Differential utilization of ketone bodies by neurons and glioma cell lines: a rationale for ketogenic diet as experimental glioma therapy

Systematic Review and Clinical Insights: The Role of the Ketogenic Diet in Managing Glioblastoma in Cancer Neuroscience

Recent scientific research has shown that the ketogenic diet may have potential benefits in a variety of medical fields, which has led to the diet receiving a substantial amount of attention. Clinical and experimental research on brain tumors has shown that the ketogenic diet has a satisfactory safety profile. This safety profile has been established in a variety of applications, including the management of obesity and the treatment of drug-resistant epileptic cases. However, in human studies, the impact of ketogenic therapy on the growth of tumors and the life expectancy of patients has not provided results that are well characterized. Consequently, our purpose is to improve the comprehension of these features by succinctly presenting the developments and conclusions that have been gained from the most recent study that pertains to this non-pharmacological technique. According to the findings of our study, patients with brain tumors who stick to a ketogenic diet are more likely to experience improved survival rates. However, it is required to conduct additional research on humans in order to more accurately define the anti-tumor efficiency of this diet as well as the underlying processes that support the therapeutic effects of this dieting regimen.

Neuroregeneration Improved by Sodium-D,L-Beta-Hydroxybutyrate in Primary Neuronal Cultures

Ketone bodies are considered alternative fuels for the brain when glucose availability is limited. To determine the neuroregenerative potential of D,L-sodium-beta-hydroxybutyrate (D/L-BHB), Sprague Dawley rat primary cortical neurons were exposed to simulated central nervous system injury using a scratch assay. The neuronal cell migration, cell density and degree of regeneration in the damaged areas (gaps) in the absence (control) and presence of BHB (2 mM) were documented with automated live-cell imaging by the CytoSMART system over 24 h, which was followed by immunocytochemistry, labeling synapsin-I and β3-tubulin. The cell density was significantly higher in the gaps with BHB treatment after 24 h compared to the control. In the control, only 1.5% of the measured gap areas became narrower over 24 h, while in the BHB-treated samples 49.23% of the measured gap areas became narrower over 24 h. In the control, the gap expanded by 63.81% post-injury, while the gap size decreased by 10.83% in response to BHB treatment, compared to the baseline. The cell density increased by 97.27% and the gap size was reduced by 74.64% in response to BHB, compared to the control. The distance travelled and velocity of migrating cells were significantly higher with BHB treatment, while more synapsin-I and β3-tubulin were found in the BHB-treated samples after 24 h, compared to the control. The results demonstrate that D/L-BHB enhanced neuronal migration and molecular processes associated with neural regeneration and axonogenesis. These results may have clinical therapeutic applications in the future for nervous system injuries, such as for stroke, concussion and TBI patients.

From mitochondria to tumor suppression: ACAT1's crucial role in gastric cancer

Acetyl CoA acetyltransferase 1 (ACAT1), a mitochondrial enzyme, is mainly involved in the formation and decomposition of ketones, isoleucine, and fatty acids. Previous clinical studies showed that mutations in the ACAT1 gene lead to ketoacidosis, Notably the role of ACAT1 in human cancer' pathogenesis varies depending on cancer type, and its specific role in gastric cancer remains largely unknown. In the current study, we found that the expression of ACAT1 in primary late-stage gastric cancer tumor tissues was significantly lower than in early-stage tumors. This observation was further confirmed in high-grade gastric cancer cell line MKN45. The expression of CD44 and OCT4 was decreased, while CD24 expression was increased by overexpressing ACAT1 in MKN45 gastric cancer cells. Moreover, the ability of gastric cancer cells to form colonies on soft agar was also reduced by ACAT1 overexpression. Likewise, overexpression of ACAT1 inhibited epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) in gastric cancer cells evidenced by increased expression of the epithelial marker E-Cadherin, decreased expression of mesenchymal marker vimentin, and decreased expression levels of SNAI 1/3. In addition, ACAT1 overexpression inhibited cell migration and invasion, improved the response to 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) and etoposide. In contrast, inhibition of ACAT1 activity promoted the proliferation of gastric cancer cells. The xenotransplantation results in nude mice showed that overexpression of ACAT1 in gastric cancer cells inhibited tumor growth in vivo. In addition, the low expression of ACAT1 in gastric cancer was further validated by searching public databases and conducting bioinformatic analyses. Mechanistically, bioinformatic analysis found that the inhibitory effect of ACAT1 in gastric cancer may be related to the Adipocytokine Signaling Pathway, Ppar Signaling Pathway, Propanoate Metabolism and P53 Signaling Pathway. Correlation analysis indicated ACAT1 mRNA expression was correlated with immune infiltrates. Collectively, our data show that ACAT1 induces pronounced inhibitory effects on gastric cancer initiation and development, which may impact future strategies to treat this aggressive cancer.

Iron Regulates Cellular Proliferation by Enhancing the Expression of Glucose Transporter GLUT3 in the Liver

Iron is often accumulated in the liver during pathological conditions such as cirrhosis and cancer. Elevated expression of glucose transporters GLUT1 and GLUT3 is associated with reduced overall survival in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. However, it is not known whether iron can regulate glucose transporters and contribute to tumor proliferation. In the present study, we found that treatment of human liver cell line HepG2 with ferric ammonium citrate (FAC) resulted in a significant upregulation of GLUT3 mRNA and protein in a dose-dependent manner. Similarly, iron accumulation in mice fed with high dietary iron as well as in mice injected intraperitoneally with iron dextran enhanced the GLUT3 expression drastically in the liver. We demonstrated that iron-induced hepatic GLUT3 upregulation is mediated by the LKB1/AMPK/CREB1 pathway, and this activation was reversed when treated with iron chelator deferiprone. In addition, inhibition of GLUT3 using siRNA prevented iron-mediated increase in the expression of cell cycle markers and cellular hyperproliferation. Furthermore, exogenous sodium beta-hydroxybutyrate treatment prevented iron-mediated hepatic GLUT3 activation both in vitro and in vivo. Together, these results underscore the importance of iron, AMPK, CREB1 and GLUT3 pathways in cell proliferation and highlight the therapeutic potential of sodium beta-hydroxybutyrate in hepatocellular carcinoma with high GLUT3 expression.

