Combination of Voriconazole and Caspofungin as Primary Therapy for Invasive Aspergillosis in Solid Organ Transplant Recipients: A Prospective, Multicenter, Observational Study

CAF to the Rescue! Potential and Challenges of Combination Antifungal Therapy for Reducing Morbidity and Mortality in Hospitalized Patients With Serious Fungal Infections

The global burden of invasive fungal disease is substantial and escalating. Combination antifungal therapy (CAF) may improve patient outcomes by reducing development of resistance, improving drug penetration and rate of fungal clearance, and allowing for lower and less toxic antifungal drug doses; yet, increased cost, antagonism, drug-drug interactions, and toxicity are concerns. Clinical practice guidelines recommend antifungal monotherapy, rather than CAF, for most invasive fungal diseases due to a lack of comparative randomized clinical trials. An examination of the existing body of CAF research should frame new hypotheses and determine priorities for future CAF clinical trials. We performed a systematic review of CAF clinical studies for invasive candidiasis, cryptococcosis, invasive aspergillosis, and mucormycosis. Additionally, we summarized findings from animal models of CAF and assessed laboratory methods available to evaluate CAF efficacy. Future CAF trials should be prioritized according to animal models showing improved survival and observational clinical data supporting efficacy and safety.

Navigating Uncertainty: Managing Influenza-Associated Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis in an Intensive Care Unit

We present a challenging case of a patient admitted to an intensive care unit with influenza-associated pulmonary aspergillosis (IAPA). The clinical course was characterised by refractory fungal pneumonia and tracheobronchitis, suspected drug-induced liver injury due to triazole antifungals, and secondary bacterial infections with multidrug-resistant microorganisms, resulting in a fatal outcome despite the optimisation of antifungal treatment through therapeutic drug monitoring. This case underscores the complexity that clinicians face in managing critically ill patients with invasive fungal infections.

Compare the efficacy of antifungal agents as primary therapy for invasive aspergillosis: a network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Several antifungal agents are available for primary therapy in patients with invasive aspergillosis (IA). Although a few studies have compared the effectiveness of different antifungal agents in treating IA, there has yet to be a definitive agreement on the best choice. Herein, we perform a network meta-analysis comparing the efficacy of different antifungal agents in IA.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Clinical Trials databases to find studies (both randomized controlled trials [RCTs] and observational) that reported on treatment outcomes with antifungal agents for patients with IA. The study quality was assessed using the revised tool for risk of bias and the Newcastle Ottawa scale, respectively. We performed a network meta-analysis (NMA) to summarize the evidence on antifungal agents' efficacy (favourable response and mortality).

RESULTS

We found 12 studies (2428 patients) investigating 11 antifungal agents in the primary therapy of IA. There were 5 RCTs and 7 observational studies. When treated with monotherapy, isavuconazole was associated with the best probability of favourable response (SUCRA, 77.9%; mean rank, 3.2) and the best reduction mortality against IA (SUCRA, 69.1%; mean rank, 4.1), followed by voriconazole and posaconazole. When treated with combination therapy, Liposomal amphotericin B plus caspofungin was the therapy associated with the best probability of favourable response (SUCRA, 84.1%; mean rank, 2.6) and the best reduction mortality (SUCRA, 88.2%; mean rank, 2.2) against IA.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that isavuconazole, voriconazole, and posaconazole may be the best antifungal agents as the primary therapy for IA. Liposomal amphotericin B plus caspofungin could be an alternative option.

Functional analysis of the Aspergillus fumigatus kinome identifies a druggable DYRK kinase that regulates septal plugging

More than 10 million people suffer from lung diseases caused by the pathogenic fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. Azole antifungals represent first-line therapeutics for most of these infections but resistance is rising, therefore the identification of antifungal targets whose inhibition synergises with the azoles could improve therapeutic outcomes. Here, we generate a library of 111 genetically barcoded null mutants of Aspergillus fumigatus in genes encoding protein kinases, and show that loss of function of kinase YakA results in hypersensitivity to the azoles and reduced pathogenicity. YakA is an orthologue of Candida albicans Yak1, a TOR signalling pathway kinase involved in modulation of stress responsive transcriptional regulators. We show that YakA has been repurposed in A. fumigatus to regulate blocking of the septal pore upon exposure to stress. Loss of YakA function reduces the ability of A. fumigatus to penetrate solid media and to grow in mouse lung tissue. We also show that 1-ethoxycarbonyl-beta-carboline (1-ECBC), a compound previously shown to inhibit C. albicans Yak1, prevents stress-mediated septal spore blocking and synergises with the azoles to inhibit A. fumigatus growth.

Drug-drug interaction between tacrolimus and caspofungin in Chinese kidney transplant patients with different CYP3A5 genotypes

Background

The effect of drug-drug interaction between tacrolimus and caspofungin on the pharmacokinetics of tacrolimus in different CYP3A5 genotypes has not been reported in previous studies.

Objectives

To investigate the effect of caspofungin on the blood concentration and dose of tacrolimus under different CYP3A5 genotypes.

Design

We conducted a retrospective cohort study in The First Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital from January 2015 to December 2022. All kidney transplant patients were divided into the combination or non-combination group based on whether tacrolimus was combined with caspofungin or not. Patients were subdivided into CYP3A5 expressers (CYP3A5*1/*1 or CYP3A5*1/*3) and CYP3A5 non-expressers (CYP3A5*3/*3).

Methods

Data from the combination and the non-combination groups were matched with propensity scores to reduce confounding by SPSS 22.0. A total of 200 kidney transplant patients receiving tacrolimus combined with caspofungin or not were enrolled in this study. Statistical analysis was conducted on the dose-corrected trough concentrations (C0/D) and dose requirements (D) of tacrolimus using independent sample two-sided t-test and nonparametric tests to investigate the impact on patients with different.

Results

In this study, the C0/D values of tacrolimus were not significantly different between the combination and non-combination groups (p = 0.054). For CYP3A5 expressers, there was no significant difference in tacrolimus C0/D or D values between the combination and non-combination groups (p = 0.359; p = 0.851). In CYP3A5 nonexpressers, the C0/D values of tacrolimus were significantly lower in the combination than in the non-combination groups (p = 0.039), and the required daily dose of tacrolimus was increased by 11.11% in the combination group.

