Biochemical, physiological, and pathological aspects of the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor

Neuroinflammatory activation in sensory and motor regions of the cortex is related to sensorimotor function in individuals with low back pain maintained by nociplastic mechanisms: A preliminary proof-of-concept study

BACKGROUND

Chronic pain involves communication between neural and immune systems. Recent data suggest localization of glial (brain immune cells) activation to the sensorimotor regions of the brain cortex (S1/M1) in chronic low back pain (LBP). As glia perform diverse functions that impact neural function, activation might contribute to sensorimotor changes, particularly in LBP maintained by increased nervous system sensitivity (i.e., nociplastic pain). This preliminary proof-of-concept study aimed to: (i) compare evidence of neuroinflammatory activation in S1/M1 between individuals with and without LBP (and between nociceptive and nociplastic LBP phenotypes), and (ii) evaluate relationships between neuroinflammatory activation and sensorimotor function.

METHODS

Simultaneous PET-fMRI measured neuroinflammatory activation in functionally defined S1/M1 in pain-free individuals (n = 8) and individuals with chronic LBP (n = 9; nociceptive: n = 4, nociplastic: n = 5). Regions of S1/M1 related to the back were identified using fMRI during motor tasks and thermal stimuli. Sensorimotor measures included single and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and quantitative sensory testing (QST). Sleep, depression, disability and pain questionnaires were administered.

RESULTS

Neuroinflammatory activation was greater in the lower back cortical representation of S1/M1 of the nociplastic LBP group than both nociceptive LBP and pain-free groups. Neuroinflammatory activation in S1/M1 was positively correlated with sensitivity to hot (r = 0.52) and cold (r = 0.55) pain stimuli, poor sleep, depression, disability and BMI, and negatively correlated with intracortical facilitation (r = -0.41).

CONCLUSION

This preliminary proof-of-concept study suggests that neuroinflammation in back regions of S1/M1 in individuals with nociplastic LBP could plausibly explain some characteristic features of this LBP phenotype.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Neuroinflammatory activation localized to sensorimotor areas of the brain in individuals with nociplastic pain might contribute to changes in sensory and motor function and aspects of central sensitization. If cause-effect relationships are established in longitudinal studies, this may direct development of therapies that target neuroinflammatory activation.

Exploring Translocator Protein (TSPO) Medicinal Chemistry: An Approach for Targeting Radionuclides and Boron Atoms to Mitochondria

Translocator protein 18 kDa [TSPO or peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor (PBR)] was identified in the search of binding sites for benzodiazepine anxiolytic drugs in peripheral regions. In these areas, binding sites for TSPO ligands were recognized in steroid-producing tissues. TSPO plays an important role in many cellular functions, and its coding sequence is highly conserved across species. TSPO is located predominantly on the membrane of mitochondria and is overexpressed in several solid cancers. TSPO basal expression in the CNS is low, but it becomes high in neurodegenerative conditions. Thus, TSPO constitutes not only as an outstanding drug target but also as a valuable marker for the diagnosis of a number of diseases. The aim of the present article is to show the lesson we have learned from our activity in TSPO medicinal chemistry and in approaching the targeted delivery to mitochondria by means of TSPO ligands.

TSPO protein binding partners in bacteria, animals, and plants

The ancient membrane protein TSPO is phylogenetically widespread from archaea and bacteria to insects, vertebrates, plants, and fungi. TSPO’s primary amino acid sequence is only modestly conserved between diverse species, although its five transmembrane helical structure appears mainly conserved. Its cellular location and orientation in membranes have been reported to vary between species and tissues, with implications for potential diverse binding partners and function. Most TSPO functions relate to stress-induced changes in metabolism, but in many cases it is unclear how TSPO itself functions—whether as a receptor, a sensor, a transporter, or a translocator. Much evidence suggests that TSPO acts indirectly by association with various protein binding partners or with endogenous or exogenous ligands. In this review, we focus on proteins that have most commonly been invoked as TSPO binding partners. We suggest that TSPO was originally a bacterial receptor/stress sensor associated with porphyrin binding as its most ancestral function and that it later developed additional stress-related roles in eukaryotes as its ability to bind new partners evolved.

Translocator protein mediates olfactory repulsion

Translocator protein (TSPO, 18kDa), which was previously known as a peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor, is associated with psychiatric disorders and acts as a neuroimaging biomarker. However, its function and mechanism in modulating behaviors are less well-known. Herein, we found that TSPO in migratory locusts shows conserved protein traits and is expressed at high levels in the brains. The expression levels of tspo mRNA and protein were higher in brains of solitary locusts than those in gregarious locusts, whereas the mRNA and protein expression levels remained stable during crowding and isolation, suggesting that the expression level of TSPO is potentially associated with behavioral phenotype of solitary locusts. Moreover, tspo RNAi knockdown in the brains of solitary locusts decreased their olfactory repulsion. After RNAi knockdown of tyramine receptor (TyR) in the brains of solitary locusts, RNA-seq analysis identified that a functional class of receptors, which included tspo, was downregulated significantly. Moreover, tspo mRNA and protein expression levels were downregulated and upregulated after TyR RNAi knockdown and activation, respectively. tspo RNAi knockdown in the brains of solitary locusts induced the attractive response and inhibited the function of tyramine (TA)-TyR in inducing olfactory repulsion. In gregarious locusts, tspo RNAi knockdown inhibited the function of TA-TyR inducing olfactory repulsion. This study confirms that TSPO acts as a crucial effector protein in TA-TyR signaling to modulate olfactory repulsion. Furthermore, this study provides a novel mechanism by which TSPO functionally connects a G-protein-coupled receptor and a mitochondria membrane protein in modulating olfactory repulsion.

Regulation of Mitochondrial, Cellular, and Organismal Functions by TSPO

In 1999, the enigma of the 18kDa mitochondrial translocator protein (TSPO), also known as the peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor, was the seeming disparity of the many functions attributed to TSPO, ranging from the potential of TSPO acting as a housekeeping gene at molecular biological levels to adaptations to stress, and even involvement in higher emotional and cognitive functioning, such as anxiety and depression. In the years since then, knowledge regarding the many functions modulated by TSPO has expanded, and understanding has deepened. In addition, new functions could be firmly associated with TSPO, such as regulation of programmed cell death and modulation of gene expression. Interestingly, control by the mitochondrial TSPO over both of these life and death functions appears to include Ca⁺⁺ homeostasis, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and ATP production. Other mitochondrial functions under TSPO control are considered to be steroidogenesis and tetrapyrrole metabolism. As TSPO effects on gene expression and on programmed cell death can be related to the wide range of functions that can be associated with TSPO, several of these five elements of Ca⁺⁺, ROS, ATP, steroids, and tetrapyrroles may indeed form the basis of TSPO's capability to operate as a multifunctional housekeeping gene to maintain homeostasis of the cell and of the whole multicellular organism.