Understanding the immunosuppressive microenvironment of glioma: mechanistic insights and clinical perspectives

Glioblastoma (GBM), the predominant and primary malignant intracranial tumor, poses a formidable challenge due to its immunosuppressive microenvironment, thereby confounding conventional therapeutic interventions. Despite the established treatment regimen comprising surgical intervention, radiotherapy, temozolomide administration, and the exploration of emerging modalities such as immunotherapy and integration of medicine and engineering technology therapy, the efficacy of these approaches remains constrained, resulting in suboptimal prognostic outcomes. In recent years, intensive scrutiny of the inhibitory and immunosuppressive milieu within GBM has underscored the significance of cellular constituents of the GBM microenvironment and their interactions with malignant cells and neurons. Novel immune and targeted therapy strategies have emerged, offering promising avenues for advancing GBM treatment. One pivotal mechanism orchestrating immunosuppression in GBM involves the aggregation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), glioma-associated macrophage/microglia (GAM), and regulatory T cells (Tregs). Among these, MDSCs, though constituting a minority (4-8%) of CD45+ cells in GBM, play a central component in fostering immune evasion and propelling tumor progression, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. MDSCs deploy intricate immunosuppressive mechanisms that adapt to the dynamic tumor microenvironment (TME). Understanding the interplay between GBM and MDSCs provides a compelling basis for therapeutic interventions. This review seeks to elucidate the immune regulatory mechanisms inherent in the GBM microenvironment, explore existing therapeutic targets, and consolidate recent insights into MDSC induction and their contribution to GBM immunosuppression. Additionally, the review comprehensively surveys ongoing clinical trials and potential treatment strategies, envisioning a future where targeting MDSCs could reshape the immune landscape of GBM. Through the synergistic integration of immunotherapy with other therapeutic modalities, this approach can establish a multidisciplinary, multi-target paradigm, ultimately improving the prognosis and quality of life in patients with GBM.

Inhibition of Carbohydrate Metabolism Potentiated by the Therapeutic Effects of Oxidative Phosphorylation Inhibitors in Colon Cancer Cells

Cancer cells undergo a significant level of "metabolic reprogramming" or "remodeling" to ensure an adequate supply of ATP and "building blocks" for cell survival and to facilitate accelerated proliferation. Cancer cells preferentially use glycolysis for ATP production (the Warburg effect); however, cancer cells, including colorectal cancer (CRC) cells, also depend on oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) for ATP production, a finding that suggests that both glycolysis and OXPHOS play significant roles in facilitating cancer progression and proliferation. Our prior studies identified a semisynthetic isoflavonoid, DBI-1, that served as an AMPK activator targeting mitochondrial complex I. Furthermore, DBI-1 and a glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1) inhibitor, BAY-876, synergistically inhibited CRC cell growth in vitro and in vivo. We now report a study of the structure-activity relationships (SARs) in the isoflavonoid family in which we identified a new DBI-1 analog, namely, DBI-2, with promising properties. Here, we aimed to explore the antitumor mechanisms of DBIs and to develop new combination strategies by targeting both glycolysis and OXPHOS. We identified DBI-2 as a novel AMPK activator using an AMPK phosphorylation assay as a readout. DBI-2 inhibited mitochondrial complex I in the Seahorse assays. We performed proliferation and Western blotting assays and conducted studies of apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy to corroborate the synergistic effects of DBI-2 and BAY-876 on CRC cells in vitro. We hypothesized that restricting the carbohydrate uptake with a KD would mimic the effects of GLUT1 inhibitors, and we found that a ketogenic diet significantly enhanced the therapeutic efficacy of DBI-2 in CRC xenograft mouse models, an outcome that suggested a potentially new approach for combination cancer therapy.

Effects of dietary intervention on human diseases: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential

Diet, serving as a vital source of nutrients, exerts a profound influence on human health and disease progression. Recently, dietary interventions have emerged as promising adjunctive treatment strategies not only for cancer but also for neurodegenerative diseases, autoimmune diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and metabolic disorders. These interventions have demonstrated substantial potential in modulating metabolism, disease trajectory, and therapeutic responses. Metabolic reprogramming is a hallmark of malignant progression, and a deeper understanding of this phenomenon in tumors and its effects on immune regulation is a significant challenge that impedes cancer eradication. Dietary intake, as a key environmental factor, can influence tumor metabolism. Emerging evidence indicates that dietary interventions might affect the nutrient availability in tumors, thereby increasing the efficacy of cancer treatments. However, the intricate interplay between dietary interventions and the pathogenesis of cancer and other diseases is complex. Despite encouraging results, the mechanisms underlying diet-based therapeutic strategies remain largely unexplored, often resulting in underutilization in disease management. In this review, we aim to illuminate the potential effects of various dietary interventions, including calorie restriction, fasting-mimicking diet, ketogenic diet, protein restriction diet, high-salt diet, high-fat diet, and high-fiber diet, on cancer and the aforementioned diseases. We explore the multifaceted impacts of these dietary interventions, encompassing their immunomodulatory effects, other biological impacts, and underlying molecular mechanisms. This review offers valuable insights into the potential application of these dietary interventions as adjunctive therapies in disease management.

Anti-tumor effects of ketogenic diets and their synergism with other treatments in mice: Bayesian evidence synthesis of 1755 individual mouse survival data

BACKGROUND

Ketogenic diets (KDs) are high-fat diets with putative anti-tumor effects. The aim of this study was to synthesize the evidence for the anti-tumor effects of KDs in mice, with a focus on their possible synergism with chemotherapy (CT), radiotherapy (RT), or targeted therapies (TT).

METHODS

Relevant studies were retrieved from a literature search. A total of 43 articles reporting on 65 mouse experiments fulfilled the inclusion criteria, and 1755 individual mouse survival times were collated from the study authors or the publications. The restricted mean survival time ratio (RMSTR) between the KD and control groups served as the effect size. Bayesian evidence synthesis models were used to estimate pooled effect sizes and to assess the impact of putative confounders and synergism between KD and other therapies.

RESULTS

Overall, there was a significant survival-prolonging effect of KD monotherapy (RMSTR = 1.161 ± 0.040), which was confirmed in meta-regression accounting for syngeneic versus xenogeneic models, early versus late KD start and subcutaneous versus other organ growth. Combining the KD with RT or TT, but not CT, was associated with a further 30% (RT) or 21% (TT) prolongation of survival. An analysis accounting for 15 individual tumor entities showed that KDs exerted significant survival-prolonging effects in pancreatic cancer (all treatment combinations), gliomas (KD + RT and KD + TT), head and neck cancer (KD + RT), and stomach cancer (KD+RT and KD + TT).

CONCLUSIONS

This analytical study confirmed the overall anti-tumor effects of KDs in a large number of mouse experiments and provides evidence for synergistic effects with RT and TT.

Take metabolic heterogeneity into consideration when applying dietary interventions to cancer therapy: A review

In recent years, dietary interventions have attracted much attention in cancer therapy. Mechanistic studies suggest that dietary interventions can inhibit the progression of cancer through deprivation of essential metabolites, lowering the levels of protumor hormones, activation of anticancer immunity and synergistic effects with conventional anticancer therapies. The feasibility, safety and promising tumor outcomes have also been established in humans. However, the results from both preclinical and clinical studies are inconsistent or even conflicting, the reasons for which have not been extensively considered. In this review, we discuss the various heterogeneity, including dietary protocols, tissue of origin and cancer locations, spatial and temporal metabolic heterogeneity, and divergent combination treatment, that may affect the responses of different cancers to dietary interventions. Understanding this heterogeneity and taking them into consideration when applying dietary interventions to cancer therapy will allow us to deliver the right diet to the right patient at the right time to maximize compliance, safety and efficacy of conventional anticancer therapy and to improve the outcomes of patients with cancer.