Conclusion

Co-administration of caspofungin reduced tacrolimus blood levels and elevated the required daily dose of tacrolimus. In CYP3A5 non-expressers, co-administration of caspofungin had a significant effect on tacrolimus C0/D values. An approximate 10% increase in the weight-adjusted daily dose of tacrolimus in CYP3A5 non-expressers is recommended to ensure the safety of tacrolimus administration.

Pharmacological management of invasive mold infections in solid organ transplant recipients

INTRODUCTION

Solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients face an increased susceptibility to invasive fungal infection (IFI) due to filamentous fungi. Post-transplant invasive aspergillosis (IA) and mucormycosis are related to exceedingly high mortality rates and graft loss risk, and its management involve a unique range of clinical challenges.

AREAS COVERED

First, the current treatment recommendations for IA and mucormycosis among SOT recipients are critically reviewed, including the supporting evidence. Next, we discussed particular concerns in this patient population, such as drug-drug interactions (DDIs) between triazoles and post-transplant immunosuppression or treatment-related toxicity. The role for immunomodulatory and host-targeted therapies is also considered, as well as the theoretical impact of the intrinsic antifungal activity of calcineurin inhibitors. Finally, a personal opinion is made on future directions in the pharmacological approach to post-transplant IFI.

EXPERT OPINION

Despite relevant advances in the treatment of mold IFIs in the SOT setting, such as the incorporation of isavuconazole (with lower incidence of DDIs and better tolerability than voriconazole), there remains a large room for improvement in areas such as the position of combination therapy or the optimal strategy for the reduction of baseline immunosuppression. Importantly, future studies should define the specific contribution of newer antifungal agents and classes.

Invasive aspergillosis in liver transplant recipients, an infectious complication with low incidence but significant mortality

BACKGROUND

Infections, including invasive fungal infections (IFIs), are among the leading causes of mortality in liver transplant recipients during the first year post-transplantation.

AIM

To investigate the epidemiology, clinical manifestations, risk factors, treatment outcomes, and mortality rate of post-liver transplantation invasive aspergillosis (IA).

METHODS

In this case-control study, 22 patients with IA were identified by reviewing the archived and electronic medical records of 850 patients who received liver transplants at the Imam Khomeini Hospital complex in Tehran, Iran, between 2014 and 2019. The control group comprised 38 patients without IA infection matched for age and sex. The information obtained included the baseline characteristics of liver transplant patients, operative reports, post-transplantation characteristics of both groups and information about the fungal infection of the patient group.

RESULTS

The prevalence rate of IA among liver transplant recipients at Imam Khomeini Hospital was 2.7%. The risk factors of IA among studied patients included high serum creatinine levels before and post-transplant, renal replacement therapy, antithymocyte globulin induction therapy, post-transplant bile leakage, post-transplant hepatic artery thrombosis, repeated surgery within 30 d after the transplant, bacterial pneumonia before the aspergillosis diagnosis, receiving systemic antibiotics before the aspergillus infection, cytomegalovirus infection, and duration of post-transplant hospitalization in the intensive care unit. The most prevalent form of infection was invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, and the most common chest computed tomography scan findings were nodules, pleural effusion, and the halo sign. In the case group, prophylactic antifungal therapy was administered more frequently than in the control group. The antifungal therapy response rate at 12 wk was 63.7%. The 3- and 12- mo mortality rates of the patients with IA were 36.4% and 45.4%, respectively (compared with the mortality rate of the control group in 12 mo, which was zero).

CONCLUSION

In this study, the prevalence of IA among liver transplant recipients was relatively low. However, it was one of the leading causes of mortality following liver transplantation. Targeted antifungal therapy may be a factor in the low incidence of infections at our facility. Identifying the risk factors of IFIs, maintaining an elevated level of clinical suspicion, and initiating early antifungal treatment may significantly improve the prognosis and reduce the mortality rate of liver transplant recipients.

Functional analysis of the Aspergillus fumigatus kinome reveals a DYRK kinase involved in septal plugging is a novel antifungal drug target

More than 10 million people suffer from lung diseases caused by the pathogenic fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. The azole class of antifungals represent first line therapeutics for most of these infections however resistance is rising. Identification of novel antifungal targets that, when inhibited, synergise with the azoles will aid the development of agents that can improve therapeutic outcomes and supress the emergence of resistance. As part of the A. fumigatus genome-wide knockout program (COFUN), we have completed the generation of a library that consists of 120 genetically barcoded null mutants in genes that encode the protein kinase cohort of A. fumigatus. We have employed a competitive fitness profiling approach (Bar-Seq), to identify targets which when deleted result in hypersensitivity to the azoles and fitness defects in a murine host. The most promising candidate from our screen is a previously uncharacterised DYRK kinase orthologous to Yak1 of Candida albicans, a TOR signalling pathway kinase involved in modulation of stress responsive transcriptional regulators. Here we show that the orthologue YakA has been repurposed in A. fumigatus to regulate blocking of the septal pore upon exposure to stress via phosphorylation of the Woronin body tethering protein Lah. Loss of YakA function reduces the ability of A. fumigatus to penetrate solid media and impacts growth in murine lung tissue. We also show that 1-ethoxycarbonyl-beta-carboline (1-ECBC), a compound previously shown to inhibit Yak1 in C. albicans prevents stress mediated septal spore blocking and synergises with the azoles to inhibit A. fumigatus growth.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Fungal Infections in Lung Transplant Recipients

Fungal infections are a significant source of morbidity in the lung transplant population via direct allograft damage and predisposing patients to the development of chronic lung allograft dysfunction. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are imperative to limit allograft damage. This review article discusses incidence, risk factors, and symptoms with a specific focus on diagnostic and treatment strategies in the lung transplant population for fungal infections caused by Aspergillus, Candida, Coccidioides, Histoplasma, Blastomyces, Scedosporium/Lomentospora, Fusarium, and Pneumocystis jirovecii. Evidence for the use of newer triazole and inhaled antifungals to treat isolated pulmonary fungal infections in lung transplant recipients is also discussed.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Invasive Aspergillosis Caused by Non-fumigatus Aspergillus spp