Differential effects of the 18-kDa translocator protein (TSPO) ligand etifoxine on steroidogenesis in rat brain, plasma and steroidogenic glands: Pharmacodynamic studies

Etifoxine is indicated in humans for treating anxiety. In rodents, besides its anxiolytic-like properties, it has recently shown neuroprotective and neuroregenerative activities. It acts by enhancing GABA_A receptor function and by stimulating acute steroid biosynthesis via the activation of the 18-kDa translocator protein. However, the regulatory action of etifoxine on steroid production is not well characterized. In this work, we performed dose-response, acute and chronic time-course experiments on the effects of intraperitoneal injections of etifoxine on steroid levels in adult male rat brain and plasma analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Concentrations of pregnenolone, progesterone and its 5α-reduced metabolites were significantly increased in both tissues in response to 25 and 50mg/kg of etifoxine, as compared with vehicle controls, and reached maximal values at 0.5-1h post-injection. Daily injections of etifoxine (50mg/kg, 15days) kept them increased at day 15. Comparisons between steroidogenic tissues revealed that 1h after 50mg/kg of etifoxine treatment, levels of pregnenolone, progesterone and corticosterone were highest in adrenal glands and markedly increased together with their reduced metabolites. They were also increased by etifoxine in brain and plasma, but not in testis except for corticosterone and its metabolites. In contrast, testosterone level was significantly decreased in testis while with its 5α-reduced metabolites, it was unchanged in brain. Results demonstrate that the modulation of steroid concentrations by etifoxine is dependent on the type of steroid and on the steroidogenic organ. They further suggest that adrenal steroids upregulated by etifoxine make an important contribution to the steroids present in brain. This work provides a precise and complete view of steroids regulated by etifoxine that could be useful in therapeutic research.

Endozepines

Since their introduction in the 1960s, benzodiazepines (BZs) remain one of the most commonly prescribed medications, acting as potent sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics, anticonvulsants, and muscle relaxants. The primary neural action of BZs and related compounds is augmentation of inhibitory transmission, which occurs through allosteric modulation of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-induced current at the gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor (GABAAR). The discovery of the BZ-binding site on GABAARs encouraged many to speculate that the brain produces its own endogenous ligands to this site (Costa & Guidotti, 1985). The romanticized quest for endozepines, endogenous ligands to the BZ-binding site, has uncovered a variety of ligands that might fulfill this role, including oleamides (Cravatt et al., 1995), nonpeptidic endozepines (Rothstein et al., 1992), and the protein diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI) (Costa & Guidotti, 1985). Of these ligands, DBI, and affiliated peptide fragments, is the most extensively studied endozepine. The quest for the "brain's Valium" over the decades has been elusive as mainly negative allosteric modulatory effects have been observed (Alfonso, Le Magueresse, Zuccotti, Khodosevich, & Monyer, 2012; Costa & Guidotti, 1985), but recent evidence is accumulating that DBI displays regionally discrete endogenous positive modulation of GABA transmission through activation of the BZ receptor (Christian et al., 2013). Herein, we review the literature on this topic, focusing on identification of the endogenous molecule and its region-specific expression and function.

Affinity Labeling of Membrane Receptors Using Tissue-Penetrating Radiations

Photoaffinity labeling, a useful in vivo biochemical tool, is limited when applied in vivo because of the poor tissue penetration by ultraviolet (UV) photons. This study investigates affinity labeling using tissue-penetrating radiation to overcome the tissue attenuation and irreversibly label membrane receptor proteins. Using X-ray (115 kVp) at low doses (<50 cGy or Rad), specific and irreversible binding was found on striatal dopamine transporters with 3 photoaffinity ligands for dopamine transporters, to different extents. Upon X-ray exposure (115 kVp), RTI-38 and RTI-78 ligands showed irreversible and specific binding to the dopamine transporter similar to those seen with UV exposure under other conditions. Similarly, gamma rays at higher energy (662 keV) also affect irreversible binding of photoreactive ligands to peripheral benzodiazepine receptors (by PK14105) and to the dopamine (D2) membrane receptors (by azidoclebopride), respectively. This study reports that X-ray and gamma rays induced affinity labeling of membrane receptors in a manner similar to UV with photoreactive ligands of the dopamine transporter, D2 dopamine receptor (D2R), and peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBDZR). It may provide specific noninvasive irreversible block or stimulation of a receptor using tissue-penetrating radiation targeting selected anatomic sites.

Probing the combined effect of flunitrazepam and lidocaine on the stability and organization of bilayer lipid membranes. A differential scanning calorimetry and dynamic light scattering study

Combined effects of flunitrazepam (FNZ) and lidocaine (LDC) were studied on the thermotropic equilibrium of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (dpPC) bilayers. This adds a thermodynamic dimension to previously reported geometric analysis in the erythrocyte model. LDC decreased the enthalpy and temperature for dpPC pre- and main-transitions (ΔHp, ΔHm, Tp, Tm) and decreased the cooperativity of the main-transition (ΔT(1/2,m)). FNZ decreased ΔHm and, at least up to 59 μM, also decreased ΔHp. In conjunction with LDC, FNZ induced a recovery of ∆T(1/2,m) control values and increased ΔHm even above the control level. The deconvolution of the main-transition peak at high LDC concentrations revealed three components possibly represented by: a self-segregated fraction of pure dpPC, a dpPC-LDC mixture and a phase with a lipid structure of intermediate stability associated with LDC self-aggregation within the lipid phase. Some LDC effects on thermodynamic parameters were reverted at proper LDC/FNZ molar ratios, suggesting that FNZ restricts the maximal availability of the LDC partitioned into the lipid phase. Thus, beyond its complexity, the lipid-LDC mixture can be rationalized as an equilibrium of coexisting phases which gains homogeneity in the presence of FNZ. This work stresses the relevance of nonspecific drug-membrane binding on LDC-FNZ pharmacological interactions and would have pharmaceutical applications in liposomal multidrug-delivery.