From signalling pathways to targeted therapies: unravelling glioblastoma's secrets and harnessing two decades of progress

Glioblastoma, a rare, and highly lethal form of brain cancer, poses significant challenges in terms of therapeutic resistance, and poor survival rates for both adult and paediatric patients alike. Despite advancements in brain cancer research driven by a technological revolution, translating our understanding of glioblastoma pathogenesis into improved clinical outcomes remains a critical unmet need. This review emphasises the intricate role of receptor tyrosine kinase signalling pathways, epigenetic mechanisms, and metabolic functions in glioblastoma tumourigenesis and therapeutic resistance. We also discuss the extensive efforts over the past two decades that have explored targeted therapies against these pathways. Emerging therapeutic approaches, such as antibody-toxin conjugates or CAR T cell therapies, offer potential by specifically targeting proteins on the glioblastoma cell surface. Combination strategies incorporating protein-targeted therapy and immune-based therapies demonstrate great promise for future clinical research. Moreover, gaining insights into the role of cell-of-origin in glioblastoma treatment response holds the potential to advance precision medicine approaches. Addressing these challenges is crucial to improving outcomes for glioblastoma patients and moving towards more effective precision therapies.

Cancer Cachexia: Underlying Mechanisms and Potential Therapeutic Interventions

Cancer cachexia, a multifactorial metabolic syndrome developed during malignant tumor growth, is characterized by an accelerated loss of body weight accompanied by the depletion of skeletal muscle mass. This debilitating condition is associated with muscle degradation, impaired immune function, reduced functional capacity, compromised quality of life, and diminished survival in cancer patients. Despite the lack of the known capability of fully reversing or ameliorating this condition, ongoing research is shedding light on promising preclinical approaches that target the disrupted mechanisms in the pathophysiology of cancer cachexia. This comprehensive review delves into critical aspects of cancer cachexia, including its underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, preclinical models for studying the progression of cancer cachexia, methods for clinical assessment, relevant biomarkers, and potential therapeutic strategies. These discussions collectively aim to contribute to the evolving foundation for effective, multifaceted counteractive strategies against this challenging condition.

Metabolomics of Duodenal Juice for Biliary Tract Cancer Diagnosis

The poor prognosis of malignant biliary diseases is partially caused by their difficult early diagnosis. Therefore, many patients are only diagnosed at advanced stages. This study aimed to improve diagnosis by clarifying the differences in the duodenal juice metabolomes of benign and malignant biliary diseases. From October 2021 to January 2023, duodenal juice was obtained from 67 patients with suspected biliary diseases who required endoscopic ultrasonography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiography for diagnosis/treatment. The samples metabolomes were analyzed via nuclear magnet resonance spectroscopy using an 800-MHz spectrometer. Metabolomes of malignant and benign diseases were then compared, and multivariate analysis was performed to determine the relevant factors for malignancy/benignancy. For benignancy, no significant predictors were observed. For malignancy, acetone was a significant predictor, with higher concentrations in the malignant group than in the benign group. Regarding the receiver operating characteristic curve analysis for biliary tract carcinoma diagnosis, the predictive value of acetone in duodenal juice was comparable with serum CA19-9 levels (area under the curve: 0.7330 vs. 0.691, p = 0.697). In conclusion, duodenal juice metabolomics is a feasible method that is available for differential diagnosis in the biliary disease field.

Current knowledges in pharmaconutrition: "Ketogenics" in pediatric gliomas

Brain tumors account for 20-25% of pediatric cancers. The most frequent type of brain tumor is Glioma from grade I to grade IV according to the rate of malignancy. Current treatments for gliomas use chemotherapy, radiotherapy, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies and surgery, but each of the treatment strategies has several serious side effects. Therefore, to improve treatment efficacy, it is necessary to tailor therapies to patient and tumor characteristics, using appropriate molecular targets. An increasingly popular strategy is pharmaconutrition, which combines a tailored pharmacological treatment with a diet designed to synergize the effects of drugs. In this review we deal in the molecular mechanisms, the epigenetic effects and modulation of the oxidative stress pathway of ketogenic diets, that underlie its possible role, in the treatment of infantile gliomas, as a complementary approach to conventional cancer therapy.

Targeting fatty acid oxidation via Acyl-CoA binding protein hinders glioblastoma invasion

The diffuse nature of Glioblastoma (GBM) tumors poses a challenge to current therapeutic options. We have previously shown that Acyl-CoA Binding Protein (ACBP, also known as DBI) regulates lipid metabolism in GBM cells, favoring fatty acid oxidation (FAO). Here we show that ACBP downregulation results in wide transcriptional changes affecting invasion-related genes. In vivo experiments using patient-derived xenografts combined with in vitro models demonstrated that ACBP sustains GBM invasion via binding to fatty acyl-CoAs. Blocking FAO mimics ACBP^KD-induced immobility, a cellular phenotype that can be rescued by increasing FAO rates. Further investigation into ACBP-downstream pathways served to identify Integrin beta-1, a gene downregulated upon inhibition of either ACBP expression or FAO rates, as a mediator for ACBP's role in GBM invasion. Altogether, our findings highlight a role for FAO in GBM invasion and reveal ACBP as a therapeutic vulnerability to stall FAO and subsequent cell invasion in GBM tumors.

Lithium: A Promising Anticancer Agent

Lithium is a therapeutic cation used to treat bipolar disorders but also has some important features as an anti-cancer agent. In this review, we provide a general overview of lithium, from its transport into cells, to its innovative administration forms, and based on genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic data. Lithium formulations such as lithium acetoacetate (LiAcAc), lithium chloride (LiCl), lithium citrate (Li3C6H5O7), and lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) induce apoptosis, autophagy, and inhibition of tumor growth and also participate in the regulation of tumor proliferation, tumor invasion, and metastasis and cell cycle arrest. Moreover, lithium is synergistic with standard cancer therapies, enhancing their anti-tumor effects. In addition, lithium has a neuroprotective role in cancer patients, by improving their quality of life. Interestingly, nano-sized lithium enhances its anti-tumor activities and protects vital organs from the damage caused by lipid peroxidation during tumor development. However, these potential therapeutic activities of lithium depend on various factors, such as the nature and aggressiveness of the tumor, the type of lithium salt, and its form of administration and dosage. Since lithium has been used to treat bipolar disorder, the current study provides an overview of its role in medicine and how this has changed. This review also highlights the importance of this repurposed drug, which appears to have therapeutic cancer potential, and underlines its molecular mechanisms.