With increasing frequency, clinical and laboratory-based mycologists are consulted on invasive fungal diseases caused by rare fungal species. This review aims to give an overview of the management of invasive aspergillosis (IA) caused by non-fumigatus Aspergillus spp.-namely A. flavus, A. terreus, A. niger and A. nidulans-including diagnostic and therapeutic differences and similarities to A. fumigatus. A. flavus is the second most common Aspergillus spp. isolated in patients with IA and the predominant species in subtropical regions. Treatment is complicated by its intrinsic resistance against amphotericin B (AmB) and high minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) for voriconazole. A. nidulans has been frequently isolated in patients with long-term immunosuppression, mostly in patients with primary immunodeficiencies such as chronic granulomatous disease. It has been reported to disseminate more often than other Aspergillus spp. Innate resistance against AmB has been suggested but not yet proven, while MICs seem to be elevated. A. niger is more frequently reported in less severe infections such as otomycosis. Triazoles exhibit varying MICs and are therefore not strictly recommended as first-line treatment for IA caused by A. niger, while patient outcome seems to be more favorable when compared to IA due to other Aspergillus species. A. terreus-related infections have been reported increasingly as the cause of acute and chronic aspergillosis. A recent prospective international multicenter surveillance study showed Spain, Austria, and Israel to be the countries with the highest density of A. terreus species complex isolates collected. This species complex seems to cause dissemination more often and is intrinsically resistant to AmB. Non-fumigatus aspergillosis is difficult to manage due to complex patient histories, varying infection sites and potential intrinsic resistances to antifungals. Future investigational efforts should aim at amplifying the knowledge on specific diagnostic measures and their on-site availability, as well as defining optimal treatment strategies and outcomes of non-fumigatus aspergillosis.

Invasive aspergillosis in liver transplant recipients

BACKGROUND

Liver transplantation is increasing worldwide with underlying pathologies dominated by metabolic and alcoholic diseases in developed countries.

METHODS

We provide a narrative review of invasive aspergillosis (IA) in liver transplant (LT) recipients. We searched PubMed and Google Scholar for references without language and time restrictions.

RESULTS

The incidence of IA in LT recipients is low (1.8%), while mortality is high (∼50%). It occurs mainly early (<3 months) after LT. Some risk factors have been identified before (corticosteroid, renal, and liver failure), during (massive transfusion and duration of surgical procedure), and after transplantation (intensive care unit stay, re-transplantation, re-operation). Diagnosis can be difficult and therefore requires full radiological and clinicobiological collaboration. Accurate identification of Aspergillus species is recommended due to the cryptic species, and susceptibility testing is crucial given the increasing resistance of Aspergillus fumigatus to azoles. It is recommended to reduce the dose of tacrolimus (50%) and to closely monitor the trough level when introducing voriconazole, isavuconazole, and posaconazole. Surgery should be discussed on a case-by-case basis. Antifungal prophylaxis is recommended in high-risk patients. Environmental preventative measures should be implemented to prevent outbreaks of nosocomial aspergillosis in LT recipient units.

CONCLUSION

IA remains a very serious disease in LT patients and should be promptly sought and, if possible, prevented by clinicians when risk factors are identified.

Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis is growing in incidence, as patients at risk are growing in diversity. Outside the classical context of neutropenia, new risk factors are emerging or newly identified, such as new anticancer drugs, viral pneumonias and hepatic dysfunctions. Clinical signs remain unspecific in these populations and the diagnostic work-up has considerably expanded. Computed tomography is key to assess the pulmonary lesions of aspergillosis, whose various features must be acknowledged. Positron-emission tomography can bring additional information for diagnosis and follow-up. The mycological argument for diagnosis is rarely fully conclusive, as biopsy from a sterile site is challenging in most clinical contexts. In patients with a risk and suggestive radiological findings, probable invasive aspergillosis is diagnosed through blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples by detecting galactomannan or DNA, or by direct microscopy and culture for the latter. Diagnosis is considered possible with mold infection in lack of mycological criterion. Nevertheless, the therapeutic decision should not be hindered by these research-oriented categories, that have been completed by better adapted ones in specific settings. Survival has been improved over the past decades with the development of relevant antifungals, including lipid formulations of amphotericin B and new azoles. New antifungals, including first-in-class molecules, are awaited.

In vitro synergistic antifungal activities with caspofungin plus fluconazole or voricanazole against Candida species determined by Etest method

OBJECTIVES

Increased resistance of Candida species, especially C.glabrata is problematic. Combination antifungal therapies were studied to solve the problem.

METHODS

In this study, combinations of caspofungin with fluconazole and voricanazole were evaluated in 28 Candida species (included 15 C.glabrata and 12 with FKS mutation) at 24 and 48 h by two Etest methods (direct cover method and MIC/MIC method).

RESULTS

For Candida isolates, direct cover method showed synergy of caspofungin-fluconazole and caspofungin-voriconazole against 12/28 (43%) isolates at 24 h, and against 16/28 (57%) isolates at 48 h. MIC/MIC method showed synergy of caspofungin-fluconazole and caspofungin-voriconazole against 11/28 (39%) and 12/28 (43%) isolates at 24 h, and against 16/28 (57%) and 17/28 (61%) isolates at 48 h, respectively. For C.glabrata, direct cover method showed synergy of caspofungin-fluconazole and caspofungin-voriconazole against 11/15 (73%) and 10/15 (67%) isolates at 24 h, and 11/15 (73%) and 13/15 (87%) isolates at 48 h, respectively. MIC/MIC method showed synergy of caspofungin-fluconazole and caspofungin-voriconazole against both 11/15 (73%) isolates at 24 h, and 10/15 (67%) and 14/15 (93%) isolates at 48 h, respectively.

CONCLUSION

A combination of caspofungin and fluconazole or voriconazole might be effective in infections due to Candida species, especially for C.glabrata with FKS mutation.

Disseminated Aspergillus lentulus infection in a heart transplant recipient: a case report

We present the first published case of successfully treated disseminated Aspergillus lentulus infection in a solid organ transplant recipient with invasive pulmonary disease, endophthalmitis, and a cerebral abscess. This case highlights important challenges associated with treating Aspergillus lentulus, particularly regarding antifungal resistance and toxicities associated with long-term antifungal therapy.

