. In cartilage tissue, the heterogeneity in spatial variation of ECM molecules leads to a depth-dependent non-uniform strain transfer and alters the magnitude of forces sensed by cells in articular and fibrocartilage, influencing chondrocyte metabolism and biochemical response. It is not fully established how these nonuniform forces ultimately influence cartilage health, maintenance, and integrity. To comprehend tissue remodelling in health and disease, it is fundamental to investigate how these forces, the ECM, and cells interrelate. However, not much is known about the relationship between applied mechanical stimulus and resulting spatial variations in magnitude and sense of mechanical stimuli within the chondrocyte’s microenvironment. Investigating multiscale strain transfer and hierarchical structure-function relationships in cartilage is key to unravelling how cells receive signals and how they are transformed into biosynthetic responses. Therefore, this article first reviews different cartilage types and chondrocyte mechanosensing. Following this, multiscale strain transfer through cartilage tissue and the involvement of individual ECM components are discussed. Finally, insights to further understand multiscale strain transfer in cartilage are outlined.

Role of lncRNAs into Mesenchymal Stromal Cell Differentiation

Currently, findings support that 75% of the human genome is actively transcribed, but only 2% is translated into a protein, according to databases such as ENCODE (Encyclopedia of DNA Elements) [1]. The development of high-throughput sequencing technologies, computational methods for genome assembly and biological models have led to the realization of the importance of the previously unconsidered non-coding fraction of the genome. Along with this, noncoding RNAs have been shown to be epigenetic, transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulators in a large number of cellular processes [2]. Within the group of non-coding RNAs, lncRNAs represent a fascinating field of study, given the functional versatility in their mode of action on their molecular targets. In recent years, there has been an interest in learning about lncRNAs in MSC differentiation. The aim of this review is to address the signaling mechanisms where lncRNAs are involved, emphasizing their role in either stimulating or inhibiting the transition to differentiated cell. Specifically, the main types of MSC differentiation are discussed: myogenesis, osteogenesis, adipogenesis and chondrogenesis. The description of increasingly new lncRNAs reinforces their role as players in the well-studied field of MSC differentiation, allowing a step towards a better understanding of their biology and their potential application in the clinic.

Application of Alginate Hydrogels for Next-Generation Articular Cartilage Regeneration

The articular cartilage has insufficient intrinsic healing abilities, and articular cartilage injuries often progress to osteoarthritis. Alginate-based scaffolds are attractive biomaterials for cartilage repair and regeneration, allowing for the delivery of cells and therapeutic drugs and gene sequences. In light of the heterogeneity of findings reporting the benefits of using alginate for cartilage regeneration, a better understanding of alginate-based systems is needed in order to improve the approaches aiming to enhance cartilage regeneration with this compound. This review provides an in-depth evaluation of the literature, focusing on the manipulation of alginate as a tool to support the processes involved in cartilage healing in order to demonstrate how such a material, used as a direct compound or combined with cell and gene therapy and with scaffold-guided gene transfer procedures, may assist cartilage regeneration in an optimal manner for future applications in patients.

Structural Changes in Trabecular Bone, Cortical Bone and Hyaline Cartilage as Well as Disturbances in Bone Metabolism and Mineralization in an Animal Model of Secondary Osteoporosis in Clostridium perfringens Infection

There is no information regarding whether changes in the microbiological balance of the gastrointestinal tract as a result of an infection with Clostridium perfringens influence the development of metabolic bone disorders. The experiment was carried out on male broiler chickens divided into two groups: control (n = 10) and experimental (n = 10). The experimental animals were infected with Clostridium perfringens between 17 and 20 days of age. The animals were euthanized at 42 days of age. The structural parameters of the trabecular bone, cortical bone, and hyaline cartilage as well as the mineralization of the bone were determined. The metabolism of the skeletal system was assessed by determining the levels of bone turnover markers, hormones, and minerals in the blood serum. The results confirm that the disturbed composition of the gastrointestinal microflora has an impact on the mineralization and metabolism of bone tissue, leading to the structural changes in cortical bone, trabecular bone, and hyaline cartilage. On the basis of the obtained results, it can be concluded that changes in the microenvironment of the gastrointestinal tract by infection with C. perfringens may have an impact on the earlier development of osteoporosis.

Mechanosignalling in cartilage: an emerging target for the treatment of osteoarthritis

Mechanical stimuli have fundamental roles in articular cartilage during health and disease. Chondrocytes respond to the physical properties of the cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM) and the mechanical forces exerted on them during joint loading. In osteoarthritis (OA), catabolic processes degrade the functional ECM and the composition and viscoelastic properties of the ECM produced by chondrocytes are altered. The abnormal loading environment created by these alterations propagates cell dysfunction and inflammation. Chondrocytes sense their physical environment via an array of mechanosensitive receptors and channels that activate a complex network of downstream signalling pathways to regulate several cell processes central to OA pathology. Advances in understanding the complex roles of specific mechanosignalling mechanisms in healthy and OA cartilage have highlighted molecular processes that can be therapeutically targeted to interrupt pathological feedback loops. The potential for combining these mechanosignalling targets with the rapidly expanding field of smart mechanoresponsive biomaterials and delivery systems is an emerging paradigm in OA treatment. The continued advances in this field have the potential to enable restoration of healthy mechanical microenvironments and signalling through the development of precision therapeutics, mechanoregulated biomaterials and drug systems in the near future.

