MECHANISTIC FEATURES OF THE MO-CONTAINING NITROGENASE

Systematic identification of endogenous strong constitutive promoters from the diazotrophic rhizosphere bacterium Pseudomonas stutzeri DSM4166 to improve its nitrogenase activity

BACKGROUND

Biological nitrogen fixation converting atmospheric dinitrogen to ammonia is an important way to provide nitrogen for plants. Pseudomonas stutzeri DSM4166 is a diazotrophic Gram-negative bacterium isolated from the rhizosphere of cereal Sorghum nutans. Endogenous constitutive promoters are important for engineering of the nitrogen fixation pathway, however, they have not been systematically characterized in DSM4166.

RESULTS

Twenty-six candidate promoters were identified from DSM4166 by RNA-seq analysis. These 26 promoters were cloned and characterized using the firefly luciferase gene. The strengths of nineteen promoters varied from 100 to 959% of the strength of the gentamicin resistance gene promoter. The strongest P12445 promoter was used to overexpress the biological nitrogen fixation pathway-specific positive regulator gene nifA. The transcription level of nitrogen fixation genes in DSM4166 were significantly increased and the nitrogenase activity was enhanced by 4.1 folds determined by the acetylene reduction method. The nifA overexpressed strain produced 359.1 µM of extracellular ammonium which was 25.6 times higher than that produced by the wild-type strain.

CONCLUSIONS

The endogenous strong constitutive promoters identified in this study will facilitate development of DSM4166 as a microbial cell factory for nitrogen fixation and production of other useful compounds.

The binding of reducible N2 in the reaction domain of nitrogenase

The binding of N₂ to FeMo-co, the catalytic site of the enzyme nitrogenase, is central to the conversion to NH₃, but also has a separate role in promoting the N₂-dependent HD reaction (D₂ + 2H⁺ + 2e^- → 2HD). The protein surrounding FeMo-co contains a clear channel for ingress of N₂, directly towards the exo-coordination position of Fe2, a position which is outside the catalytic reaction domain. This led to the hypothesis [I. Dance, Dalton Trans., 2022, 51, 12717] of 'promotional' N₂ bound at exo-Fe2, and a second 'reducible' N₂ bound in the reaction domain, specifically the endo-coordination position of Fe2 or Fe6. The range of possibilities for the binding of reducible N₂ in the presence of bound promotional N₂ is described here, using density functional simulations with a 486 atom model of the active site and surrounding protein. The pathway for ingress of the second N₂ through protein, past the first N₂ at exo-Fe2, and tumbling into the binding domain between Fe2 and Fe6, is described. The calculations explore 24 structures involving 6 different forms of hydrogenated FeMo-co, including structures with S2BH unhooked from Fe2 but tethered to Fe6. The calculations use the most probable electronic states. End-on (η¹) binding of N₂ at the endo position of either Fe2 or Fe6 is almost invariably exothermic, with binding potential energies ranging up to -18 kcal mol^-1. Many structures have binding energies in the range -6 to -14 kcal mol^-1. The relevant entropic penalty for N₂ binding from a diffusible position within the protein is estimated to be 4 kcal mol^-1, and so the binding free energies for reducible N₂ are suitably negative. N₂ binding at endo-Fe2 is stronger than at endo-Fe6 in three of the six structure categories. In many cases the reaction domain containing reducible N₂ is expanded. These results inform computational simulation of the subsequent steps in which surrounding H atoms transfer to reducible N₂.

The HD Reaction of Nitrogenase: a Detailed Mechanism

Nitrogenase is the enzyme that converts N2 to NH3 under ambient conditions. The chemical mechanism of this catalysis at the active site FeMo-co [Fe7 S9 CMo(homocitrate)] is unknown. An obligatory co-product is H2 , while exogenous H2 is a competitive inhibitor. Isotopic substitution using exogenous D2 revealed the N2 -dependent reaction D2 +2H+ +2e- →2HD (the 'HD reaction'), together with a collection of additional experimental characteristics and requirements. This paper describes a detailed mechanism for the HD reaction, developed and elaborated using density functional simulations with a 486-atom model of the active site and surrounding protein. First D2 binds at one Fe atom (endo-Fe6 coordination position), where it is flanked by H-Fe6 (exo position) and H-Fe2 (endo position). Then there is synchronous transfer of these two H atoms to bound D2 , forming one HD bound to Fe2 and a second HD bound to Fe6. These two HD dissociate sequentially. The final phase is recovery of the two flanking H atoms. These H atoms are generated, sequentially, by translocation of a proton from the protein surface to S3B of FeMo-co and combination with introduced electrons. The first H atom migrates from S3B to exo-Fe6 and the second from S3B to endo-Fe2. Reaction energies and kinetic barriers are reported for all steps. This mechanism accounts for the experimental data: (a) stoichiometry; (b) the N2 -dependence results from promotional N2 bound at exo-Fe2; (c) different N2 binding Km for the HD reaction and the NH3 formation reaction results from involvement of two different sites; (d) inhibition by CO; (e) the non-occurrence of 2HD→H2 +D2 results from the synchronicity of the two transfers of H to D2 ; (f) inhibition of HD production at high pN2 is by competitive binding of N2 at endo-Fe6; (g) the non-leakage of D to solvent follows from the hydrophobic environment and irreversibility of proton introduction.