Aspergillus fumigatus and aspergillosis: From basics to clinics

The airborne fungus Aspergillus fumigatus poses a serious health threat to humans by causing numerous invasive infections and a notable mortality in humans, especially in immunocompromised patients. Mould-active azoles are the frontline therapeutics employed to treat aspergillosis. The global emergence of azole-resistant A. fumigatus isolates in clinic and environment, however, notoriously limits the therapeutic options of mould-active antifungals and potentially can be attributed to a mortality rate reaching up to 100 %. Although specific mutations in CYP 51A are the main cause of azole resistance, there is a new wave of azole-resistant isolates with wild-type CYP 51A genotype challenging the efficacy of the current diagnostic tools. Therefore, applications of whole-genome sequencing are increasingly gaining popularity to overcome such challenges. Prominent echinocandin tolerance, as well as liver and kidney toxicity posed by amphotericin B, necessitate a continuous quest for novel antifungal drugs to combat emerging azole-resistant A. fumigatus isolates. Animal models and the tools used for genetic engineering require further refinement to facilitate a better understanding about the resistance mechanisms, virulence, and immune reactions orchestrated against A. fumigatus. This review paper comprehensively discusses the current clinical challenges caused by A. fumigatus and provides insights on how to address them.

Next generation sequencing for diagnosis of central nervous system aspergillosis in liver transplant recipients

Background

Fungal encephalitis is uncommon and sometimes fatal in liver transplant (LT) recipients. Early diagnosis of central nervous system (CNS) fungal infections, especially aspergillosis, is difficult based on routine tests of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) alone. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) as a new tool may help in this respect.

Methods

Shotgun metagenomics was used to detect pathogens in CSF of patients, who were clinically suspected of CNS infection. Sequencing was performed at BGIseq-50 platform (BGI, Shenzhen).

Results

NGS technique identified Aspergillus in CSF of 5 patients, who were suspected of CNS infection, although clinical symptoms of these patients varied dramatically. The resulting sequence reads corresponding to Aspergillus species ranged from 2 to 25, with genomic coverage ranging from 0.0003% to 0.0036%. Rapid identification of Aspergillus enabled early appropriate antifungal therapy, although 4 patients eventually died of severe infection.

Conclusions

This is the first study to highlight the utility of NGS in early diagnosis of CNS aspergillosis in LT recipients. This new tool may be helpful in improving the diagnosis of CNS aspergillosis.

Fungal pneumonia in kidney transplant recipients

Fungal pneumonia is a dreaded complication encountered after kidney transplantation, complicated by increased mortality and often associated with graft failure. Diagnosis can be challenging because the clinical presentation is non-specific and diagnostic tools have limited sensitivity and specificity in kidney transplant recipients and must be interpreted in the context of the clinical setting. Management is difficult due to the increased risk of dissemination and severity, multiple comorbidities, drug interactions and reduced immunosuppression which should be applied as an important adjunct to therapy. This review will focus on the main causes of fungal pneumonia in kidney transplant recipients including Pneumocystis, Aspergillus, Cryptococcus, mucormycetes and Histoplasma. Epidemiology, clinical presentation, laboratory and radiographic features, specific characteristics will be discussed with an update on diagnostic procedures and treatment.

Conversion ratio of tacrolimus switching from intravenous infusion to oral administration after lung transplantation

Background

To investigate the conversion ratio of tacrolimus switching from intravenous infusion to oral administration in patients after lung transplantation.

Methods

We retrospectively recruited patients received lung transplantation in the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical Hospital from January 2015 to June 2019. The blood concentration of tacrolimus administrated through intravenous infusion and oral administration were collected. The blood concentration, concentration/dose ratio (C/D), and (C/Dpo)/(C/Div) ratio were analyzed to explore the conversion ratio of tacrolimus switching from intravenous infusion to oral administration, as combined medication of tacrolimus and caspofungin were used.

Results

The concentration of intravenously administered tacrolimus was significantly higher than that of oral administration; the C/D ratio of intravenously administrated tacrolimus (C/Div) was significantly higher than that of the oral administration (C/Dpo). There was a significant correlation between C/Dpo and C/Div (R² =0.774, P<0.001). The conversion ratio of tacrolimus from intravenous administration to oral administration was 1:7.4, as combined medication of tacrolimus and caspofungin were used.

Conclusions

The conversion ratio of tacrolimus switching from intravenous to oral administration is 1:7.4 in the combination treatment of tacrolimus and caspofungin after lung transplantation.

Lethal thrombosis of the iliac artery caused by Aspergillus fumigatus after liver transplantation: case report and review of the literature

Background

Aspergillus fumigatus infections frequently occur after solid organ transplantation. Yet, a fungal thrombosis after liver transplantation is an exceptional finding.

Case presentation

We report on a 44-year-old female with an aspergillosis after liver transplantation for autoimmune hepatitis. On postoperative day (pod) 7, seizures occurred and imaging diagnostics revealed an intracranial lesion. Anidulafungin was initiated in suspicion of mycosis and switched to voriconazole on suspicion of an Aspergillus spp. infection. Progression of the cerebral lesion prompted craniotomy (pod 48) and the aspergillosis was verified. The patient was discharged with oral voriconazole therapy. Re-admission was necessary with acute-on-chronic renal failure after a tacrolimus overdose on pod 130. The patient received a pelvic angiography due to a temperature difference in the legs. It showed a complete iliac artery thrombosis which was subsecutively surgically removed. The histopathological examination revealed an Aspergillus fumigatus conglomerate. The patient died on pod 210 due to systemic aspergillosis.

Conclusion

The acute development of focal neurologic deficits is common in patients with an aspergillosis of the brain. Nevertheless, arterial thrombosis after Aspergillus fumigatus is less frequent and, to the best of our knowledge, its occurrence after liver transplantation has not yet been reported so far. Due to its rarity, we added a review of the literature to this manuscript.

Invasive Fungal Infections With Good Survival Following Liver Transplant: A Single-Center Experience From a Developing Country

OBJECTIVES

Invasive fungal infection following liver transplant is considered as one of the important factors influencing morbidity and mortality among liver transplant recipients. The aim of the present study was to describe the prevalence of invasive fungal infections and their predisposing factors in a singlecenter cohort of patients who received liver transplant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For this study, 250 adult patients undergoing orthotopic liver transplant between March 2010 and March 2015 were enrolled. All patients were followed prospectively for infections.