Roles of mitochondrial benzodiazepine receptor in the heart

Mitochondrial benzodiazepine receptor (mBzR) is a type of peripheral benzodiazepine receptor that is located in the outer membrane of mitochondria. It is an 18-kDa protein that can form a multimeric complex with voltage-dependent anion channel (32 kDa) and adenine nucleotide translocator (30 kDa). mBzR is found in various species and abundantly distributed in peripheral tissues, including the cardiovascular system. The mitochondria are well known as the site of energy production, and the heart is the organ that highly requires this energy supply. In the past decades, it has been shown that mBzR plays a critical role in regulating mitochondrial and heart functions. A growing body of evidence demonstrates that mBzR is associated with regulation of mitochondrial respiration, mitochondrial membrane potential, apoptosis, and reactive oxygen species production. Moreover, mBzR has been suggested to play a role in alteration of physiological effects in the heart such as contractility and heart rate. mBzR is involved in the pathologic condition such as ischemia/reperfusion injury, responses to stress, and changes in electrophysiological properties and arrhythmogenesis. In this review, evidence of the roles of mBzR in the heart under both physiological and pathologic conditions is presented. Clinical studies regarding the use of pharmacologic intervention involving mBzR in the heart are also discussed as a possible target for the treatment of electrical and mechanical dysfunction in the heart.

Searching for neuropathology: gliosis in schizophrenia

The neuropathology of schizophrenia remains elusive. One indication of this elusiveness is that the literature, in contrast to that on the neuropathology of almost any other disease, deals predominantly with measures of normal structures rather than with the demonstration and characterization of pathological structures. An important exception to this trend has been the continued search, over four decades, for reactive glia. In this article, we review histological and radiological evidence for and against astrocytosis and microgliosis specifically associated with schizophrenia. The studies are generally limited by small samples, flawed designs, and potentially biased methods of counting cells. Interpretation of these studies is further complicated by the frequent presence of glial reactions in older individuals without psychiatric disease. Nonetheless, some of the positive findings in the literature cannot easily be dismissed. A sufficiently large autopsy study, weighted toward younger subjects, could provide a definitive answer, which if positive could be a major step toward finding an underlying pathological process.

Pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine acetamides: 4-Phenyl alkyl ether derivatives as potent ligands for the 18 kDa translocator protein (TSPO)

Herein, we report the synthesis of four new phenyl alkyl ether derivatives (7, 9-11) of the pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine acetamide class, all of which showed high binding affinity and selectivity for the TSPO and, in the case of the propyl, propargyl, and butyl ether derivatives, the ability to increase pregnenolone biosynthesis by 80-175% over baseline in rat C6 glioma cells. While these compounds fit our in silico generated pharmacophore for TSPO binding the current model does not account for the observed functional activity.

Effect of maternal stress on fetal heart rate assessed by vibroacoustic stimulation

This study was designed to determine whether maternal stress levels, state and trait anxiety levels, and stress hormones affect fetal heart rate (FHR) patterns after vibroacoustic stimulation (VAS) at 30 weeks of gestation. A total of 24 healthy pregnant women with a single fetus pregnancy were enrolled. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone in maternal plasma and cortisol, and chromogranin A in saliva were measured. The FHR patterns after VAS were divided into three types: type I, a long period of acceleration or one acceleration lasting > 1 min or at least two accelerations lasting > 15 s; type II, a biphasic response with acceleration followed by deceleration; and type III, no response or prolonged deceleration. In the high trait anxiety group, CRH levels were significantly higher than in the low trait anxiety group, and FHR patterns after VAS showed mostly a type II response pattern. These findings suggest that stress in pregnant women with high trait anxiety may influence FHR patterns after VAS.

Allosteric modulation by benzodiazepines of GABA-gated chloride channels of an identified insect motor neurone

The actions of benzodiazepines were studied on the responses to GABA of the fast coxal depressor (D(f)) motor neurone of the cockroach, Periplaneta americana. Ro5-4864, diazepam and clonazepam were investigated. Responses to GABA receptors were enhanced by both Ro5-4864 and diazepam, whereas clonazepam, a potent-positive allosteric modulator of human GABA(A) receptors, was ineffective on the native insect GABA receptors of the D(f) motor neurone. Thus, clear pharmacological differences exist between insect and mammalian native GABA-gated chloride channels with respect to the actions of benzodiazepines. The results enhance our understanding of invertebrate GABA-gated chloride channels which have recently proved important in (a) comparative studies aimed at identifying human allosteric drug-binding sites and (b) understanding the actions of compounds used to control ectoparasites and insect crop pests.

Spinal translocator protein (TSPO) modulates pain behavior in rats with CFA-induced monoarthritis

Translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO), previously known as the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR), is predominantly located in the mitochondrial outer membrane and plays an important role in steroidogenesis, immunomodulation, cell survival and proliferation. Previous studies have shown an increased expression of TSPO centrally in neuropathology, as well as in injured nerves. TSPO has also been implicated in modulation of nociception. In the present study, we examined the hypothesis that TSPO is involved in the initiation and maintenance of inflammatory pain using a rat model of Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA)-induced monoarthritis of the tibio-tarsal joint. Immunohistochemistry was performed using Iba-1 (microglia), NeuN (neurons), anti-Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein, GFAP (astrocytes) and anti-PBR (TSPO) on Days 1, 7 and 14 after CFA-induced arthritis. Rats with CFA-induced monoarthritis showed mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia on the ipsilateral hindpaw, which correlated with the increased TSPO expression in ipsilateral laminae I-II on all experimental days. Iba-1 expression in the ipsilateral dorsal horn was also increased on Days 7 and 14. Moreover, TSPO was colocalized with Iba-1, GFAP and NeuN within the spinal cord dorsal horn. The TSPO agonist Ro5-4864, given intrathecally, dose-dependently retarded or prevented the development of mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in rats with CFA-induced monoarthritis. These findings provide evidence that spinal TSPO is involved in the development and maintenance of inflammatory pain behaviors in rats. Thus, spinal TSPO may present a central target as a complementary therapy to reduce inflammatory pain.

Changes in biomechanical parameters during heart perfusion and after midazolam pre-medication--experimental pilot study

BACKGROUND

Midazolam is a frequently used benzodiazepine in anaesthesiology and intensive care.

AIM

The aim of pilot study was to monitor its effect during heart perfusion in the laboratory rat.

METHODS

The same groups of animals (n = 10). The 1(st) group was treated with midazolam in a dose of 0.5mg/kg i.p. The 2(nd) group was a placebo. After i.p. administration of heparine injection of 500 IU dose, the hearts were excised and perfused (modified Langendorf's method). Working schedule: stabilization/ischaemia/reperfusion proceed at intervals of 20/30/60 min. Monitored parameters in isolated heart: left ventricle pressure (LVP), end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP), contractility (+dP/dt(max)).