Understanding the tethered unhooking and rehooking of S2B in the reaction domain of FeMo-co, the active site of nitrogenase

The active site of the nitrogen fixing enzyme nitrogenase is an Fe₇MoS₉C cluster, and investigations of the enigmatic chemical mechanism of the enzyme have focussed on a pair of Fe atoms, Fe2 and Fe6, and the S2B atom that bridges them. There are three proposals for the status of the Fe2-S2B-Fe6 bridge during the catalytic cycle: one that it remains intact, another that it is completely labile and absent during catalysis, and a third that S2B is hemilabile, unhooking one of its bonds to Fe2 or Fe6. This report examines the tethered unhooking of S2B and factors that affect it, using DFT calculations of 50 geometric/electronic possibilities with a 485 atom model including all relevant parts of surrounding protein. The outcomes are: (a) unhooking the S2B-Fe2 bond is feasible and favourable, but alternative unhooking of the S2B-Fe6 bond is unlikely for steric reasons, (b) energy differences between hooked and unhooked isomers are generally <10 kcal mol^-1, usually with unhooked more stable, (c) ligation at the exo-Fe6 position inhibits unhooking, (d) unhooking of hydrogenated S2B is more favourable than that of bare S2B, (e) hydrogen bonding from the NεH function of His195 to S2B occurs in hooked and unhooked forms, and possibly stabilises unhooking, (f) unhooking is reversible with kinetic barriers ranging 10-13 kcal mol^-1. The conclusion is that energetically accessible reversible unhooking of S2B or S2BH, as an intrinsic property of FeMo-co, needs to be considered in the formulation of mechanisms for the reactions of nitrogenase.

Calculating the chemical mechanism of nitrogenase: new working hypotheses

The enzyme nitrogenase converts N₂ to NH₃ with stoichiometry N₂ + 8H⁺ + 8e^- → 2NH₃ + H₂. The mechanism is chemically complex with multiple steps that must be consistent with much accumulated experimental information, including exchange of H₂ and N₂ and the N₂-dependent hydrogenation of D₂ to HD. Previous investigations have developed a collection of working hypotheses that guide ongoing density functional investigations of mechanistic steps and sequences. These include (i) hypotheses about the serial provision of protons and their conversion to H atoms bonded to S and Fe atoms of the FeMo-co catalytic site, (ii) the migration of H atoms over the surface of FeMo-co, (iii) the roles of His195, (iv) identification of three protein channels, one for the ingress of N₂, a separate pathway for the passage of exogenous H₂ (D₂) and product H₂ (HD), and a hydrophilic pathway for egress of product NH₃. Two additional working hypotheses are described in this paper. N₂ passing along the N₂ channel approaches and binds end-on to the exo coordination position of Fe2, with favourable energetics when FeMo-co is pre-hydrogenated. This exo-Fe2-N₂ is apparently not reduced but has a promotional role by expanding the reaction zone. A second N₂ can enter via the N₂ ingress channel and bind at the endo-Fe6 position, where it is surrounded by H atom donors suitable for the N₂ → NH₃ conversion. It is proposed that this endo-Fe6 position is also the binding site for H₂ (generated or exogenous), accounting for the competitive inhibition of N₂ reduction by H₂. The HD reaction occurs at the endo-Fe6 site, promoted by N₂ at the exo-Fe2 site. The second hypothesis concerns the most stable electronic states of FeMo-co with ligands bound at Fe2 and Fe6, and provides a protocol for management of electronic states in mechanism calculations.

Structures and reaction dynamics of N2 and H2 binding at FeMo-co, the active site of nitrogenase