The Ketogenic Diet in Colorectal Cancer: A Means to an End

Some diets, such as high lipid and high glucose diets, are known to increase the risk of colorectal cancer. On the other hand, little is known about diets that prevent colonic carcinogenesis. The ketogenic diet, which is characterized by high fat and very low carbohydrate content, is one such diet. The ketogenic diet decreases the amount of available glucose for tumors and shifts to the production of ketone bodies as an alternative energy source for healthy cells. Cancer cells are unable to use the ketone bodies for energy thus depriving them of the energy needed for progression and survival. Many studies reported the beneficial effects of the ketogenic diet in several types of cancers. Recently, the ketone body β-hydroxybutyrate has been found to possess anti-tumor potential in colorectal cancer. Despite its beneficial effects, the ketogenic diet also has some drawbacks, some of which are related to gastrointestinal disorders and weight loss. Thus, studies are being directed at this time towards finding alternatives to following a strict ketogenic diet and supplementing patients with the ketone bodies responsible for its beneficial effects in the hope of overcoming some potential setbacks. This article discusses the mechanism by which a ketogenic diet influences growth and proliferation of tumor cells, it sheds the light on the most recent trials regarding its use as an adjunctive measure to chemotherapy in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer, and it explains the limitations of its usage in metastatic patients and the promising role of exogenous ketone supplementation in this setting.

Ketogenic Diet and Ketone Bodies against Ischemic Injury: Targets, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Potential

The ketogenic diet (KD) has been used as a treatment for epilepsy since the 1920s, and its role in the prevention of many other diseases is now being considered. In recent years, there has been an intensive investigation on using the KD as a therapeutic approach to treat acute pathologies, including ischemic ones. However, contradictory data are observed for the effects of the KD on various organs after ischemic injury. In this review, we provide the first systematic analysis of studies conducted from 1980 to 2022 investigating the effects and main mechanisms of the KD and its mimetics on ischemia-reperfusion injury of the brain, heart, kidneys, liver, gut, and eyes. Our analysis demonstrated a high diversity of both the composition of the used KD and the protocols for the treatment of animals, which could be the reason for contradictory effects in different studies. It can be concluded that a true KD or its mimetics, such as β-hydroxybutyrate, can be considered as positive exposure, protecting the organ from ischemia and its negative consequences, whereas the shift to a rather similar high-calorie or high-fat diet leads to the opposite effect.

Targeting fatty acid metabolism in glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a primary tumor of the brain defined by its uniform lethality and resistance to conventional therapies. There have been considerable efforts to untangle the metabolic underpinnings of this disease to find novel therapeutic avenues for treatment. An emerging focus in this field is fatty acid (FA) metabolism, which is critical for numerous diverse biological processes involved in GBM pathogenesis. These processes can be classified into four broad fates: anabolism, catabolism, regulation of ferroptosis, and the generation of signaling molecules. Each fate provides a unique perspective by which we can inspect GBM biology and gives us a road map to understanding this complicated field. This Review discusses the basic, translational, and clinical insights into each of these fates to provide a contemporary understanding of FA biology in GBM. It is clear, based on the literature, that there are far more questions than answers in the field of FA metabolism in GBM, and substantial efforts should be made to untangle these complex processes in this intractable disease.

[Prognostic model for assessing the human glioma cell malignancy grade based on MDM2, MELK, SOX2, CDK4, DR5 and OCT4 gene expression]

Glioma cell cultures are used in basic researches of tumor processes, personalized medicine for selecting treatment regimens depending on individual characteristics of patients and pharmacology for assessing the effectiveness of chemotherapy. Suppression of glioma culture growth without reduction of malignancy grade is common. Drug cancellation may be followed by substitution of precursor cells by more malignant clones. Therefore, analysis of culture cell malignancy grade is important. In the future, intraoperative analysis of glioma cell malignancy grade can be used to select individual therapy.

OBJECTIVE

We analyzed the relationship between expression of marker genes TUBB3, CD133, CDK4, CDK6, CIRBP, DR4, DR5, EGFR, FGFR, FSHR, GDNF, GFAP, L1CAM, LEF1, MAP2, MDM2, MELK, NANOG, NOTCH2, OCT4, OLIG2, PDGFRA, PDGFA, PDGFB and SOX2 and glioma cell malignancy grade, as well as created appropriate prognostic model.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We analyzed expression of 25 marker genes in 22 samples of human glioma cultures using quantitative real-time PCR. Statistical analysis was performed using the IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0 software. We used the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests to assess distribution normality. Nonparametric Jonckheere-Terpstra and Spearman tests were applied.

RESULTS

We obtained a prognostic model for assessing the grade III and IV glioma cell malignancy based on expression of marker genes MDM2, MELK, SOX2, CDK4, DR5 and OCT4. Predictive accuracy was 83% (Akaike information criterion -55.125).

Molecular Mechanisms for Ketone Body Metabolism, Signaling Functions, and Therapeutic Potential in Cancer

The ketone bodies (KBs) β-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate are important alternative energy sources for glucose during nutrient deprivation. KBs synthesized by hepatic ketogenesis are catabolized to acetyl-CoA through ketolysis in extrahepatic tissues, followed by the tricarboxylic acid cycle and electron transport chain for ATP production. Ketogenesis and ketolysis are regulated by the key rate-limiting enzymes, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase 2 and succinyl-CoA:3-oxoacid-CoA transferase, respectively. KBs participate in various cellular processes as signaling molecules. KBs bind to G protein-coupled receptors. The most abundant KB, β-hydroxybutyrate, regulates gene expression and other cellular functions by inducing post-translational modifications. KBs protect tissues by regulating inflammation and oxidative stress. Recently, interest in KBs has been increasing due to their potential for treatment of various diseases such as neurological and cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Cancer cells reprogram their metabolism to maintain rapid cell growth and proliferation. Dysregulation of KB metabolism also plays a role in tumorigenesis in various types of cancer. Targeting metabolic changes through dietary interventions, including fasting and ketogenic diets, has shown beneficial effects in cancer therapy. Here, we review current knowledge of the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of KB metabolism and cellular signaling functions, and the therapeutic potential of KBs and ketogenic diets in cancer.