RESULTS

The treated hearts showed improved postischemic recovery, reaching LVP values of 92 +/- 6 % at the end of the reperfusion, placebo only 61 +/- 7 %. In placebo hearts LVEDP rose from 10.0 +/- 0.5 mmHg to 43 +/- 4 mmHg after, in treated animals only about 25 mmHg. The treated hearts improved +dP/dt(max) recovery during reperfusion to 91 +/- 8 %. These values were significantly greater than those obtained from the placebo hearts.

CONCLUSIONS

Positive changes in monitored parameters were found in this experimental pilot study. We conclude that the administration of midazolam in laboratory rats has a cardioprotective potential against ischemia-reperfusion induced injury.

Synthesis and biological characterization of novel 2-quinolinecarboxamide ligands of the peripheral benzodiazepine receptors bearing technetium-99m or rhenium

Potential receptor imaging agents based on Tc-99m for the in vivo visualization of the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR) have been designed on the basis of the information provided by the previously published structure-affinity relationship studies, which suggested the existence of tolerance to voluminous substituents in the receptor area interacting with 3-position of the quinoline nucleus of 2-quinolinecarboxamides 5. In the first step of the investigation, the stereoelectronic features of the above-indicated receptor area were also probed by means of 4-phenyl-3-[(1-piperazinyl)methyl]-2-quinolinecarboxamide derivatives bearing different substituents on the terminal piperazine nitrogen atom (compounds 6a-f). The structure-affinity relationship data confirmed the existence of a tolerance to bulky lipophilic substituents and stimulated the design of bifunctional ligands based on the 4-phenyl-3-[(1-piperazinyl)methyl]-2-quinolinecarboxamide moiety (compounds 6h,j,k,m). The submicromolar PBR affinity of rhenium complexes 6j,m suggests that the presence of their metal-ligand moieties with encaged rhenium is fairly compatible with the interaction with the PBR binding site. Thus, in order to obtain information on the in vivo behavior of these bifunctional ligands, (99m)Tc-labeled compounds 6h,k were synthesized and evaluated in preliminary biodistribution and single photon emission tomography (SPET) studies. The results suggest that both tracers do not present a clear preferential distribution in tissues rich in PBR, probably because of their molecular dimensions, which may hamper both the intracellular diffusion toward PBR and the interaction with the binding site.

The effect of oxygenation level on cerebral post-traumatic apoptotsis is modulated by the 18-kDa translocator protein (also known as peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor) in a rat model of cortical contusion

AIMS

Hyperbaric hyperoxia has been shown to reduce apoptosis in brain injury. As the 18-kDa translocator protein (TSPO), also known as peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor, is closely associated with the mitochondrial transition pore and because of its role in mitochondrial respiration and apoptosis, we hypothesized that reduction of apoptosis by hyperoxia may involve the TSPO.

METHODS

TSPO and transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labelling (TUNEL) immunopositivity was first assessed in cortical contusion, created by dynamic cortical deformation, by immunohistochemistry in rats exposed to normoxia [(dynamic cortical deformation (DCD)], normobaric hyperoxia or hyperbaric hyperoxia [hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBO)]. In a second step, transmembrane mitochondrial potential (Deltapsi(M)) and caspase 9 activity were assessed in the injured area in comparison with the noninjured hemisphere. Measurements were performed in DCD and HBO groups. A third group receiving both HBO and the TSPO ligand PK11195 was investigated as well.

RESULTS

TSPO correlated quantitatively and regionally with TUNEL immunopositivity in the perilesional area. Hyperoxia reduced both the number of TSPO expressing and TUNEL positive cells in the perilesional area, and this effect proved to be pressure dependent. After contusion, we demonstrated a dissipation of Deltapsi(M) in isolated mitochondria and an elevation of caspase 9 activity in tissue homogenates from the contused area, both of which could be substantially reversed by hyperbaric hyperoxia. This protective effect of hyperoxia was reversed by PK11195.

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings suggest that the protective effect of hyperoxia may be due to a negative regulation of the proapoptotic function of mitochondrial TSPO, including conservation of the mitochondrial membrane potential.

Permethrin may disrupt testosterone biosynthesis via mitochondrial membrane damage of Leydig cells in adult male mouse

Permethrin, a popular synthetic pyrethroid insecticide used to control noxious insects in agriculture, forestry, households, horticulture, and public health throughout the world, poses risks of environmental exposure. Here we evaluate the reproductive toxicity of cis-permethrin in adult male ICR mice that were orally administered cis-permethrin (0, 35, or 70 mg/kg d) for 6 wk. Caudal epididymal sperm count and sperm motility in the treated groups were statistically reduced in a dose-dependent manner. Testicular testosterone production and plasma testosterone concentration were significantly and dose-dependently decreased with an increase in LH, and a significant regression was observed between testosterone levels and cis-permethrin residues in individual mice testes after exposure. However, no significant changes were observed in body weight, reproductive organ absolute and relative weights, sperm morphology, and plasma FSH concentration after cis-permethrin treatment. Moreover, cis-permethrin exposure significantly diminished the testicular mitochondrial mRNA expression levels of peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR), steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), and cytochrome P450 side-chain cleavage (P450scc) and enzyme and protein expression levels of StAR and P450scc. At the electron microscopic level, mitochondrial membrane damage was found in Leydig cells of the exposed mouse testis. Our results suggest that the insecticide permethrin may cause mitochondrial membrane impairment in Leydig cells and disrupt testosterone biosynthesis by diminishing the delivery of cholesterol into the mitochondria and decreasing the conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone in the cells, thus reducing subsequent testosterone production.

Peripheral benzodiazepine receptor ligand, PK11195 induces mitochondria cytochrome c release and dissipation of mitochondria potential via induction of mitochondria permeability transition

Mitochondrial permeability transition pore plays an important role in the processes of cell apoptosis and necrosis. The peripheral benzodiazepine receptor, a mitochondria outer-membrane protein, is involved in the regulation of mitochondrial permeability transition. In the present study, we test if PK11195, a peripheral benzodiazepine receptor ligand, can lead to the opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pores, and subsequently causes mitochondria cytochrome c loss and mitochondria uncoupling. In isolated cardiac mitochondria, PK11195 (50, 100, 200 microM) caused a dose-dependent mitochondrial swelling, cytochrome c loss, and the dissipation of mitochondrial potential. Cyclosporin A (0.2 microM), a specific inhibitor of mitochondrial permeability transition, completely prevented the mitochondrial swelling induced by PK11195, and maintained the cytochrome c content and membrane potential. These data suggest that peripheral benzodiazepine receptor ligand, PK11195 caused mitochondrial uncoupling and cytochrome c loss via induction of mitochondrial permeability transition.