The chemical reactions occurring at the Fe₇MoS₉C(homocitrate) cluster, FeMo-co, the active site of the enzyme nitrogenase (N₂ → NH₃), are enigmatic. Experimental information collected over a long period reveals aspects of the roles of N₂ and H₂, each with more than one type of reactivity. This paper reports investigations of the binding of H₂ and N₂ at intact FeMo-co, using density functional simulations of a large 486 atom relevant portion of the protein, resulting in 27 new structures containing H₂ and/or N₂ bound at the exo and endo coordination sites of the participating Fe atoms, Fe2 and Fe6. Binding energies and transition states for association/dissociation are determined, and trajectories for the approach, binding and separation of H₂/N₂ are described, including diffusion of these small molecules through proximal protein. Influences of surrounding amino acids are identified. FeMo-co deforms geometrically when binding H₂ or N₂, and a procedure for calculating the energy cost involved, the adaptation energy, is introduced here. Adaptation energies, which range from 7 to 36 kcal mol^-1 for the reported structures, are influenced by the protonation state of the His195 side chain. Seven N₂ structures and three H₂ structures have negative binding free energies, which include the estimated entropy penalties for binding of N₂, H₂ from proximal protein. These favoured structures have N₂ bound end-on at exo-Fe2, exo-Fe6 and endo-Fe2 positions of FeMo-co, and H₂ bound at the endo-Fe2 position. Various postulated structures with N₂ bridging Fe2 and Fe6 revert to end-on-N₂ at endo positions. The structures are also assessed via the calculated potential energy barriers for association and dissociation. Barriers to the binding of H₂ range from 1 to 20 kcal mol^-1 and barriers to dissociation of H₂ range from 3 to 18 kcal mol^-1. Barriers to the binding of N₂, in either side-on or end-on mode, range from 2 to 18 kcal mol^-1, while dissociation of bound N₂ encounters barriers of 3 to 8 kcal mol^-1 for side-on bonding and 7 to 18 kcal mol^-1 for end-on bonding. These results allow formulation of mechanisms for the H₂/N₂ exchange reaction, and three feasible mechanisms for associative exchange and three for dissociative exchange are identified. Consistent electronic structures and potential energy surfaces are maintained throughout. Changes in the spin populations of Fe2 and Fe6 connected with cluster deformation and with metal-ligand bond formation are identified.

p-Block element-doped silicon nanowires for nitrogen reduction reaction: a DFT study

Photocatalytic nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR) is a promising, green route to chemically reducing N₂ into NH₃ under ambient conditions, correlating to the N₂ fixation process of nitrogenase enzymes. To achieve high-yield NRR with sunlight as the driving force, high-performance photocatalysts are essential. One-dimensional silicon nanowires (1D SiNWs) are a great photoelectric candidate, but inactive for NRR due to their inability to capture N₂. In this study, we proposed SiNWs doped by p-block elements (B, C, P) to tune the affinity to N₂ and demonstrated that two-coordinated boron (B_2C) offers an ultra-low overpotential (η) of 0.34 V to catalyze full NRR, which is even much lower than that of flat benchmark Ru(0001) catalysts (η = 0.92 V). Moreover, aspects including suppressed hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), high-spin ground state of the B_2C site, and decreased band gap after B-doping ensure the high selectivity and photocatalytic activity. Finally, this work not only shows the potential use of metal-free p-block element-based catalysts, but also would facilitate the development of 1D nanomaterials towards efficient reduction of N₂ into NH₃.

Contribution of autochthonous diazotrophs to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon dissipation in contaminated soils

Understanding the role played by autochthonous functional microbes involved in the biotransformation of pollutants would help optimize bioremediation performance at contaminated sites. However, our knowledge of the remediation potential of indigenous diazotrophs in contaminated soils remains inadequate. Using a microcosm experiment, soil nitrogen fixation activity was manipulated by molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten (W), and their effect on the removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was determined in agricultural and industrial soils. Results showed that after 42 days of incubation, PAH dissipation efficiency was significantly enhanced by 1.06-fold in 600 μg kg^-1 Mo-treated agricultural soil, compared with that in the control. For the industrial soil, 1200 μg kg^-1 Mo treatment significantly promoted PAH removal by 90.76% in 21 days, whereas no significant change was observed between treatments and control at the end of the incubation period. W also exerted a similar effect on PAH dissipation. The activity and gene abundance of nitrogenase were also increased under Mo/W treatments in the two soils. Spearman's correlation analysis further indicated that removal of PAHs was positively correlated with nitrogenase activity in soil, which could be due to the elevated abundances of PAH-degrading genes (PAH-RHDα) in these treatments. Our results suggest the importance of autochthonous diazotrophs in PAH-contaminated soils, which indicates a feasible and environmentally friendly biostimulation strategy of manipulating nitrogen fixation capacity.

Microbiome for the Electrosynthesis of Chemicals from Carbon Dioxide

The price for renewable electricity is rapidly decreasing, and the availability of such energy is expected to increase in the coming years. This is a welcomed outcome considering that mitigation of climate disruption due to the use of fossil carbon is reaching a critical stage. However, the economy will remain dependent on carbon-based chemicals and the problem of electricity storage persists. Therefore, the development of electrosynthetic processes that convert electricity and CO₂ into chemicals and energy dense fuels, perhaps even food, would be desirable. Electrochemistry has been applied to the manufacture of many valuable products and at a large industrial scale, but it is difficult to produce multicarbon chemicals from CO₂ by chemistry alone. Being that the biological world possesses expertise at the construction of C-C bonds, it is being examined in conjunction with electrochemistry to discover new ways of synthesizing chemicals from electricity and CO₂. One approach is microbial electrosynthesis. This Account describes the development of a microbial electrosynthesis system by the authors. A biocathode consisting of a carbon-based electrode and a microbial community produced short chain fatty acids, primarily acetate. The device works by electrolysis of water, but microbes facilitate electron transfer from the cathode while reducing CO₂ by the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway possessed by an Acetobacterium sp. While this acetogenic microorganism dominates the microbiome growing on the cathode surface, 13 total species of microbes overall were ecologically selected on the cathode and genomes for each have been assembled. The combined species may contribute to the stability of the microbiome, a common feature of naturally selected microbial communities. The microbial electrosynthesis system was demonstrated to operate continuously at a cathode for more than 2 years and could also be used with intermittent power, thus demonstrating the stability of the microbiome living at the cathode. In addition to the description of reactor design and startup procedures, the possible mechanisms of electron transfer are described in this Account. While mysteries remain to be solved, much evidence indicates that the microbiome may facilitate electron transfer by supplying catalyst(s) external to the bacterial cells and onto the cathode surface. This may be in the form of a hydrogen-producing catalyst that enhances hydrogen generation by an inert carbon-based electrode. Through the enrichment of the electrosynthetic microbiome along with several modifications in reactor design and operation, the productivity and efficiency were improved. In addition to the intrinsic value of the current products, coupling the process with a secondary stage might be used to produce more valuable products from the acetic acid stream such as lipids, biocrude oil, or higher value food supplements. Alternatively, additional work on the mechanism of electron transfer, reactor design/operation, and modification of the microbes through synthetic biology, particularly to enhance carbon efficiency into higher value chemicals, are the needed next steps to advance microbial electrosynthesis so that it may be used to transform renewable electrons and CO₂ directly into products and help solve the problem of climate disruption.