RESULTS

The diagnosis of invasive fungal infection was made in 15 patients (6%). One patient had 2 episodes of fungal infection, and reoperation was performed for 3 patients. Invasive aspergillosis developed in 8 patients (53.3%),followed by Candida species infection in 3 patients (20%) and cryptococcosis in 2 patients (13.3%).The main predisposing factors were renal failure (12/15) and positive history of rejection (11/15). Other risk factors for development of invasive fungal infections were choledochojejunostomy in 3 patients (20%), bile leaks in 3 patients (20%), and pretransplant steroid use in 2 patients (11.8%). Two patients (13.3%) died due to invasive fungal infections.

CONCLUSIONS

In this single-center series of liver transplant recipients, the incidence of invasive fungal infections was relatively low, probably due to the universal prophylaxis with fluconazole and limited use of the broad-spectrum antibiotics. Early diagnosis and treatment of invasive fungal infections could lead to a better prognosis for liver transplant recipients with invasive fungal infections.

National trends in incidence, prevalence and disability-adjusted life years of invasive aspergillosis in Iran: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objectives: We aimed to study the epidemiology, prevalence, incidence, clinical manifestations, underlying diseases, treatments, outcomes, and societal impact through disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) of IA in Iran. Methods: A random-effect meta-analytic model was fitted to estimate the prevalence and incidence of IA in Iran. We also calculated DALYs. Results: Out of 79 published studies during the past 25 years from Iran, 23 met the inclusion criteria. A total of 2947 patients were included, of whom 396 (13.4%) patients were diagnosed with IA according to EORTC/MSG and ICU criteria. The main underlying condition for IA was hematologic disorders (39.4%). A. flavus 86 (43%) was the most common isolate. The pooled prevalence and incidence rates were 20.5 (95% CI 12.5 to 29.9) and 4.8 (95% CI 2.3-8.2) per 100,000 population, respectively. Total DALYs was estimated 164.13 per 100,000 population. YLLs constitute the majority of IA burden compared to YLDs (162.80 YLLs/100,000 population vs 1.33 YLDs per 100,000 population). The highest YLL rates were found in people aged 45-49 (62.9 YLLs/100,000 population) and 30-34 years (45.2 YLLs/100,000 population), respectively. Conclusion: This study indicates an increasing burden of IA in Iran, despite the extensive use of prophylaxis, challenging the public health, especially immunocompromised patients.

ESCMID-ECMM guideline: diagnosis and management of invasive aspergillosis in neonates and children

SCOPE

Presenting symptoms, distributions and patterns of diseases and vulnerability to invasive aspergillosis (IA) are similar between children and adults. However, differences exist in the epidemiology and underlying conditions, the usefulness of newer diagnostic tools, the pharmacology of antifungal agents and in the evidence from interventional phase 3 clinical trials. Therefore, the European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) and the European Confederation of Medical Mycology (ECMM) have developed a paediatric-specific guideline for the diagnosis and management of IA in neonates and children.

METHODS

Review and discussion of the scientific literature and grading of the available quality of evidence was performed by the paediatric subgroup of the ESCMID-ECMM-European Respiratory Society (ERS) Aspergillus disease guideline working group, which was assigned the mandate for the development of neonatal- and paediatric-specific recommendations.

QUESTIONS

Questions addressed by the guideline included the epidemiology of IA in neonates and children; which paediatric patients may benefit from antifungal prophylaxis; how to diagnose IA in neonates and children; which antifungal agents are available for use in neonates and children; which antifungal agents are suitable for prophylaxis and treatment of IA in neonates and children; what is the role of therapeutic drug monitoring of azole antifungals; and which management strategies are suitable to be used in paediatric patients. This guideline provides recommendations for the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of IA in the paediatric population, including neonates. The aim of this guideline is to facilitate optimal management of neonates and children at risk for or diagnosed with IA.

Invasive Aspergillosis in solid-organ transplant recipients: Guidelines from the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice

These updated AST-IDCOP guidelines provide information on epidemiology, diagnosis, and management of Aspergillus after organ transplantation. Aspergillus is the most common invasive mold infection in solid-organ transplant (SOT) recipients, and it is the most common invasive fungal infection among lung transplant recipients. Time from transplant to diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis (IA) is variable, but most cases present within the first year post-transplant, with shortest time to onset among liver and heart transplant recipients. The overall 12-week mortality of IA in SOT exceeds 20%; prognosis is worse among those with central nervous system involvement or disseminated disease. Bronchoalveolar lavage galactomannan is preferred for the diagnosis of IA in lung and non-lung transplant recipients, in combination with other diagnostic modalities (eg, chest CT scan, culture). Voriconazole remains the drug of choice to treat IA, with isavuconazole and lipid formulations of amphotericin B regarded as alternative agents. The role of combination antifungals for primary therapy of IA remains controversial. Either universal prophylaxis or preemptive therapy is recommended in lung transplant recipients, whereas targeted prophylaxis is favored in liver and heart transplant recipients. In these guidelines, we also discuss newer antifungals and diagnostic tests, antifungal susceptibility testing, and special patient populations.

How We Approach Combination Antifungal Therapy for Invasive Aspergillosis and Mucormycosis in Transplant Recipients

Invasive aspergillosis and mucormycosis are life-threatening infections in solid organ and hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. Despite medical advancements in the care of these patients and the availability of new mold-active drugs, the outcomes remain suboptimal. Therefore, there has been increased interest in the use of combination antifungal therapy, in hopes that leveraging the possible in vitro synergy of these agents will improve the prognosis of invasive mold disease. However, there has been a large disconnect between the results of experimental and clinical investigations, as clinical studies have not unequivocally demonstrated the superiority of combination therapy over monotherapy. This is particularly true for mucormycosis, where the rarity of the condition has made it nearly impossible to prospectively study novel therapeutic strategies. We review the current standard of antifungal therapy and the preclinical and clinical data addressing the merit of combination therapy, and we provide guidance to optimize the management of these mycoses.

Mold Infections in Solid Organ Transplant Recipients

Mold infections carry a substantial clinical and economic burden in solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients with a high overall mortality of near 30%. The most important pathogens include Aspergillus, the Zygomycetes, Fusarium, Scedosporium/Pseudallescheria, and the dematiaceous (dark) molds. Risk factors for the infections vary by transplant type but include degree of immune suppression and loss of skin or mucosal integrity. Correct diagnosis usually requires histopathology and/or culture. Management often requires a multidisciplinary team approach with combined antifungal and surgical therapies. This article reviews the epidemiology, risk factors, microbiology, diagnostic, and treatment approach to mold infections in SOT recipients.