N-(5-Fluoro-2-phenoxyphenyl)-N-(2-[131I]iodo-5-methoxybenzyl)acetamide: A Potent Iodinated Radioligand for the Peripheral-type Benzodiazepine Receptor in Brain

To image the peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor (PBR) in vivo, we previously developed two positron emission tomography (PET) ligands, N-(2-[11C],5-dimethoxybenzyl)-N-(5-fluoro-2-phenoxyphenyl)acetamide ([11C]1a) and its [18F]fluoroethyl analogue ([18F]1b), for the investigation of PBR in the living human brain. This time, using 1a as a leading compound, we designed two novel iodinated analogues, N-(5-fluoro-2-phenoxyphenyl)-N-(2-iodo-5-methoxybenzyl)acetamide (3a) and N-(2,5-dimethoxybenzyl)-N-(5-iodo-2-phenoxyphenyl)acetamide (3b) for the PBR imaging. Ligands 3 were synthesized by the iodination of tributystannyl precursors 10. Radiolabeling for 3 with 131I was carried out by the reaction of 10 with [131I]NaI using H2O2 as an oxidizing agent. In vitro competition experiments determined that 3a exhibited both high affinity and selectivity for PBR (IC50: 7.8 nM) vs CBR (>1 microM). Biodistribution study in mice determined that [131I]3a had a high radioactivity level (1.69% dose/g) in the brain, and its distribution pattern in the brain was consistent with the known distribution of PBR in rodents. Ex vivo autoradiography of the rat brain gave visual evidence that [131I]3a was a potent and specific radioligand for PBR.

Effects of peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor ligands on Ehrlich tumor cell proliferation

Peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors have been found throughout the body, and particularly, in high numbers, in neoplastic tissues such as the ovary, liver, colon, breast, prostate and brain cancer. Peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor expression has been associated with tumor malignity, and its subcellular localization is important to define its function in tumor cells. We investigated the presence of peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors in Ehrlich tumor cells, and the in vitro effects of peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors ligands on tumor cell proliferation. Our results demonstrate the presence of peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor in the nucleus of Ehrlich tumor cells (85.53+/-12.60%). They also show that diazepam and Ro5-4864 (peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor agonists) but not clonazepam (a molecule with low affinity for the peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor) decreased the percentage of tumor cells in G0-G1 phases and increased that of cells in S-G2-M phases. The effects of those agonists were prevented by PK11195 (a peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor antagonist) that did not produce effects by itself. Altogether, these data suggest that the presence of peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor within the nucleus of Ehrlich tumor cells is associated with tumor malignity and proliferation capacity.

Up-regulation of PK11195 binding in areas of axonal degeneration coincides with early microglial activation in mouse brain

Increased binding of the peripheral benzodiazepine binding site (PBBS) ligand [(3)H]PK11195 in the central nervous system of patients suffering from acute and chronic neuropathology has been associated with reactive microgliosis. However, it remains uncertain which stages of microglial activation occur in conjunction with the increased [(3)H]PK11195 binding. We used quantitative autoradiography for [(3)H]PK11195 and quantitative polymerase chain reaction for PBBS mRNA and markers of early and late microglial activation to investigate the time-course of cellular responses in the hippocampus of mice with degeneration of the entorhinal-hippocampal perforant path. The axonal lesion evoked an increase in the B(max) for [(3)H]PK11195 in hippocampus which peaked at 2 days post-lesion, remained elevated at day 5 and began to decline at 10 days post-lesion. These changes occurred in the absence of significant changes in affinity in vitro. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis of isolated hippocampi using exon-specific primers indicated the presence of several splice variants of PBBS mRNA, which appeared to be affected differentially by the lesion. The changes in PBBS mRNA and CD11b mRNA levels correlated with the B(max) for [(3)H]PK11195 during 10 days post-lesion, suggesting that microglial activation couples with increases in mRNA levels for these markers. In addition, the onset of changes in PBBS mRNA levels coincided with the significantly elevated tumor necrosis factor mRNA levels present during early microglial activation at 2 days post-lesion. We conclude that up-regulation of [(3)H]PK11195 binding and PBBS mRNA levels coincided with early microglial activation, characterized by concomitantly increased microglial tumor necrosis factor mRNA levels, and persisted throughout the period with reactive microgliosis.

Immunohistochemical expression of peripheral benzodiazepine receptors in human astrocytomas and its correlation with grade of malignancy, proliferation, apoptosis and survival

Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors (PBR) are widely distributed in peripheral tissues, astrocytes, and microglia of the brain. They are involved in apoptosis, proliferation, and many other processes, such as steroidogenesis in adrenal glands, male and female gonads, biological adaptation to stress, etc. It has been established that the expression of PBR in astrocytomas is higher than in the normal brain. The goal of this study was to explore the correlation of the immunohistochemical expression of PBR in astrocytomas with the grade of malignancy and rates of apoptosis, proliferation and survival. In 130 cases of astrocytomas (25 grade I, 25 grade II, 20 grade III, 60 grade IV), paraffin sections were stained immunohistochemically for PBR and MIB-1(Ki-67). TUNEL assay was used for evaluation of apoptosis. It was found that the intensity and extent of staining for PBR had a strong direct correlation with the grade of malignancy of the tumor, along with proliferative and apoptotic indices. The highest expression of PBR was in glioblastomas grade IV, especially around areas of necrosis. There was a strong negative correlation between PBR expression and survival. The results of this study may be applied in the pathological diagnosis of astrocytomas as an additional clue in establishing tumor grade; they may be used in the imaging of astrocytomas, both for diagnosis and follow-up, by the application of positron emission tomography scanning with PBR specific ligands. Targeting of PBR in high-grade gliomas may be a promising approach, achieving more specific anti-tumor effect.

The peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor and the cardiovascular system. Implications for drug development

Peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors (PBRs) are abundant in the cardiovascular system. In the cardiovascular lumen, PBRs are present in platelets, erythrocytes, lymphocytes, and mononuclear cells. In the walls of the cardiovascular system, PBR can be found in the endothelium, the striated cardiac muscle, the vascular smooth muscles, and the mast cells. The subcellular location of PBR is primarily in mitochondria. The PBR complex includes the isoquinoline binding protein (IBP), voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC), and adenine nucleotide transporter (ANT). Putative endogenous ligands for PBR include protoporphyrin IX, diazepam binding inhibitor (DBI), triakontatetraneuropeptide (TTN), and phospholipase A2 (PLA2). Classical synthetic ligands for PBR are the isoquinoline 1-(2-chlorophenyl)-N-methyl-N-(1-methyl-propyl)-3-isoquinolinecarboxamide (PK 11195) and the benzodiazepine 7-chloro-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1,3-dihydro-1-methyl-2H-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one (Ro5 4864). Novel PBR ligands include N,N-di-n-hexyl 2-(4-fluorophenyl)indole-3-acetamide (FGIN-1-27) and 7-chloro-N,N,5-trimethyl-4-oxo-3-phenyl-3,5-dihydro-4H-pyridazino[4,5-b]indole-1-acetamide (SSR180575), both possessing steroidogenic properties, but while FGIN-1-27 is pro-apoptotic, SSR180575 is anti-apoptotic. Putative PBR functions include regulation of steroidogenesis, apoptosis, cell proliferation, the mitochondrial membrane potential, the mitochondrial respiratory chain, voltage-dependent calcium channels, responses to stress, and microglial activation. PBRs in blood vessel walls appear to take part in responses to trauma such as ischemia. The irreversible PBR antagonist, SSR180575, was found to reduce damage correlated with ischemia. Stress, anxiety disorders, and neurological disorders, as well as their treatment, can affect PBR levels in blood cells. PBRs in blood cells appear to play roles in several aspects of the immune response, such as phagocytosis and the secretion of interleukin-2, interleukin-3, and immunoglobulin A (IgA). Thus, alterations in PBR density in blood cells may have immunological consequences in the affected person. In conclusion, PBR in the cardiovascular system may represent a new target for drug development.

[2-11C]Isopropyl-, [1-11C]Ethyl-, and [11C]Methyl-Labeled Phenoxyphenyl Acetamide Derivatives as Positron Emission Tomography Ligands for the Peripheral Benzodiazepine Receptor: Radiosynthesis, Uptake, and in Vivo Binding in Brain

The peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR) is widely expressed in peripheral tissues, blood cells, and in glia cells in the brain. We have previously developed two positron emission tomography (PET) ligands, N-(2-[(11)C],5-dimethoxybenzyl)-N-(5-fluoro-2-phenoxyphenyl)acetamide ([(11)C]2) and its [(18)F]fluoroethyl analogue ([(18)F]6), for the current investigation of PBR in the human brain. The aim of this study was to label the potent PBR agonist N-(4-chloro-2-phenoxyphenyl)-N-(isopropoxybenzyl)acetamide (3) and its ethyl (7) and methyl (8) homologues with (11)C and to evaluate them as PET ligands for PBR with mice, rats, and monkeys. Ligands [(11)C]3, [(11)C]7, and [(11)C]8 were synthesized by alkylation of phenol precursor 9 with 2-[2-(11)C]iodopropane ([(11)C]10), [1-(11)C]iodoethane ([(11)C]11), and [(11)C]iodomethane ([(11)C]12), respectively. The alkylating agent [(11)C]10 or [(11)C]11 was prepared by reacting CH(3)MgBr with [(11)C]CO(2), followed by reduction with LiAlH(4) and iodination with HI. In vitro quantitative autoradiography determined that 3, 7, and 8 had potent binding affinities (K(i) = 0.07-0.19 nM) for PBR in the rat brain. These [(11)C]ligands could pass across the blood-brain barrier and enter the rat brain (0.17-0.32% of injected dose per gram wet tissue). Ex vivo autoradiography showed that the [(11)C]ligands preferably distributed in the olfactory bulb and cerebellum, two regions with richer PBR density in the rat brain. The co-injection of PBR-selective 2 reduced the [(11)C]ligand binding in the two regions, suggesting that binding in the rat brain was specific to PBR. PET study determined that the [(11)C]ligands preferably accumulate in the occipital cortex of the monkey brain, a region with a high density of PBR in the primate brain. Moreover, in vivo binding of the methyl homologue [(11)C]8 in the monkey brain could be inhibited by PBR-selective 2 or 1, indicating that some of the [(11)C]8 binding was due to PBR. Metabolite analysis demonstrated that these [(11)C]ligands were metabolized by debenzylation to polar products mainly in the plasma.

Evidence that variation in the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR) gene influences susceptibility to panic disorder

Panic disorder (PD) is the repeated sudden occurrence of panic attacks, episodes characterized by psychological symptoms. Peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR) is closely associated with personality traits for anxiety tolerance, and that it holds promise as a biological marker of stressful conditions. We have performed association analyses using the polymorphism to determine the PBR in PD. We screened the subjects for sequence variations within the 5' region, the coding region (exons 2-4), and the 3' noncoding region. One novel missense variant in exon 4, derived from the nucleotide transition in codon 162 (CGT --> CAT:485G > A) resulting in an arginine-to-histidine (Arg --> His) change, was detected in these subjects. The 485G > polymorphism of the PBR gene was analyzed in 91 PD patients and 178 controls. The genotypic and allelic analyses of the 485G > A revealed significant differences between the panic patients and the comparison subjects (P = 0.021 and 0.014, respectively). The present study provides new and important evidence that variation in the PBR gene influences susceptibility to PD.

Interaction of novel condensed triazine derivatives with central and peripheral type benzodiazepine receptors: synthesis, in vitro pharmacology and modelling

Structurally related sets of triazino-quinoline, triazino-isoquinoline and pyrido-triazine derivatives were synthesised and their binding interactions with central (CBR)- and peripheral-type (PBR) benzodiazepine binding sites have been characterised. Of 33 compounds tested, a new compound, 2-(4-methylphenyl)-3H- [1,2,4] triazino [2, 3-a] quinolin-3-one (1 g) showed the lowest CBR binding inhibition constant (K(i) = 42 +/- 9 nM) and the highest CBR over PBR selectivity (>1300). All but the 4-methylphenyl (1 g) structural modifications decreased the affinity and selectivity of the parent compound, 2-phenyl-3H- [1,2,4]triazino[2,3-a]quinolin-3-one (1d) (K(i) = 69 +/- 9 nM, selectivity >890). Molecular interactions between selected ligands (standards and triazine derivatives) and alpha(1)gamma(2) subunit-interface residues in a GABA(A) receptor extracellular domain homology model have been calculated. Comparing data with calculations confirmed hydrogen bonding to gamma(2)Thr142 and hydrophobic interaction with alpha(1)His101 as being essential for high-affinity CBR binding.