Iron-sulphur cluster biogenesis via the SUF pathway

Iron-sulphur (Fe-S) clusters are versatile cofactors, which are essential for key metabolic processes in cells, such as respiration and photosynthesis, and which may have also played a crucial role in establishing life on Earth. They can be found in almost all living organisms, from unicellular prokaryotes and archaea to multicellular animals and plants, and exist in diverse forms. This review focuses on the most ancient Fe-S cluster assembly system, the sulphur utilization factor (SUF) mechanism, which is crucial in bacteria for cell survival under stress conditions such as oxidation and iron starvation, and which is also present in the chloroplasts of green microalgae and plants, where it is responsible for plastidial Fe-S protein maturation. We explain the SUF Fe-S cluster assembly process, the proteins involved, their regulation and provide evolutionary insights. We specifically focus on examples from Fe-S cluster synthesis in the model organisms Escherichia coli and Arabidopsis thaliana and discuss in an in vivo context the assembly of the [FeFe]-hydrogenase H-cluster from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

Metalloproteins in the Biology of Heterocysts

Cyanobacteria are photoautotrophic microorganisms present in almost all ecologically niches on Earth. They exist as single-cell or filamentous forms and the latter often contain specialized cells for N₂ fixation known as heterocysts. Heterocysts arise from photosynthetic active vegetative cells by multiple morphological and physiological rearrangements including the absence of O₂ evolution and CO₂ fixation. The key function of this cell type is carried out by the metalloprotein complex known as nitrogenase. Additionally, many other important processes in heterocysts also depend on metalloproteins. This leads to a high metal demand exceeding the one of other bacteria in content and concentration during heterocyst development and in mature heterocysts. This review provides an overview on the current knowledge of the transition metals and metalloproteins required by heterocysts in heterocyst-forming cyanobacteria. It discusses the molecular, physiological, and physicochemical properties of metalloproteins involved in N₂ fixation, H₂ metabolism, electron transport chains, oxidative stress management, storage, energy metabolism, and metabolic networks in the diazotrophic filament. This provides a detailed and comprehensive picture on the heterocyst demands for Fe, Cu, Mo, Ni, Mn, V, and Zn as cofactors for metalloproteins and highlights the importance of such metalloproteins for the biology of cyanobacterial heterocysts.

Survey of the Geometric and Electronic Structures of the Key Hydrogenated Forms of FeMo-co, the Active Site of the Enzyme Nitrogenase: Principles of the Mechanistically Significant Coordination Chemistry

The enzyme nitrogenase naturally hydrogenates N2 to NH3, achieved through the accumulation of H atoms on FeMo-co, the Fe7MoS9C(homocitrate) cluster that is the catalytically active site. Four intermediates, E1H1, E2H2, E3H3, and E4H4, carry these hydrogen atoms. I report density functional calculations of the numerous possibilities for the geometric and electronic structures of these poly-hydrogenated forms of FeMo-co. This survey involves more than 100 structures, including those with bound H2, and assesses their relative energies and most likely electronic states. Twelve locations for bound H atoms in the active domain of FeMo-co, including Fe–H–Fe and Fe–H–S bridges, are studied. A significant result is that transverse Fe–H–Fe bridges (transverse to the pseudo-threefold axis of FeMo-co and shared with triply-bridging S) are not possible geometrically unless the S is hydrogenated to become doubly-bridging. The favourable Fe–H–Fe bridges are shared with doubly-bridging S. ENDOR data for an E4H4 intermediate trapped at low temperature, and interpretations in terms of the geometrical and electronic structure of E4H4, are assessed in conjunction with the calculated possibilities. The results reported here yield a set of 24 principles for the mechanistically significant coordination chemistry of H and H2 on FeMo-co, in the stages prior to N2 binding.