A Case of Invasive Gastrointestinal Mycotypha Infection in a Patient with Neutropenia

Gastrointestinal mucormycosis is a rare life-threatening infection to which neutropenic patients are especially vulnerable. Mycotypha microspora is a mucormycete that has not been described as a human pathogen. We discuss the successful eradication of gastrointestinal Mycotypha microspora in a neutropenic patient with simultaneous pulmonary Aspergillus fumigatus infection.

Treatment of Aspergillosis

Infections caused by Aspergillus spp. remain associated with high morbidity and mortality. While mold-active antifungal prophylaxis has led to a decrease of occurrence of invasive aspergillosis (IA) in those patients most at risk for infection, breakthrough IA does occur and remains difficult to diagnose due to low sensitivities of mycological tests for IA. IA is also increasingly observed in other non-neutropenic patient groups, where clinical presentation is atypical and diagnosis remains challenging. Early and targeted systemic antifungal treatment remains the most important predictive factor for a successful outcome in immunocompromised individuals. Recent guidelines recommend voriconazole and/or isavuconazole for the primary treatment of IA, with liposomal amphotericin B being the first alternative, and posaconazole, as well as echinocandins, primarily recommended for salvage treatment. Few studies have evaluated treatment options for chronic pulmonary aspergillosis (CPA), where long-term oral itraconazole or voriconazole remain the treatment of choice.

Diagnosis and management of Aspergillus diseases: executive summary of the 2017 ESCMID-ECMM-ERS guideline

The European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, the European Confederation of Medical Mycology and the European Respiratory Society Joint Clinical Guidelines focus on diagnosis and management of aspergillosis. Of the numerous recommendations, a few are summarized here. Chest computed tomography as well as bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) in patients with suspicion of pulmonary invasive aspergillosis (IA) are strongly recommended. For diagnosis, direct microscopy, preferably using optical brighteners, histopathology and culture are strongly recommended. Serum and BAL galactomannan measures are recommended as markers for the diagnosis of IA. PCR should be considered in conjunction with other diagnostic tests. Pathogen identification to species complex level is strongly recommended for all clinically relevant Aspergillus isolates; antifungal susceptibility testing should be performed in patients with invasive disease in regions with resistance found in contemporary surveillance programmes. Isavuconazole and voriconazole are the preferred agents for first-line treatment of pulmonary IA, whereas liposomal amphotericin B is moderately supported. Combinations of antifungals as primary treatment options are not recommended. Therapeutic drug monitoring is strongly recommended for patients receiving posaconazole suspension or any form of voriconazole for IA treatment, and in refractory disease, where a personalized approach considering reversal of predisposing factors, switching drug class and surgical intervention is also strongly recommended. Primary prophylaxis with posaconazole is strongly recommended in patients with acute myelogenous leukaemia or myelodysplastic syndrome receiving induction chemotherapy. Secondary prophylaxis is strongly recommended in high-risk patients. We strongly recommend treatment duration based on clinical improvement, degree of immunosuppression and response on imaging.

Radiologically Occult Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis in a Patient With Liver Transplant

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis is an infection seen in patients receiving intensive immunosuppressive regimens, such as transplant recipients. Some risk factors that increase the incidence of infection have been determined, and patients defined as having high risk are recommended to take antifungal prophylaxis and be monitored closely. Here, we present a liver transplant patient with mild respiratory symptoms and a normal chest radiography on day 26 posttransplant. However, he had acute renal failure and underwent hemodialysis, which are both defined to increase significantly the risk of aspergillosis. Although the radiographic scan was initially normal, thorax tomography and later bronchoscopy showed findings compatible with pulmonary aspergillosis, and the patient was started on antifungal treatment. The nonspecific mild symptoms and an initial normal radiology can make diagnosis of invasive fungal infections difficult; thus caution and close follow-up of high-risk patients should be performed.

[Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis]

INTRODUCTION

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in a wide range of patients. Early recognition and diagnosis have become a major focus in improving the management and outcomes of this life-threatening disease.

BACKGROUND

IPA typically occurs during a period of severe and prolonged neutropenia. However, solid organ transplant recipients, patients under immunosuppressive therapy or hospitalized in intensive care units are also at risk. The diagnosis is suspected in the presence of a combination of clinical, biological and CT scan evidence. The microbiological diagnostic strategy should be adapted to the patient's profile. Conventional methods with culture and species identification remain the standard but early diagnosis has been improved by the use of biomarkers such as galactomannan antigen in serum or in bronchoalveolar lavage.

OUTLOOK

The epidemiology of IPA should change with the increased use of antifungal prophylactic regimens and the arrival of targeted therapies. Other microbiological tools, such as PCR and other biomarkers, are currently being assessed.

CONCLUSIONS

IPA must be considered in a wide range of patients. Its prognosis remains poor despite progress in the microbiological diagnosis and therapeutic management.

Pharmacodynamic studies of voriconazole: informing the clinical management of invasive fungal infections

INTRODUCTION

Voriconazole is a broad-spectrum antifungal agent commonly used to treat invasive fungal infections (IFI), including aspergillosis, candidiasis, Scedosporium infection, and Fusarium infection. IFI often occur in immunocompromised patients, leading to increased morbidity and mortality.

AREAS COVERED

The objective of this review is to summarize the pharmacodynamic properties of voriconazole and to provide considerations for potential optimal dosing strategies. Studies have demonstrated superior clinical response when an AUC/MIC >25 or Cmin/MIC >1 is attained in adult patients, correlating to a trough concentration range as narrow as 2-4.5 mg/L; however, these targets are poorly established in the pediatric population. Topics in this discussion include voriconazole use in multiple age groups, predisposing patient factors for IFI, and considerations for clinicians managing IFI. Expert commentary: The relationship between voriconazole dosing and exposure is not well defined due to the large inter- and intra-subject variability. Development of comprehensive decision support tools for individualizing dosing, particularly in children who require higher dosing, will help to increase the probability of achieving therapeutic efficacy and decrease sub-therapeutic dosing and adverse events.