Synthesis, labeling, and biological evaluation of halogenated 2-quinolinecarboxamides as potential radioligands for the visualization of peripheral benzodiazepine receptors

The previous exploration of the structure-affinity relationships concerning 4-phenyl-2-quinolinecarboxamide peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR) ligands 6 showed as an interesting result the importance of the presence of a chlorine atom in the methylene carbon at position 3 of the quinoline nucleus. The subnanomolar PBR affinity shown by N-benzyl-3-chloromethyl-N-methyl-4-phenyl-2-quinolinecarboxamide (6b) suggested its chlorine atom to be replaced with other halogens in order to optimize the interaction of the quinolinecarboxamide derivatives with PBR and to develop suitable candidates for positron emission tomography (PET) or single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) studies. The binding studies led to the discovery of fluoromethyl derivative 6a, which showed an IC50 value of 0.11 nM and is, therefore, one of the most potent PBR ligands so far described. Fluoromethyl derivative 6a has been labeled with 11C (t1/2=20.4 min, beta+=99.8%) starting from the corresponding des-methyl precursor (14) using [11C]CH3I in the presence of tetrabutylammonium hydroxide in DMF with a 35-40% radiochemical yield (corrected for decay) and 1.5 Ci/micromol of specific radioactivity. Ex vivo rat biodistribution and inhibition (following intravenous pre-administration of PK11195) studies showed that [11C]6a rapidly and specifically accumulated in PBR-rich tissues such as heart, lung, kidney, spleen, and adrenal, and at a lower level in other peripheral organs and in the brain. The images obtained in mouse with small animal YAP-(S)PET essentially confirmed the result of the ex vivo biodistribution experiments. The biological data suggest that [11C]6a is a promising radioligand for peripheral benzodiazepine receptor PET imaging in vivo.

Selective neuronal vulnerability following mild focal brain ischemia in the mouse

The evolution of cellular damage over time and the selective vulnerability of different neuronal subtypes was characterized in the striatum following 30-minute middle cerebral artery occlusion and reperfusion in the mouse. Using autoradiography we found an increase in the density of [3H]PK11195 binding sites--likely reflecting microglial activation--in the lesion border at 3 days and in the whole striatum from 10 days to 6 weeks. This was accompanied by a distinct loss of [3H]flumazenil and [3H]CGP39653 binding sites from 10 days up to 6 weeks reflecting neuronal loss. Brain ischemia resulted in a substantial loss of medium spiny projection neurons as seen at three days by Nissl staining, TUNEL and immunocytochemistry using antibodies against microtubule-associated protein (MAP2), NeuN, mu-opioid receptors, substance P, L-enkephalin, neurokinin B, choline acetyltransferase, parvalbumin, calretinin and somatostatin. Both patch and matrix compartments were involved in ischemic damage. In contrast, the numbers of cholinergic, GABAergic, and somatostatin-containing interneurons in the ischemic striatum were not different from those in the contralateral hemisphere at 3 and 14 days. A low density of glutamate receptors, the ability to sequester calcium by calcium-binding proteins and other hitherto unidentified factors may explain this relative resistance of interneurons to acute ischemia.

Decreased platelet peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors in persistently violent schizophrenia patients

Peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors (PBR) have been shown to be sensitive to stressful conditions. This study aimed to explore a possible association of platelets PBR binding with aggressive behavior and homicidal history in schizophrenia patients. The authors compared [(3)H] PK 11195 binding to platelet membrane among 11 currently aggressive schizophrenia patients, 15 schizophrenia patients with homicidal history, 14 nonaggressive schizophrenia patients, and 15 healthy volunteers. Subjects were assessed for aggressive behavior, psychopathology, anxiety, anger, and emotional distress using standardized instruments. We found that currently aggressive patients had significantly lower (-30%) platelet PBR density (B(max)), and scored significantly higher on hostility, anxiety, state anger, and emotional distress compared to homicidal and nonaggressive schizophrenia patients and healthy controls. Predominance of positive or negative symptoms, homicidal or suicidal attempt history, emotional distress levels, and conventional or atypical antipsychotic therapy is not associated with the expression of platelet PBR binding sites. Significant negative correlations emerged between PBR density and scores for aggressive behavior, hostility and anxiety. Thus, decreased platelet PBR density in aggressive schizophrenia patients is associated with higher scores for overt aggression, hostility and anxiety, but independent of illness subtype, homicidal and suicidal attempt history, distress level and type of antipsychotic treatment.

Binding characteristics of SSR180575, a potent and selective peripheral benzodiazepine ligand

The peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR), has been recently shown to play a key role in the regulation of the mitochondrial process leading to apoptosis, which occurs during cardiac ischemia. The present work shows that SSR180575, a novel PBR ligand of potential interest in pathological cardiovascular indications, irreversibly and specifically binds with high affinity on both rat heart mitochondria and on a cell line transfected with the human PBR (K(d)=1.95+/-0.22 and 4.58+/-0.83nM, respectively). In conclusion, SSR180575 is a specific and potent PBR ligand which irreversible binding to PBR appears of high interest in various therapeutic indications where apoptosis occurs.

Flumazenil Attenuates Development of Tolerance to Diazepam After Chronic Treatment of Mice with Either Isoflurane or Diazepam

In an effort to clarify the mechanism of action of isoflurane, we studied the effect of flumazenil on mice chronically treated with isoflurane or diazepam. Mice were pretreated with diazepam, isoflurane, or saline, with and without flumazenil. After 2 wk, responses to isoflurane and diazepam were assessed, and central benzodiazepine receptor (CBR) binding characteristics were assayed. Mice pretreated with isoflurane failed the horizontal wire test at a larger isoflurane concentration (0.5%) compared with saline-pretreated mice (0.4%) (P < 0.05). These differences did not occur when flumazenil was added to the pretreatment. After the administration of diazepam, 20% of diazepam- and 11% of isoflurane-pretreated mice failed the horizontal wire test, versus 50% and 44% when flumazenil was added to either drug (P < 0.002) and 80% and 100% in the saline and saline plus flumazenil-treated mice. The increased CBR density due to flumazenil was attenuated by the coadministration of isoflurane or diazepam. Flumazenil attenuated the development of tolerance to diazepam after chronic treatment with diazepam or isoflurane and attenuated the development of tolerance to isoflurane. Isoflurane, like diazepam, attenuated the effect of flumazenil on CBR ligand binding. These findings suggest that isoflurane shares a mechanism of action with diazepam, probably via the gamma-aminobutyric acid system, most probably the CBR.

IMPLICATIONS

Flumazenil attenuates the development of tolerance to isoflurane and diazepam after chronic isoflurane pretreatment. Isoflurane, like diazepam, attenuates the increase in central benzodiazepine receptor (CBR) density caused by flumazenil. These findings suggest that isoflurane and diazepam share a mechanism of action, most probably via the gamma-aminobutyric acid system and the CBR.