How feasible is the reversible S-dissociation mechanism for the activation of FeMo-co, the catalytic site of nitrogenase?

The active site of the enzyme nitrogenase (N₂→ NH₃) is a Fe₇MoS₉C cluster that contains three doubly-bridging μ-S atoms around a central belt. A vanadium nitrogenase variant has a slightly different cluster, containing two μ-S atoms. Recent crystal structures have revealed substitution of one μ-S (S2B, bridging Fe2 and Fe6), by CO in Mo-nitrogenase and an uncertain light atom in V-nitrogenase. These systems retained catalytic activity, and were able to recover the lost μ-S atom. Electron density attributed to the dissociated S is displaced by 7 Å in the crystal structure of the non-standard V-protein. The hypothesis arising from these observations is that the chemical mechanism of nitrogenase involves reversible dissociation of S2B, leaving Fe2 and Fe6 seriously under-coordinated and reactive in trapping N₂ and binding reaction intermediates. Accumulated experimental evidence points to the Fe2-S2B-Fe6 domain as the centre of catalytic hydrogenation of N₂. Using DFT simulations of a large model (>488 atoms) containing all relevant surrounding protein residues, I have investigated the chemical steps that could allow dissociation of S2B. The participation of H atoms is crucial, as is involvement of the nearby side chain of His195 that can function as proton donor to S2B and hydrogen-bonding supporter of displaced S2B. A significant result is that after ingress and binding of N₂ at Fe2 the breaking of the Fe2-S2B bond can be strongly exergonic with negligible kinetic barrier. Subsequent extension of the Fe6-S2B bond and dissociation as H₂S (or SH^-) is endergonic by 20-25 kcal mol^-1, partly because the separating H₂S is restricted by surrounding amino-acids. I present a number of reaction sequences and energy landscapes, and derive thirteen chemical principles relevant to the postulated S-dissociation mechanism. A key conclusion is that unhooking of S2BH or S2BH₂ from Fe2 is favourable, likely, and propitious for subsequent H transfer to bound N₂ or reaction intermediates. The space between Fe2 and Fe6 supports two bridging ligands, and another H atom on Fe6 can move without kinetic barrier to occupy the bridging position vacated by S2B.

Comparison of hydroxycarboxylato imidazole molybdenum(iv) complexes and nitrogenase protein structures: indirect evidence for the protonation of homocitrato FeMo-cofactors

Glycolato and lactato imidazole molybdenum(iv) complexes are used for structural comparison with FeMo-cofactors of MoFe-protein structures.

Enzymatic Bioelectrosynthetic Ammonia Production: Recent Electrochemistry of Nitrogenase, Nitrate Reductase, and Nitrite Reductase

As an essential component of amino acids and nucleic acids, nitrogen (N) is a key element of life. For atmospheric (dinitrogen, N₂ ) and environmental (nitrate and nitrite, NO₃ ^- and NO₂ ^- ) sources of N to be utilized in amino acid synthesis in various forms of life, it must first be reduced to ammonia (NH₃ ). The Haber-Bosch process, in which N₂ is reduced to NH₃ at elevated temperature and pressure, represents a major NH₃ production process that has had a great impact on the agricultural crop industry. This Minireview discusses the recent electrochemistry of three key enzymes of the global biogeochemical N cycle (nitrogenase, nitrate reductase, and nitrite reductase), in view of moving toward the creation of alternative NH₃ production biotechnologies.

Mechanisms of the S/CO/Se interchange reactions at FeMo-co, the active site cluster of nitrogenase

The active site of the N2 fixing enzyme nitrogenase is a C-centred Fe7MoS cluster (FeMo-co) containing a trigonal prism of six Fe atoms connected by a central belt of three doubly-bridging S atoms. The trigonal faces of the prism are capped via triply-bridging S atoms to Fe1 at one end and Mo at the other end. One of the central belt atoms, S2B, considered to be important in the chemical mechanism of the enzyme, has been shown by Spatzal, Rees et al. to undergo substitution by CO, and also substitution by Se in the presence of SeCN(-), under turnover conditions. Further, when turning over under C2H2 or N2/CO there is migration of Se to the other two belt bridging positions. These reactions are extraordinary, and unprecedented in metal chalcogenide cluster chemistry. Using density functional simulations, mechanisms for all of these reactions have been developed, involving the small molecules SCO, SeCO, C2H2S, C2H2Se, SeCN(-), SCN(-) functioning as carriers of S and Se atoms. The possibility that the S2B bridge position is vacant is discounted, because the barrier to formation of a bridge-void intermediate with two contiguous three-coordinate Fe atoms is too large. A bridging ligand is retained throughout the proposed mechanisms. Intermediates with Fe-C(O)-S/Se-Fe cycles and with SCO/SeCO C-bound to Fe are predicted. The energetics of the reaction trajectories show them to be feasible and easily reversible, consistent with experiment. Alternative mechanisms involving intramolecular differential rotatory rearrangements of the cluster to scramble the Se bridges are also examined, and shown to be very unlikely. The implications of these new facets of the reactivity of the FeMo-co cluster are discussed: it is considered that they are unlikely to be part of the mechanism of the physiological reactions of nitrogenase.