Single-center experience of antifungal prophylaxis for coccidioidomycosis in heart transplant recipients within an endemic area

In endemic regions, coccidioidomycosis causes substantial morbidity and mortality for patients receiving solid organ transplants. We aimed to demonstrate the effect of antifungal coccidioidal prophylaxis in heart transplant (HT) recipients. We retrospectively reviewed the electronic health records of all patients who received HTs between October 19, 2005, and December 13, 2014. We collected information regarding antifungal regimens and determined whether patients subsequently developed infections. Our 174-person cohort all received antifungal prophylaxis for at least 6 months (mean follow-up, 53.8 months). One proven and one probable coccidioidal infection (each, 0.6%) occurred during the study period. The incidence of coccidioidomycosis was 0.6% at 1 year and 2.3% at 5 years. No cases of proven coccidioidomycosis occurred within 2 years after transplantation. No patients developed disseminated disease, and no sentinel events were attributed to coccidioidomycosis. Both fluconazole and voriconazole were well tolerated. In the absence of intolerance or contraindication, we suggest continuing a universal antifungal prophylactic regimen with fluconazole for at least 6-12 months in HT recipients residing in a coccidioidomycosis-endemic area.

Pharmacokinetics of antifungal drugs: practical implications for optimized treatment of patients

Introduction

Because of the high mortality of invasive fungal infections (IFIs), appropriate exposure to antifungals appears to be crucial for therapeutic efficacy and safety.

Materials and methods

This review summarises published pharmacokinetic data on systemically administered antifungals focusing on co-morbidities, target-site penetration, and combination antifungal therapy.

Conclusions and discussion

Amphotericin B is eliminated unchanged via urine and faeces. Flucytosine and fluconazole display low protein binding and are eliminated by the kidney. Itraconazole, voriconazole, posaconazole and isavuconazole are metabolised in the liver. Azoles are substrates and inhibitors of cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoenzymes and are therefore involved in numerous drug–drug interactions. Anidulafungin is spontaneously degraded in the plasma. Caspofungin and micafungin undergo enzymatic metabolism in the liver, which is independent of CYP. Although several drug–drug interactions occur during caspofungin and micafungin treatment, echinocandins display a lower potential for drug–drug interactions. Flucytosine and azoles penetrate into most of relevant tissues. Amphotericin B accumulates in the liver and in the spleen. Its concentrations in lung and kidney are intermediate and relatively low myocardium and brain. Tissue distribution of echinocandins is similar to that of amphotericin. Combination antifungal therapy is established for cryptococcosis but controversial in other IFIs such as invasive aspergillosis and mucormycosis.

New pharmacological opportunities for the treatment of invasive mould diseases

Recently, several randomized studies have been published that will shape treatment decisions in the prevention and management of invasive mould infections. Liposomal amphotericin B is an option for empirical or targeted treatment of invasive aspergillosis or mucormycosis, but for prophylaxis therapy, the triazole class now predominates. The triazole voriconazole is currently regarded as a drug of choice for the treatment of proven or probable invasive aspergillosis, and has shown significantly higher response rates than amphotericin B deoxycholate in this setting, with fewer severe drug-related adverse events. Isavuconazole, the newest triazole agent, offers the advantages of once-daily dosing, a wider spectrum of antifungal activity than voriconazole, predictable pharmacokinetics and fewer CYP enzyme-mediated drug interactions. A recent large randomized clinical trial showed mortality to be similar under isavuconazole or voriconazole in patients with invasive mould disease, with fewer drug-related adverse events in isavuconazole-treated patients. Another study has indicated that isavuconazole is also effective in mucormycosis infections but patient numbers were small and confirmation is awaited. Experimental studies combining different drug classes with antimould activity have been promising, but the clinical database is limited. A large randomized trial of combination therapy compared voriconazole plus the echinocandin anidulafungin versus voriconazole monotherapy in patients with invasive aspergillosis. Results showed the overall response rate to be similar, but combination therapy improved survival for the subpopulation of patients in whom the diagnosis was confirmed by serum and/or bronchoalveolar lavage fluid galactomannan positivity. This active field of research is likely to continue evolving rapidly in the coming years.

Activity of Combined Antifungal Agents Against Multidrug-Resistant Candida glabrata Strains

In this study, we evaluated the in vitro activity of echinocandins, azoles, and amphotericin B alone and in combination against echinocandin/azole-sensitive and echinocandin/azole-resistant Candida glabrata isolates. Susceptibility tests were performed using the broth microdilution method in accordance with the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute document M27-A3. The checkerboard method was used to evaluate the fractional inhibitory concentration index of the interactions. Cross-resistance was observed among echinocandins; 15% of the isolates resistant to caspofungin were also resistant to anidulafungin and micafungin. Synergistic activity was observed in 70% of resistant C. glabrata when anidulafungin was combined with voriconazole or posaconazole. Higher (85%) synergism was found in the combination of caspofungin and voriconazole. The combinations of caspofungin with fluconazole, posaconazole and amphotericin B, micafungin with fluconazole, posaconazole and voriconazole, and anidulafungin with amphotericin B showed indifferent activities for the majority of the isolates. Anidulafungin combined with fluconazole showed the same percentage of synergism and indifference (45%). Antagonism was detected in 50% of isolates when micafungin was combined with amphotericin B. Combinations of echinocandins and antifungal azoles have great potential for in vivo assays which are required to evaluate the efficacy of these combinations against multidrug-resistant C. glabrata strains.

Significant publications on infectious diseases pharmacotherapy in 2015

PURPOSE

The most important articles on infectious diseases (ID) pharmacotherapy published in the peer-reviewed literature in 2015, as nominated and selected by panels of pharmacists and others with ID expertise, are summarized.

SUMMARY

Members of the Houston Infectious Diseases Network were asked to nominate articles published in prominent peer-reviewed journals in 2015 that were thought to have a major impact in the field of ID pharmacotherapy. A list of 55 nominated articles on general ID-related topics and 10 articles specifically related to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) was compiled. In a national online survey, members of the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists (SIDP) were asked to select from the list 10 general ID articles believed to have made a significant contribution to the field of ID pharmacotherapy and 1 article contributing to HIV/AIDS pharmacotherapy. Of the 361 SIDP members surveyed, 153 (42%) and 76 (21%) participated in the selection of general ID-related articles and HIV/AIDS-related articles, respectively. The 11 highest-ranked publications (10 general ID-related articles and 1 HIV/AIDS-related article) are summarized here.

CONCLUSION

With the growing number of significant ID-related publications each year, it can be challenging to stay current with the literature. This review of important ID pharmacotherapy publications in 2015 may be helpful in identifying key articles and lessening this burden.