Decreased expression of 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase 1 is a prognostic marker and promotes tumor progression in hepatocellular carcinoma

Growing evidence indicates that altered metabolism represents the hallmark of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The mitochondrial 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase 1 (BDH1) is a key catalytic enzyme in ketogenesis with unknown roles in HCC. Hundred and four tissue sample pairs (HCC tissues, n = 104; matched normal tissues, n = 104) were obtained and analyzed with immunohistochemical (IHC) staining to investigate the clinical and functional role and the diagnostic and prognostic value of BDH1 in HCC. In addition, RNA-Seq datasets from the Tumor Immune Estimation Resource (TIMER) (HCC group, n = 371; normal group, n = 50) and microarray datasets from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database (HCC tissues, n = 1671; normal tissues, n = 1479) were used to assess BDH1 expression in HCC. Several bioinformatic methods were performed to identify pathways regulated by BDH1. The IHC staining showed that BDH1 expression decreased in HCC tissues (n = 69) compared with that in adjacent normal tissues (n = 35, P < 0.001). Low BDH1 expression was associated with advanced clinical stage (P = 0.033) and vascular invasion (P = 0.007). Moreover, ectopic expression of BDH1 reduced tumor proliferation and suppressed the migration and invasion of HCC cells in vitro. Therefore, our data suggest that BDH1 is a potentially valuable diagnostic biomarker and therapeutic target for HCC.

Ketogenic Diet in the Treatment of Gliomas and Glioblastomas

In recent years, scientific interest in the use of the ketogenic diet (KD) as a complementary approach to the standard cancer therapy has grown, in particular against those of the central nervous system (CNS). In metabolic terms, there are the following differences between healthy and neoplastic cells: neoplastic cells divert their metabolism to anaerobic glycolysis (Warburg effect), they alter the normal mitochondrial functioning, and they use mainly certain amino acids for their own metabolic needs, to gain an advantage over healthy cells and to lead to a pro-oncogenetic effect. Several works in literature speculate which are the molecular targets of KD used against cancer. The following different mechanisms of action will be explored in this review: metabolic, inflammatory, oncogenic and oncosuppressive, ROS, and epigenetic modulation. Preclinical and clinical studies on the use of KD in CNS tumors have also increased in recent years. An interesting hypothesis emerged from the studies about the possible use of a ketogenic diet as a combination therapy along with chemotherapy (CT) and radiotherapy (RT) for the treatment of cancer. Currently, however, clinical data are still very limited but encouraging, so we need further studies to definitively validate or disprove the role of KD in fighting against cancer.

Effect of Ketogenic Diets on Cardio-Metabolic Outcomes in Cancer Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Controlled Clinical Trials

In this systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical controlled trials (CCTs) we aimed to investigate the efficacy of KDs as an adjuvant therapy on cardiometabolic outcomes in patient with cancer compared to conventional non-ketogenic diets. Only CCTs involving cancer patients that were assigned to either a KD or a standard diet control group were selected. Two reviewers independently extracted the data, and a meta-analysis was performed using a random effects model to estimate weighted mean differences (WMDs) and confidence intervals (CIs) in body composition, metabolite, lipid profile, liver and kidney function parameters and quality of life. This meta-analysis showed a significant reduction in body weight (WMD= -2.99 kg; 95% CI: -4.67, -1.31; and P < 0.001), BMI (WMD= -1.08 kg/m²; 95% CI: -1.81, -0.34; P ≤ 0.002) and fat mass (WMD= -1.48 kg; 95% CI: -2.56, -0.40; and P = 0.007) by a KD. KDs significantly decreased glucose (WMD= -5.22 mg/dl; 95% CI: -9.0, -1.44; and P = 0.007), IGF-1 (WMD= -17.52 ng/ml; 95% CI: -20.24, -14.8; and P ˂0.001) and triglyceride (WMD= -24.46 mg/dl; 95% CI: -43.96, -4.95; and P = 0.014) levels. Furthermore, KDs induced ketosis by increasing β-hydroxybutyrate (WMD= 0.56 mmol/l; 95% CI: 0.37, 0.75; and P < 0.001). There were non-significant pooled effects of KDs on improving insulin, C-reactive protein and cholesterol levels and kidney and liver function. Emotional functioning was even increased significantly in the KD compared to the SD groups. In summary we found that KDs result in a greater reduction in glucose, IGF-1, triglycerides, body weight, BMI, and fat mass in cancer patients compared to traditional non-ketogenic diets and improved emotional functioning. The quality of evidence in the meta-analysis was moderate according to the Nutrigrade assessment.

Effect of Expression of Nuclear-Encoded Cytochrome C Oxidase Subunit 4 Isoforms on Metabolic Profiles of Glioma Cells

Although often effective at treating newly diagnosed glioblastoma (GBM), increasing evidence suggests that chemo- and radiotherapy-induced alterations in tumor metabolism promote GBM recurrence and aggressiveness, as well as treatment resistance. Recent studies have demonstrated that alterations in glioma cell metabolism, induced by a switch in the isoform expression of cytochrome c oxidase subunit 4 (COX4), a key regulatory subunit of mammalian cytochrome c oxidase, could promote these effects. To understand how the two COX4 isoforms (COX4-1 and COX4-2) differentially affect glioma metabolism, glioma samples harvested from COX4-1- or COX4-2-overexpressing U251 cells were profiled using Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry GC-MS and Liquid Chromatography - Tandem Mass Spectrometry LC-MS/MS metabolomics platforms. The concentration of 362 metabolites differed significantly in the two cell types. The two most significantly upregulated pathways associated with COX4-1 overexpression were purine and glutathione metabolism; the two most significantly downregulated metabolic pathways associated with COX4-1 expression were glycolysis and fatty acid metabolism. Our study provides new insights into how Cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) regulatory subunits affect cellular metabolic networks in GBM and identifies potential targets that may be exploited for therapeutic benefit.

Developing dietary interventions as therapy for cancer

Cancer cells acquire distinct metabolic preferences based on their tissue of origin, genetic alterations and degree of interaction with systemic hormones and metabolites. These adaptations support the increased nutrient demand required for increased growth and proliferation. Diet is the major source of nutrients for tumours, yet dietary interventions lack robust evidence and are rarely prescribed by clinicians for the treatment of cancer. Well-controlled diet studies in patients with cancer are rare, and existing studies have been limited by nonspecific enrolment criteria that inappropriately grouped together subjects with disparate tumour and host metabolic profiles. This imprecision may have masked the efficacy of the intervention for appropriate candidates. Here, we review the metabolic alterations and key vulnerabilities that occur across multiple types of cancer. We describe how these vulnerabilities could potentially be targeted using dietary therapies including energy or macronutrient restriction and intermittent fasting regimens. We also discuss recent trials that highlight how dietary strategies may be combined with pharmacological therapies to treat some cancers, potentially ushering a path towards precision nutrition for cancer.