Insight into the Iron-Molybdenum Cofactor of Nitrogenase from Synthetic Iron Complexes with Sulfur, Carbon, and Hydride Ligands

Nitrogenase enzymes are used by microorganisms for converting atmospheric N2 to ammonia, which provides an essential source of N atoms for higher organisms. The active site of the molybdenum-dependent nitrogenase is the unique carbide-containing iron-sulfur cluster called the iron-molybdenum cofactor (FeMoco). On the FeMoco, N2 binding is suggested to occur at one or more iron atoms, but the structures of the catalytic intermediates are not clear. In order to establish the feasibility of different potential mechanistic steps during biological N2 reduction, chemists have prepared iron complexes that mimic various structural aspects of the iron sites in the FeMoco. This reductionist approach gives mechanistic insight, and also uncovers fundamental principles that could be used more broadly for small-molecule activation. Here, we discuss recent results and highlight directions for future research. In one direction, synthetic iron complexes have now been shown to bind N2, break the N-N triple bond, and produce ammonia catalytically. Carbon- and sulfur-based donors have been incorporated into the ligand spheres of Fe-N2 complexes to show how these atoms may influence the structure and reactivity of the FeMoco. Hydrides have been incorporated into synthetic systems, which can bind N2, reduce some nitrogenase substrates, and/or reductively eliminate H2 to generate reduced iron centers. Though some carbide-containing iron clusters are known, none yet have sulfide bridges or high-spin iron atoms like the FeMoco.

The pathway for serial proton supply to the active site of nitrogenase: enhanced density functional modeling of the Grotthuss mechanism

Proton translocation along a chain of eight waters to the active site of nitrogenase is described in detail, using density functional simulations with a 269 atom system that includes surrounding amino acids.

Misconception of reductive elimination of H2, in the context of the mechanism of nitrogenase

Calculated atom partial charges reveal misconceptions of reductive elimination of H₂.

Nitrogenase and homologs

Nitrogenase catalyzes biological nitrogen fixation, a key step in the global nitrogen cycle. Three homologous nitrogenases have been identified to date, along with several structural and/or functional homologs of this enzyme that are involved in nitrogenase assembly, bacteriochlorophyll biosynthesis and methanogenic process, respectively. In this article, we provide an overview of the structures and functions of nitrogenase and its homologs, which highlights the similarity and disparity of this uniquely versatile group of enzymes.

Cleaving the n,n triple bond: the transformation of dinitrogen to ammonia by nitrogenases

Biological nitrogen fixation is a natural process that converts atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to bioavailable ammonia (NH3). This reaction not only plays a key role in supplying bio-accessible nitrogen to all life forms on Earth, but also embodies the powerful chemistry of cleaving the inert N,N triple bond under ambient conditions. The group of enzymes that carry out this reaction are called nitrogenases and typically consist of two redox active protein components, each containing metal cluster(s) that are crucial for catalysis. In the past decade, a number of crystal structures, including several at high resolutions, have been solved. However, the catalytic mechanism of nitrogenase, namely, how the N,N triple bond is cleaved by this enzyme under ambient conditions, has remained elusive. Nevertheless, recent biochemical and spectroscopic studies have led to a better understanding of the potential intermediates of N2 reduction by the molybdenum (Mo)-nitrogenase. In addition, it has been demonstrated that carbon monoxide (CO), which was thought to be an inhibitor of N2 reduction, could also be reduced by the vanadium (V)-nitrogenase to small alkanes and alkenes. This chapter will begin with an introduction to biological nitrogen fixation and Mo-nitrogenase, continue with a discussion of the catalytic mechanism of N2 reduction by Mo-nitrogenase, and conclude with a survey of the current knowledge of N2- and CO-reduction by V-nitrogenase and how V-nitrogenase compares to its Mo-counterpart in these catalytic activities.

A molecular pathway for the egress of ammonia produced by nitrogenase

Nitrogenase converts N2 to NH3, at one face of an Fe-Mo-S cluster (FeMo-co) buried in the protein. Through exploration of cavities in the structures of nitrogenase proteins, a pathway for the egress of ammonia from its generation site to the external medium is proposed. This pathway is conserved in the three species Azotobacter vinelandii, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Clostridium pasteurianum. A molecular mechanism for the translocation of NH3 by skipping through a sequence of hydrogen bonds involving eleven water molecules and surrounding aminoacids has been developed. The putative mechanism requires movement aside of some water molecules by up to ~ 1Å. Consistent with this, the surrounding protein is comprised of different chains and has little secondary structure: protein fluctuations are part of the mechanism. This NH3 pathway is well separated from the water chain and embedded proton wire that have been proposed for serial supply of protons to FeMo-co. Verification procedures are suggested.