Clinical Presentation and Determinants of Mortality of Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis in Kidney Transplant Recipients: A Multinational Cohort Study

The prognostic factors and optimal therapy for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) after kidney transplantation (KT) remain poorly studied. We included in this multinational retrospective study 112 recipients diagnosed with probable (75.0% of cases) or proven (25.0%) IPA between 2000 and 2013. The median interval from transplantation to diagnosis was 230 days. Cough, fever, and expectoration were the most common symptoms at presentation. Bilateral pulmonary involvement was observed in 63.6% of cases. Positivity rates for the galactomannan assay in serum and bronchoalveolar lavage samples were 61.3% and 57.1%, respectively. Aspergillus fumigatus was the most commonly identified species. Six- and 12-week survival rates were 68.8% and 60.7%, respectively, and 22.1% of survivors experienced graft loss. Occurrence of IPA within the first 6 months (hazard ratio [HR]: 2.29; p-value = 0.027) and bilateral involvement at diagnosis (HR: 3.00; p-value = 0.017) were independent predictors for 6-week all-cause mortality, whereas the initial use of a voriconazole-based regimen showed a protective effect (HR: 0.34; p-value = 0.007). The administration of antifungal combination therapy had no apparent impact on outcome. In conclusion, IPA entails a dismal prognosis among KT recipients. Maintaining a low clinical suspicion threshold is key to achieve a prompt diagnosis and to initiate voriconazole therapy.

Treatment of Primary Pulmonary Aspergillosis: An Assessment of the Evidence

Aspergillus spp. are a group of filamentous molds that were first described due to a perceived similarity to an aspergillum, or liturgical device used to sprinkle holy water, when viewed under a microscope. Although commonly inhaled due to their ubiquitous nature within the environment, an invasive fungal infection (IFI) is a rare outcome that is often reserved for those patients who are immunocompromised. Given the potential for significant morbidity and mortality within this patient population from IFI due to Aspergillus spp., along with the rise in the use of therapies that confer immunosuppression, there is an increasing need for appropriate initial clinical suspicion leading to accurate diagnosis and effective treatment. Voriconazole remains the first line agent for therapy; however, the use of polyenes, novel triazole agents, or voriconazole in combination with an echinocandin may also be utilized. Consideration as to which particular agent and for what duration should be made in the individual context for each patient based upon underlying immunosuppression, comorbidities, and overall tolerance of therapy.

Echinocandins: The Expanding Antifungal Armamentarium

The echinocandins are large lipopeptide molecules that, since their discovery approximately 41 years ago, have emerged as important additions to the expanding armamentarium against invasive fungal diseases. Echinocandins exert in vitro and in vivo fungicidal action against most Candida species and fungistatic action against Aspergillus species. However, the population of patients at risk for developing invasive fungal infections continues to increase. New therapeutic strategies using echinocandins are needed to improve clinical outcomes in patients with invasive fungal disease.

Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Aspergillosis: 2016 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America

It is important to realize that guidelines cannot always account for individual variation among patients. They are not intended to supplant physician judgment with respect to particular patients or special clinical situations. IDSA considers adherence to these guidelines to be voluntary, with the ultimate determination regarding their application to be made by the physician in the light of each patient's individual circumstances.

Invasive aspergillosis successfully treated by combined antifungal therapy and immunosuppressive monotherapy two months following heart transplantation

Invasive aspergillosis is becoming increasingly prevalent, especially following transplantation. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with mortality. Successful therapy is related to early diagnosis and proper therapy. We present the case of a 61-year-old man suffering from invasive aspergillosis 2 months following heart transplantation. He was suffering from hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and he underwent orthotropic heart transplantation. He was readmitted to the Department of Cardiology 69 days following transplantation due to symptoms of productive cough for 5 days. It was accompanied by chest pain, shortness of breath, and fever up to 39°C. He was slightly cyanotic and confused on physical examination. The patient's status deteriorated within the following 2 days. On bronchoscopic specimen examinations Aspergillus mould filaments were detected and the serum galactomannan index was 12.162. His blood saturation decreased to 85%. C-reactive protein serum level increased to 273 mg/l. The patient was admitted to the intensive care unit and intubated due to severe respiratory insufficiency. Computed tomography revealed massive, mostly homogeneous consolidation. The patient was treated with 200 mg of voriconazole and 50 mg of caspofungin daily. Caspofungin therapy was continued for 23 days and voriconazole was administered parenterally for 62 days. Voriconazole therapy was continued orally for 9 months. During combined antifungal therapy, the galactomannan serum index constantly decreased from 12.1 to 0.33 (end-point of caspofungin therapy) and to 0.23 (end-point of voriconazole parenteral administration). His immunosuppressive therapy was limited to calcineurin inhibitor (tacrolimus) monotherapy. Post-treatment imaging 9 months after diagnosis confirmed the efficacy of therapy as a lack of pulmonary infiltration associated with left apical peribronchial scarring as a result of treatment. The present case proved the efficiency of combined (voriconazole and caspofungin) antibiotic therapy in invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Computed tomography findings followed by the serum galactomannan index are useful tools for early diagnosis. Additional modification of the immunosuppressive regimen can be performed safely in the early postoperative period in case of severe infection.

In Vivo Synergy of Amphotericin B plus Posaconazole in Murine Aspergillosis

Aspergillus fumigatus is the main mold causing invasive fungal infection that shows high mortality rates. Therapeutic failure and the increase in drug resistance make it necessary to explore alternative treatments for this infection. We have evaluated the efficacy of amphotericin B at 0.8 mg/kg or 0.3 mg/kg of body weight combined with 40 mg/kg of posaconazole against three A. fumigatus isolates in a murine model of disseminated infection. The combination of the polyene and the azole led to a greater increase in survival and a significantly greater reduction in tissue burden than monotherapies.

Caspofungin: Pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, clinical uses and treatment outcomes

Over the past decade, echinocandins have emerged as first-line antifungal agents for many Candida infections. The echinocandins have a unique mechanism of action, inhibiting the synthesis of β-1,3-d-glucan polymers, key components of the cell wall in pathogenic fungi. Caspofungin was the first echinocandin antifungal agent to become licensed for use. The objectives of this review are to summarize the existing published data on caspofungin, under the subject headings of chemistry and mechanism of action, spectrum of activity, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, clinical studies, safety, drug interactions, dosing, and an overview of the drug's current place in therapy.