Comparative Assessment of Primary Osteoarthritis Progression Using Conventional Histopathology, Polarized Light Microscopy, and Immunohistochemistry

OBJECTIVE

Evaluation of collagen orientation and arrangement in articular cartilage can improve our understanding of primary osteoarthritis (OA) progression and targeted therapies. Our goal was to determine if polarized light microscopy (PLM) for collagen organization is useful in identifying early primary OA features in comparison to current standard histopathological methods.

DESIGN

Osteochondral specimens from 90 total knee arthroplasty patients with relatively preserved lateral femoral condyle were scored using (1) histological-histochemical grading system (HHGS); (2) Osteoarthritis Research Society International (OARSI); (3) PLM-Changoor system for repair cartilage, scores ranging between 0 (totally disorganized cartilage) and 5 (healthy adult cartilage); and (4) new PLM system for primary OA cartilage with superficial zone PLM (PLM-SZ) and deep zone PLM (PLM-DZ) scores, each ranging between 0 (healthy adult SZ and DZ collagen organization) and 4 (total loss of collagen organization). Serial sections were stained for collagen I and II antibodies. Spearman correlation coefficients (r_s) were determined.

RESULTS

The associations between: (1) PLM-Changoor and HHGS or OARSI were weak (r_s = -0.36) or moderate (r_s = -0.56); (2) PLM-SZ and HHGS or OARSI were moderate (r_s = 0.46 or r_s = 0.53); and (3) PLM-DZ and HHGS or OARSI were poor (r_s = 0.31 or r_s = 0.21), respectively. Specimens exhibiting early and mild OA (HHGS < 5 and OARSI < 8.6) had PLM-SZ and PLM-DZ scores between 0 and 4 and between 0 and 3, respectively, and indicated new histopathological features not currently considered by HHGS/OARSI.

CONCLUSIONS

PLM was effective at identifying early SZ and DZ collagen alterations that were not evident in the traditional scoring systems. Incorporating PLM scores and/or additional HHGS/OARSI features can help improve characterization of early primary OA cartilage.

Single-Cell RNA Sequencing of In Vitro Expanded Chondrocytes: MSC-Like Cells With No Evidence of Distinct Subsets

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the heterogeneity of in vitro expanded chondrocytes used for autologous chondrocyte implantation.

METHODS

Human articular chondrocytes were expanded in vitro for 14 days, sorted into 86 single cells using fluorescence-activated cell sorting and subjected to single-cell RNA sequencing. Principal component, Cross R² hierarchical clustering, and differential gene expression analyses were used for data evaluation. Flow cytometry and single-cell RT-qPCR (reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction) was used to validate the results of the RNA sequencing data Polyclonal chondrocyte populations from the same donor were differentiated in vitro toward the osteogenic and adipogenic lineages.

RESULTS

There was considerable variation in gene expression between individual cells, but we found no evidence for separate cell subpopulations based on principal component, hierarchical clustering, and differential gene expression analysis. Most of the cells expressed all the markers defining mesenchymal stem cells, and as polyclonal chondrocyte populations from the same donor were shown to differentiate into osteocytes and adipocytes in vitro, these cells formally qualify as mesenchymal stem cells.

CONCLUSIONS

In vitro expanded chondrocytes consist of one single population of cells with heterogeneity in gene expression between the cells. Dedifferentiated chondrocytes qualify as mesenchymal stem cells as they fulfill all the criteria suggested by the International Society for Cellular Therapy.

Contrast-Enhanced Micro-Computed Tomography for 3D Visualization and Quantification of Glycosaminoglycans in Different Cartilage Types

OBJECTIVE

To compare CA4+-enhanced micro-computed tomography (microCT) of bovine articular, meniscal, nasal, and auricular cartilage, each of which possesses a different extracellular matrix (ECM) composition and structure.

DESIGN

The diffusion kinetics of CA4+ in different native cartilage types were assessed over 20 hours. The feasibility of CA4+-enhanced microCT to visualize and quantify glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in these different tissues was tested using safranin-O staining and 1,9-dimethylmethylene blue assay.

RESULTS

The diffusion kinetics of CA4+ in auricular cartilage are significantly slower compared with all other cartilage types. Total GAG content per volume correlates to microCT attenuation with an R² value of 0.79 for all cartilage types. Three-dimensional contrast-enhanced microCT images of spatial GAG distribution reflect safranin-O staining and highlight the differences in ECM structure, with heterogeneous regions with higher GAG concentrations highlighted by the contrast agent.

CONCLUSIONS

CA4+-enhanced microCT enables assessment of 3-dimensiona distribution and GAG content in different types of cartilage and has promise as an ex vivo diagnostic technique to monitor matrix development in different tissues over time as well as tissue-engineered constructs.