Long Term Survivals in Aggressive Primary Brain Malignancies Treated With an Adjuvant Ketogenic Diet

Aggressive primary brain tumors (APBT) glioblastoma multiforme and grade IV astrocytoma are treated with multimodality treatments that include surgery to remove as much tumor as possible without sacrificing neurological function followed by radiation therapy and chemotherapy usually temozolomide. Survivals in adults are in the range of 8–16 months. The addition of a ketogenic diet (KD) to rodents with transplanted brain tumors increased survival in nine of 11 animals to over 299 days compared to survival in untreated controls of 33 days and radiation only controls of 38 days. We treated humans with APBT with standard of care neurosurgery immediately followed by 6 weeks of an adjuvant ketogenic diet concurrent with radiation therapy and temozolomide. Twice daily measurements of blood ketones and glucose were recorded and the patients' diet was modified toward the goal of maintaining blood ketone levels approaching 3 mM. Of the nine patients who completed the protocol three younger patients age 32, 28, and 22 at enrollment are alive and employed with clinically stable disease and brain images 74, 58, and 52 months since diagnosis. All the six older patients mean age 55 have died with disease progression detected on average 8 months after Dx. In conclusion: 1. It is possible to implement and maintain dietary induced ketosis in patients with APBT; 2. The longer survivals observed in younger patients treated with KD need to be confirmed in larger studies that should be focused on younger patients possibly under age 40.

Ketogenic Diets and their Therapeutic Potential on Breast Cancer: A Systemic Review

Breast cancer remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality in women, and there is still a lack of complementary approaches to significantly improve the efficacy of standard therapies. For many kinds of cancers, the usual standard care is the combination of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. However, this standard therapy is not effective alone. Therefore, new approaches that increase therapeutic effectiveness are urgently needed. The ketogenic diet is a novel therapeutic approach for certain types of cancers, as indicated by several preclinical and clinical evidences. The ketogenic diet, which consists of a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet with adequate protein, appears to sensitize most cancers to standard therapy by utilizing the reprogrammed metabolism of cancer cells, making it a promising candidate for adjuvant cancer treatment. The majority of preclinical and clinical studies argue that the use of a ketogenic diet in combination with standard therapies is based on its potential to improve the antitumor effects of conventional chemotherapy, its overall good safety and tolerability, and quality of life improvement. According to new evidence, a ketogenic diet lowers the level of glucose and insulin in the blood, which are necessary for tumor growth. Thus, the ketogenic diet has emerged as a potential treatment option for a variety of cancers, including breast cancer. Besides, implementation of a Ketogenic diet in the clinic could improve progression-free and overall survival for patients with breast cancer. This review summarizes the composition and metabolism of ketogenic diets and their potential mechanisms in breast carcinogenesis in addition to their therapeutic potential on breast cancer.

Metabolic therapy and bioenergetic analysis: The missing piece of the puzzle

BACKGROUND

Aberrant metabolism is recognized as a hallmark of cancer, a pillar necessary for cellular proliferation. Regarding bioenergetics (ATP generation), most cancers display a preference not only toward aerobic glycolysis ("Warburg effect") and glutaminolysis (mitochondrial substrate level-phosphorylation) but also toward other metabolites such as lactate, pyruvate, and fat-derived sources. These secondary metabolites can assist in proliferation but cannot fully cover ATP demands.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

The concept of a static metabolic profile is challenged by instances of heterogeneity and flexibility to meet fuel/anaplerotic demands. Although metabolic therapies are a promising tool to improve therapeutic outcomes, either via pharmacological targets or press-pulse interventions, metabolic plasticity is rarely considered. Lack of bioenergetic analysis in vitro and patient-derived models is hindering translational potential. Here, we review the bioenergetics of cancer and propose a simple analysis of major metabolic pathways, encompassing both affordable and advanced techniques. A comprehensive compendium of Seahorse XF bioenergetic measurements is presented for the first time.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Standardization of principal readouts might help researchers to collect a complete metabolic picture of cancer using the most appropriate methods depending on the sample of interest.

The Key Role of the WNT/β-Catenin Pathway in Metabolic Reprogramming in Cancers under Normoxic Conditions

Simple Summary

The canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway is upregulated in cancers and plays a major role in proliferation, invasion, apoptosis and angiogenesis. Recent studies have shown that cancer processes are involved under normoxic conditions. These findings completely change the way of approaching the study of the cancer process. In this review, we focus on the fact that, under normoxic conditions, the overstimulation of the WNT/β-catenin pathway leads to modifications in the tumor micro-environment and the activation of the Warburg effect, i.e., aerobic glycolysis, autophagy and glutaminolysis, which in turn participate in tumor growth.

Abstract

The canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway is upregulated in cancers and plays a major role in proliferation, invasion, apoptosis and angiogenesis. Nuclear β-catenin accumulation is associated with cancer. Hypoxic mechanisms lead to the activation of the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α, promoting glycolytic and energetic metabolism and angiogenesis. However, HIF-1α is degraded by the HIF prolyl hydroxylase under normoxia, conditions under which the WNT/β-catenin pathway can activate HIF-1α. This review is therefore focused on the interaction between the upregulated WNT/β-catenin pathway and the metabolic processes underlying cancer mechanisms under normoxic conditions. The WNT pathway stimulates the PI3K/Akt pathway, the STAT3 pathway and the transduction of WNT/β-catenin target genes (such as c-Myc) to activate HIF-1α activity in a hypoxia-independent manner. In cancers, stimulation of the WNT/β-catenin pathway induces many glycolytic enzymes, which in turn induce metabolic reprogramming, known as the Warburg effect or aerobic glycolysis, leading to lactate overproduction. The activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway induces gene transactivation via WNT target genes, c-Myc and cyclin D1, or via HIF-1α. This in turn encodes aerobic glycolysis enzymes, including glucose transporter, hexokinase 2, pyruvate kinase M2, pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 and lactate dehydrogenase-A, leading to lactate production. The increase in lactate production is associated with modifications to the tumor microenvironment and tumor growth under normoxic conditions. Moreover, increased lactate production is associated with overexpression of VEGF, a key inducer of angiogenesis. Thus, under normoxic conditions, overstimulation of the WNT/β-catenin pathway leads to modifications of the tumor microenvironment and activation of the Warburg effect, autophagy and glutaminolysis, which in turn participate in tumor growth.

A map of the altered glioma metabolism

The frequent occurrence of neomorphic isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) mutations in low-grade glioma led to an IDH-centric classification of these tumors. However, exploiting metabolic alterations of glioma for diagnostic imaging and treatment has marginally improved patients' prognosis. Here we discuss the nutritional microenvironment of glioma, shaped by the distinctive dependence of the brain on glucose and ketone bodies for energy, and on amino acids for neurotransmission. We highlight the progress in metabolic applications for glioma diagnosis and therapy, and present a map that streamlines the rewired glioma metabolism. The map illustrates the altered reactions in central carbon and nitrogen metabolism that drive glioma biology, and represent metabolic vulnerabilities with translational potential.