Unification of reaction pathway and kinetic scheme for N2 reduction catalyzed by nitrogenase

Nitrogenase catalyzes the reduction of N(2) and protons to yield two NH(3) and one H(2). Substrate binding occurs at a complex organo-metallocluster called FeMo-cofactor (FeMo-co). Each catalytic cycle involves the sequential delivery of eight electrons/protons to this cluster, and this process has been framed within a kinetic scheme developed by Lowe and Thorneley. Rapid freezing of a modified nitrogenase under turnover conditions using diazene, methyldiazene (HN = N-CH(3)), or hydrazine as substrate recently was shown to trap a common S = ½ intermediate, designated I. It was further concluded that the two N-atoms of N(2) are hydrogenated alternately ("Alternating" (A) pathway). In the present work, Q-band CW EPR and (95)Mo ESEEM spectroscopy reveal such samples also contain a common intermediate with FeMo-co in an integer-spin state having a ground-state "non-Kramers" doublet. This species, designated H, has been characterized by ESEEM spectroscopy using a combination of (14,15)N isotopologs plus (1,2)H isotopologs of methyldiazene. It is concluded that: H has NH(2) bound to FeMo-co and corresponds to the penultimate intermediate of N(2) hydrogenation, the state formed after the accumulation of seven electrons/protons and the release of the first NH(3); I corresponds to the final intermediate in N(2) reduction, the state formed after accumulation of eight electrons/protons, with NH(3) still bound to FeMo-co prior to release and regeneration of resting-state FeMo-co. A proposed unification of the Lowe-Thorneley kinetic model with the "prompt" alternating reaction pathway represents a draft mechanism for N(2) reduction by nitrogenase.

57Fe ENDOR spectroscopy and 'electron inventory' analysis of the nitrogenase E4 intermediate suggest the metal-ion core of FeMo-cofactor cycles through only one redox couple

N(2) binds to the active-site metal cluster in the nitrogenase MoFe protein, the FeMo-cofactor ([7Fe-9S-Mo-homocitrate-X]; FeMo-co) only after the MoFe protein has accumulated three or four electrons/protons (E(3) or E(4) states), with the E(4) state being optimally activated. Here we study the FeMo-co (57)Fe atoms of E(4) trapped with the α-70(Val→Ile) MoFe protein variant through use of advanced ENDOR methods: 'random-hop' Davies pulsed 35 GHz ENDOR; difference triple resonance; the recently developed Pulse-Endor-SaTuration and REcovery (PESTRE) protocol for determining hyperfine-coupling signs; and Raw-DATA (RD)-PESTRE, a PESTRE variant that gives a continuous sign readout over a selected radiofrequency range. These methods have allowed experimental determination of the signed isotropic (57)Fe hyperfine couplings for five of the seven iron sites of the reductively activated E(4) FeMo-co, and given the magnitude of the coupling for a sixth. When supplemented by the use of sum-rules developed to describe electron-spin coupling in FeS proteins, these (57)Fe measurements yield both the magnitude and signs of the isotropic couplings for the complete set of seven Fe sites of FeMo-co in E(4). In light of the previous findings that FeMo-co of E(4) binds two hydrides in the form of (Fe-(μ-H(-))-Fe) fragments, and that molybdenum has not become reduced, an 'electron inventory' analysis assigns the formal redox level of FeMo-co metal ions in E(4) to that of the resting state (M(N)), with the four accumulated electrons residing on the two Fe-bound hydrides. Comparisons with earlier (57)Fe ENDOR studies and electron inventory analyses of the bio-organometallic intermediate formed during the reduction of alkynes and the CO-inhibited forms of nitrogenase (hi-CO and lo-CO) inspire the conjecture that throughout the eight-electron reduction of N(2) plus 2H(+) to two NH(3) plus H(2), the inorganic core of FeMo-co cycles through only a single redox couple connecting two formal redox levels: those associated with the resting state, M(N), and with the one-electron reduced state, M(R). We further note that this conjecture might apply to other complex FeS enzymes.

ENDOR/HYSCORE studies of the common intermediate trapped during nitrogenase reduction of N2H2, CH3N2H, and N2H4 support an alternating reaction pathway for N2 reduction

Enzymatic N(2) reduction proceeds along a reaction pathway composed of a sequence of intermediate states generated as a dinitrogen bound to the active-site iron-molybdenum cofactor (FeMo-co) of the nitrogenase MoFe protein undergoes six steps of hydrogenation (e(-)/H(+) delivery). There are two competing proposals for the reaction pathway, and they invoke different intermediates. In the 'Distal' (D) pathway, a single N of N(2) is hydrogenated in three steps until the first NH(3) is liberated, and then the remaining nitrido-N is hydrogenated three more times to yield the second NH(3). In the 'Alternating' (A) pathway, the two N's instead are hydrogenated alternately, with a hydrazine-bound intermediate formed after four steps of hydrogenation and the first NH(3) liberated only during the fifth step. A recent combination of X/Q-band EPR and (15)N, (1,2)H ENDOR measurements suggested that states trapped during turnover of the α-70(Ala)/α-195(Gln) MoFe protein with diazene or hydrazine as substrate correspond to a common intermediate (here denoted I) in which FeMo-co binds a substrate-derived [N(x)H(y)] moiety, and measurements reported here show that turnover with methyldiazene generates the same intermediate. In the present report we describe X/Q-band EPR and (14/15)N, (1,2)H ENDOR/HYSCORE/ESEEM measurements that characterize the N-atom(s) and proton(s) associated with this moiety. The experiments establish that turnover with N(2)H(2), CH(3)N(2)H, and N(2)H(4) in fact generates a common intermediate, I, and show that the N-N bond of substrate has been cleaved in I. Analysis of this finding leads us to conclude that nitrogenase reduces N(2)H(2), CH(3)N(2)H, and N(2)H(4) via a common A reaction pathway, and that the same is true for N(2) itself, with Fe ion(s) providing the site of reaction.