[(11)C]DAA1106: radiosynthesis and in vivo binding to peripheral benzodiazepine receptors in mouse brain

DAA1106 (N-(2,5-Dimethoxybenzyl)-N-(5-fluoro-2-phenoxyphenyl)acetamide), is a potent and selective ligand for peripheral benzodiazepine receptors (PBR) in mitochondrial fractions of rat (K(i)=0.043 nM) and monkey (K(i)=0.188 nM) brains. This compound was labeled by [(11)C]methylation of a corresponding desmethyl precursor (DAA1123) with [(11)C]CH(3)I in the presence of NaH, with a 72+/-16% (corrected for decay) incorporation yield of radioactivity. After HPLC purification, [(11)C]DAA1106 was obtained with > or =98% radiochemical purity and specific activity of 90-156 GBq/micromol at the end of synthesis. After iv injection of [(11)C]DAA1106 into mice, high accumulations of radioactivity were found in the olfactory bulb and cerebellum, the high PBR density regions in the brain. Coinjection of [(11)C]DAA1106 with unlabeled DAA1106 and PBR-selective PK11195 displayed a significant reduction of radioactivity, suggesting a high specific binding of [(11)C]DAA1106 to PBR. Although this tracer was rapidly metabolized in the plasma, only [(11)C]DAA1106 was detected in the brain tissues, suggesting the specific binding in the brain due to the tracer itself. These findings revealed that [(11)C]DAA1106 is a potential and selective positron emitting radioligand for PBR.

[18F]FMDAA1106 and [18F]FEDAA1106: two positron-emitter labeled ligands for peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR)

We synthesized and evaluated N-(5-fluoro-2-phenoxyphenyl)-N-(2-[(18)F]fluoromethyl-5-methoxybenzyl)acetamide ([(18)F]-FMDAA1106) and N-(5-fluoro-2-phenoxyphenyl)-N-(2-[(18)F]fluoroethyl-5-methoxybenzyl)acetamide ([(18)F]FEDAA1106) as two potent radioligands for peripheral benzodiazepine receptors (PBR). [(18)F]FMDAA1106 and [(18)F]FEDAA1106 were respectively synthesized by fluoroalkylation of the desmethyl precursor DAA1123 with [(18)F]FCH(2)I and [(18)F]FCH(2)CH(2)Br. Ex vivo autoradiograms of [(18)F]FMDAA1106 and [(18)F]FEDAA1106 binding sites in the rat brains revealed that a high radioactivity was present in the olfactory bulb, the highest PBR density region in the brain.

Effects of peripheral benzodiazepine receptor ligands on proliferation and differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells

The peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR) has been known to have many functions such as a role in cell proliferation, cell differentiation, steroidogenesis, calcium flow, cellular respiration, cellular immunity, malignancy, and apoptosis. However, the presence of PBR has not been examined in mesenchymal stem cells. In this study, we demonstrated the expression of PBR in human bone marrow stromal cells (hBMSCs) and human adipose stromal cells (hATSCs) by RT-PCR and immunocytochemistry. To determine the roles of PBR in cellular functions of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs), effects of diazepam, PK11195, and Ro5-4864 were examined. Adipose differentiation of hMSCs was decreased by high concentration of PBR ligands (50 microM), whereas it was increased by low concentrations of PBR ligands (<10 microM). PBR ligands showed a biphasic effect on glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) activity. High concentration of PBR ligands (from 25 to 75 microM) inhibited proliferation of hMSCs. However, clonazepam, which does not have an affinity to PBR, did not affect adipose differentiation and proliferation of hMSCs. The PBR ligands did not induce cell death in hMSCs. PK11195 (50 microM) and Ro5-5864 (50 microM) induced cell cycle arrest in the G(2)/M phase. These results indicate that PBR ligands play roles in adipose differentiation and proliferation of hMSCs.

Specific ligands of the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor induce apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in human esophageal cancer cells

Esophageal cancer is the most markedly increasing tumor entity in Western countries. Due to very poor 5-year-survival, new therapeutic approaches are mandatory. Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors (PBR) have been implicated in growth control of various tumor models, but they have not been studied yet in esophageal cancer. We used esophageal cancer cell lines and primary cell cultures of human esophageal cancers and evaluated (i) expression and localization of PBR; (ii) PBR-ligand-induced inhibition of cell growth; (iii) induction of apoptosis; and (iv) alterations in cell cycle. Expression of PBR was detected both in cell lines and in primary cell cultures of human esophageal cancers. PBR was localized in the mitochondria. The PBR-specific ligands FGIN-1-27 and PK 11195, but not the centrally acting benzodiazepine clonazepam or the indolacetamide FGIN-1-52, neither of which displaying any affinity to the PBR, inhibited cell proliferation. FGIN-1-27 and PK 11195, but not clonazepam, potently induced apoptosis. FGIN-1-27 was shown to sequentially decrease the mitochondrial membrane potential, then to activate caspase-3 and finally to cause DNA fragmentation. In addition, PBR-specific ligands induced cell cycle arrest in the G1/G0 phase. Our data qualify PBR-specific ligands as innovative proapoptotic and antiproliferative substances. They might prove suitable for the treatment of esophageal cancer.

Inhibitory effect of diazepam on muscarinic receptor-stimulated inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate production in rat parotid acinar cells

1. This study examined the effect of diazepam (DZP) on phosphoinositide turnover, which plays an important role in the regulation of salivary secretion, in rat parotid acinar cells. 2. DZP (10(-9) M to 10(-5) M), a potent agonist of both central- and peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors, dose-dependently decreased inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate IP3 production stimulated by carbachol, a muscarinic receptor agonist, in the cells. 3. DZP produced a maximum inhibitory response at a concentration of 10(-5) M, with IP3 production decreased to 63% of maximal levels. The concentration inducing half maximal inhibition of IP3 production was approximately 3.5 x 10 (-8) M. 4. An inhibitory response to DZP was produced by a short-term pretreatment (<3 min) of the cells and prevented by antagonist and competing ligand for the central- and peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors, flumazenil and PK 11195, respectively. 5. DZP showed a non-competitive inhibition of carbachol-stimulated IP3 production. It did not directly inhibit the activities of GTP-binding regulatory proteins and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate-specific phospholipase C (PLC) in the parotid gland membranes, though choline chloride inhibited PLC activity. 6. DZP (10(-5) M) attenuated the increase in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) in the cells following stimulation of the muscarinic and alpha(1)-adrenoceptors. 7. These results suggest that in the parotid acinar cells, DZP inhibits muscarinic receptor-stimulated IP3 production through benzodiazepine receptors and that PLC activity which produces IP3 is inhibited by chloride. The decreases in IP3 and [Ca(2+)](i) in the cells may be connected with the suppression of salivary secretion induced by DZP.