Pan-Cancer Analysis of Glycolytic and Ketone Bodies Metabolic Genes: Implications for Response to Ketogenic Dietary Therapy

Background

The Warburg effect, also termed "aerobic glycolysis", is one of the most remarkable and ubiquitous metabolic characteristics exhibited by cancer cells, representing a potential vulnerability that might be targeted for tumor therapy. Ketogenic diets (KDs), composed of high-fat, moderate-protein and low carbohydrates, are aimed at targeting the Warburg effect for cancer treatment, which have recently gained considerable attention. However, the efficiency of KDs was inconsistent, and the genotypic contribution is still largely unknown.

Methods

The bulk RNA-seq data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), and microarray data from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia (CCLE) were collected. A joint analysis of glycolysis and ketone bodies metabolism (KBM) pathway was performed across over 10,000 tumor samples and nearly 1,000 cancer cell lines. A series of bioinformatic approaches were combined to identify a metabolic subtype that may predict the response to ketogenic dietary therapy (KDT). Mouse xenografts were established to validate the predictive utility of our subtypes in response to KDT.

Results

We first provided a system-level view of the expression pattern and prognosis of the signature genes from glycolysis and KBM pathway across 33 cancer types. Analysis by joint stratification of glycolysis and KBM revealed four metabolic subtypes, which correlated extensively but diversely with clinical outcomes across cancers. The glycolytic subtypes may be driven by TP53 mutations, whereas the KB-metabolic subtypes may be mediated by CTNNB1 (β-catenin) mutations. The glycolytic subtypes may have a better response to KDs compared to the other three subtypes. We preliminarily confirmed the idea by literature review and further performed a proof-of-concept experiment to validate the predictive value of the metabolic subtype in liver cancer xenografts.

Conclusions

Our findings identified a metabolic subtype based on glycolysis and KBM that may serve as a promising biomarker to predict the clinical outcomes and therapeutic responses to KDT.

Ketogenic diet: A promising neuroprotective composition for managing Alzheimer's diseases and its pathological mechanisms

Ketogenic diet and ketone bodies gained significant attention in recent years due to their ability to influence the specific energy metabolism and restoration of mitochondrial homeostasis that can help in hindering the progression of many metabolic diseases including diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases. Ketogenic diet consists of high fat and low carbohydrate contents which makes the body glucose deprived and rely on alternative sources (ketone bodies) for energy. It has been initially designed and supplemented for the treatment of epilepsy and later its influence on many energy-deriving biochemical pathways made it a highly sorted food supplement for many metabolic diseases and even by healthy individuals for body building and calorie restriction. Among the reported therapeutic action over a range of diseases, neurodegenerative disorders especially Alzheimer's disease gained the attention of many researchers and clinicians because of its potency and its easier supplementation as a food additive. Complex pathology and multiple influencing factors of Alzheimer's disease make exploration of its therapeutic strategies a demanding task. It was a common phenomenon that energy deprivation in neurological disorders including Alzheimer's disease, to progress rapidly. The ability of ketone bodies to stabilize the mitochondrial energy metabolism makes it a suitable intervening agent. In this review, we will discuss various research progress made with regards to ketone bodies/ketogenic diet for management of Alzheimer's disease and elaborate in detail about the mechanisms that are influenced during their therapeutic action.

On the nutritional and therapeutic effects of ketone body D-β-hydroxybutyrate

Abstract

d-β-hydroxybutyrate (d-3HB), a monomer of microbial polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), is also a natural ketone body produced during carbohydrate deprivation to provide energy to the body cells, heart, and brain. In recent years, increasing evidence demonstrates that d-3HB can induce pleiotropic effects on the human body which are highly beneficial for improving physical and metabolic health. Conventional ketogenic diet (KD) or exogenous ketone salts (KS) and esters (KE) have been used to increase serum d-3HB level. However, strict adaptation to the KD was often associated with poor patient compliance, while the ingestion of KS caused gastrointestinal distresses due to excessive consumption of minerals. As for ingestion of KE, subsequent degradation is required before releasing d-3HB for absorption, making these methods somewhat inferior. This review provides novel insights into a biologically synthesized d-3HB (d-3-hydroxybutyric acid) which can induce a faster increase in plasma d-3HB compared to the use of KD, KS, or KE. It also emphasizes on the most recent applications of d-3HB in different fields, including its use in improving exercise performance and in treating metabolic or age-related diseases. Ketones may become a fourth micro-nutrient that is necessary to the human body along with carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Indeed, d-3HB being a small molecule with multiple signaling pathways within the body exhibits paramount importance in mitigating metabolic and age-related diseases. Nevertheless, specific dose–response relationships and safety margins of using d-3HB remain to be elucidated with more research.

Key points

• d-3HB induces pleiotropic effects on physical and metabolic health.

• Exogenous ketone supplements are more effective than ketogenic diet.

• d-3HB as a ketone supplement has long-term healthy impact.

Detection of Lung Cancer via Blood Plasma and 1H-NMR Metabolomics: Validation by a Semi-Targeted and Quantitative Approach Using a Protein-Binding Competitor

Metabolite profiling of blood plasma, by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) spectroscopy, offers great potential for early cancer diagnosis and unraveling disruptions in cancer metabolism. Despite the essential attempts to standardize pre-analytical and external conditions, such as pH or temperature, the donor-intrinsic plasma protein concentration is highly overlooked. However, this is of utmost importance, since several metabolites bind to these proteins, resulting in an underestimation of signal intensities. This paper describes a novel ¹H-NMR approach to avoid metabolite binding by adding 4 mM trimethylsilyl-2,2,3,3-tetradeuteropropionic acid (TSP) as a strong binding competitor. In addition, it is demonstrated, for the first time, that maleic acid is a reliable internal standard to quantify the human plasma metabolites without the need for protein precipitation. Metabolite spiking is further used to identify the peaks of 62 plasma metabolites and to divide the ¹H-NMR spectrum into 237 well-defined integration regions, representing these 62 metabolites. A supervised multivariate classification model, trained using the intensities of these integration regions (areas under the peaks), was able to differentiate between lung cancer patients and healthy controls in a large patient cohort (n = 160), with a specificity, sensitivity, and area under the curve of 93%, 85%, and 0.95, respectively. The robustness of the classification model is shown by validation in an independent patient cohort (n = 72).

Ketogenesis impact on liver metabolism revealed by proteomics of lysine β-hydroxybutyrylation

Ketone bodies are bioactive metabolites that function as energy substrates, signaling molecules, and regulators of histone modifications. β-hydroxybutyrate (β-OHB) is utilized in lysine β-hydroxybutyrylation (Kbhb) of histones, and associates with starvation-responsive genes, effectively coupling ketogenic metabolism with gene expression. The emerging diversity of the lysine acylation landscape prompted us to investigate the full proteomic impact of Kbhb. Global protein Kbhb is induced in a tissue-specific manner by a variety of interventions that evoke β-OHB. Mass spectrometry analysis of the β-hydroxybutyrylome in mouse liver revealed 891 sites of Kbhb within 267 proteins enriched for fatty acid, amino acid, detoxification, and one-carbon metabolic pathways. Kbhb inhibits S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine hydrolase (AHCY), a rate-limiting enzyme of the methionine cycle, in parallel with altered metabolite levels. Our results illuminate the role of Kbhb in hepatic metabolism under ketogenic conditions and demonstrate a functional consequence of this modification on a central metabolic enzyme.