Mechanism of Mo-dependent nitrogenase

Nitrogenase is the enzyme responsible for biological reduction of dinitrogen (N(2)) to ammonia, a form usable for life. Playing a central role in the global biogeochemical nitrogen cycle, this enzyme has been the focus of intensive research for over 60 years. This chapter provides an overview of the features of nitrogenase as a background to the subsequent chapters of this volume that detail the many methods that have been applied in an attempt to gain a deeper understanding of this complex enzyme.

Synthesis of diamidopyrrolyl molybdenum complexes relevant to reduction of dinitrogen to ammonia

A potentially useful trianionic ligand for the reduction of dinitrogen catalytically by molybdenum complexes is one in which one of the arms in a [(RNCH(2)CH(2))(3)N](3-) ligand is replaced by a 2-mesitylpyrrolyl-alpha-methyl arm, that is, [(RNCH(2)CH(2))(2)NCH(2)(2-MesitylPyrrolyl)](3-) (R = C(6)F(5), 3,5-Me(2)C(6)H(3), or 3,5-t-Bu(2)C(6)H(3)). Compounds have been prepared that contain the ligand in which R = C(6)F(5) ([C(6)F(5)N)(2)Pyr](3-)); they include [(C(6)F(5)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(NMe(2)), [(C(6)F(5)N)(2)Pyr]MoCl, [(C(6)F(5)N)(2)Pyr]MoOTf, and [(C(6)F(5)N)(2)Pyr]MoN. Compounds that contain the ligand in which R = 3,5-t-Bu(2)C(6)H(3) ([Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr](3-)) include {[(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(N(2))}Na(15-crown-5), {[(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(N(2))}[NBu(4)], [(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(N(2)) (nu(NN) = 2012 cm(-1) in C(6)D(6)), {[(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(NH(3))}BPh(4), and [(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(CO). X-ray studies are reported for [(C(6)F(5)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(NMe(2)), [(C(6)F(5)N)(2)Pyr]MoCl, and [(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]MoN. The [(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(N(2))(0/-) reversible couple is found at -1.96 V (in PhF versus Cp(2)Fe(+/0)), but the [(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(N(2))(+/0) couple is irreversible. Reduction of {[(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(NH(3))}BPh(4) under Ar at approximately -1.68 V at a scan rate of 900 mV/s is not reversible. Ammonia in [(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(NH(3)) can be substituted for dinitrogen in about 2 h if 10 equiv of BPh(3) are present to trap the ammonia that is released. [(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo-N=NH is a key intermediate in the proposed catalytic reduction of dinitrogen that could not be prepared. Dinitrogen exchange studies in [(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(N(2)) suggest that steric hindrance by the ligand may be insufficient to protect decomposition of [(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo-N=NH through a variety of pathways. Three attempts to reduce dinitrogen catalytically with [(Ar(t-Bu)N)(2)Pyr]Mo(N) as a "catalyst" yielded an average of 1.02 +/- 0.12 equiv of NH(3).

The chemical mechanism of nitrogenase: hydrogen tunneling and further aspects of the intramolecular mechanism for hydrogenation of eta(2)-N(2) on FeMo-co to NH(3)

The preceding paper (Dalton Trans., 2008, DOI: 10.1039/b806100a) describes the logical development of a chemical mechanism for the catalysis of hydrogenation of N(2) to 2NH(3) that occurs at the Fe(7)MoS(9)N(c)(homocitrate) cofactor (FeMo-co) of the enzyme nitrogenase. The mechanism uses a single replenishable path for serial supply of protons which become H atoms on FeMo-co, migrating to become S-H and Fe-H donors to N(2) and to the intermediates that follow. This chemical catalysis at FeMo-co is distinctly intramolecular: transition states and reaction profiles for the preferred 21 step pathway were presented. This paper describes a number of alternative intermediates and pathways that were considered in developing the mechanism. These results reveal further relevant principles of the reactivity of hydrogenated FeMo-co, and the reasons why these pathways are less likely to be part of the mechanism. The intramolecular character of the mechanism, and the relatively small distances over which H atoms transfer, lead to expectations of extensive quantum mechanical hydrogen tunneling as part of the catalytic rate enhancement. This possibility is supported by comparisons of reaction profiles with those for enzyme reactions for which tunneling is established.