Feasibility and Biological Activity of a Ketogenic/Intermittent-Fasting Diet in Patients With Glioma

OBJECTIVE

To examine the feasibility, safety, systemic biological activity, and cerebral activity of a ketogenic dietary intervention in patients with glioma.

METHODS

25 patients with biopsy-confirmed WHO Grade 2-4 astrocytoma with stable disease following adjuvant chemotherapy were enrolled in an 8-week GLioma Atkins-based Diet (GLAD). GLAD consisted of 2 fasting days (calories<20% calculated estimated needs) interleaved between 5 modified Atkins diet days (net carbohydrates≤20 gm/day) each week. The primary outcome was dietary adherence by food records. Markers of systemic and cerebral activity included weekly urine ketones, serum insulin, glucose, hemoglobin A1c, IGF-1, and MR spectroscopy at baseline and week 8.

RESULTS

21 patients completed the study (84%). 80% of patients reached ≥40 mg/dL urine acetoacetate during the study. 48% of patients were adherent by food record. The diet was well-tolerated with two grade 3 adverse events (neutropenia, seizure). Measures of systemic activity including hemoglobin A1c, insulin, and fat body mass decreased significantly, while lean body mass increased. MR spectroscopy demonstrated increased ketone concentrations (β-hydroxybutyrate (bHB) and acetone (Ace)) in both lesional and contralateral brain, compared to baseline. Average ketonuria correlated with cerebral ketones in lesional (tumor) and contralateral brain (bHB R_s 0.52, p=0.05). Sub-group analysis of IDH-mutant glioma showed no differences in cerebral metabolites after controlling for ketonuria.

CONCLUSIONS

The GLAD dietary intervention, while demanding, produced meaningful ketonuria, and significant systemic and cerebral metabolic changes in participants. Ketonuria in participants correlated with cerebral ketone concentration and appear to be a better indicator of systemic activity than patient-reported food records.

Ketogenic Diet in Cancer Prevention and Therapy: Molecular Targets and Therapeutic Opportunities

Although cancer is still one of the most significant global challenges facing public health, the world still lacks complementary approaches that would significantly enhance the efficacy of standard anticancer therapies. One of the essential strategies during cancer treatment is following a healthy diet program. The ketogenic diet (KD) has recently emerged as a metabolic therapy in cancer treatment, targeting cancer cell metabolism rather than a conventional dietary approach. The ketogenic diet (KD), a high-fat and very-low-carbohydrate with adequate amounts of protein, has shown antitumor effects by reducing energy supplies to cells. This low energy supply inhibits tumor growth, explaining the ketogenic diet's therapeutic mechanisms in cancer treatment. This review highlights the crucial mechanisms that explain the ketogenic diet's potential antitumor effects, which probably produces an unfavorable metabolic environment for cancer cells and can be used as a promising adjuvant in cancer therapy. Studies discussed in this review provide a solid background for researchers and physicians to design new combination therapies based on KD and conventional therapies.

A Phase I clinical trial of dose-escalated metabolic therapy combined with concomitant radiation therapy in high-grade glioma

BACKGROUND

Animal brain-tumor models have demonstrated a synergistic interaction between radiation therapy and a ketogenic diet (KD). Metformin has in-vitro anti-cancer activity, through AMPK activation and mTOR inhibition. We hypothesized that the metabolic stress induced by a KD combined with metformin would enhance radiation's efficacy. We sought to assess the tolerability and feasibility of this approach.

METHODS

A single-institution phase I clinical trial. Radiotherapy was either 60 or 35 Gy over 6 or 2 weeks, for newly diagnosed and recurrent gliomas, respectively. The dietary intervention consisted of a Modified Atkins Diet (ModAD) supplemented with medium chain triglycerides (MCT). There were three cohorts: Dietary intervention alone, and dietary intervention combined with low-dose or high-dose metformin; all patients received radiotherapy. Factors associated with blood ketone levels were investigated using a mixed-model analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 13 patients were accrued, median age 61 years, of whom six had newly diagnosed and seven with recurrent disease. All completed radiation therapy; five patients stopped the metabolic intervention early. Metformin 850 mg three-times daily was poorly tolerated. There were no serious adverse events. Ketone levels were associated with dietary factors (ketogenic ratio, p < 0.001), use of metformin (p = 0. 02) and low insulin levels (p = 0.002). Median progression free survival was ten and four months for newly diagnosed and recurrent disease, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The intervention was well tolerated. Higher serum ketone levels were associated with both dietary intake and metformin use. The recommended phase II dose is eight weeks of a ModAD combined with 850 mg metformin twice daily.

Cancer Treatment With the Ketogenic Diet: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Animal Studies

Background: The ketogenic diet (KD) has been reported to play an important role in the development of cancer by an abundance of pre-clinical experiments; however, their conclusions have been controversial. We therefore aimed to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of animal studies evaluating the effects of KD on cancer. Methods: Relevant studies were collected by searching PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. Outcome measures comprised tumor weight, tumor volume, and survival time. Meta-analysis was performed using the random-effect model according to heterogeneity. Results: The search resulted in 1,254 references, of which 38 were included in the review and 17 included in the meta-analysis. Pooled results indicated that KD supplementation significantly prolonged survival time [standardized mean difference (SMD) = 1.76, 95% CI (0.58, 2.94), p = 0.003], and reduced tumor weight [SMD = -2.459, 95% CI (-4.188, -0.730), p = 0.027] and tumor volume [SMD = -0.759, 95% CI (-1.349, -0.168), p = 0.012]. Meta-regression and subgroup analysis results suggested that KD supplementation at a ratio of 4:1 was associated with remarkable prolongation of survival time in animals with limited tumor types. Conclusion: In summary, the pre-clinical evidence pointed toward an overall anti-tumor effect of the KD in animals studies currently available with limited tumor types.

Ketogenic Metabolic Therapy, Without Chemo or Radiation, for the Long-Term Management of IDH1-Mutant Glioblastoma: An 80-Month Follow-Up Case Report

Background: Successful treatment of glioblastoma (GBM) remains futile despite decades of intense research. GBM is similar to most other malignant cancers in requiring glucose and glutamine for growth, regardless of histological or genetic heterogeneity. Ketogenic metabolic therapy (KMT) is a non-toxic nutritional intervention for cancer management. We report the case of a 32-year-old man who presented in 2014 with seizures and a right frontal lobe tumor on MRI. The tumor cells were immunoreactive with antibodies to the IDH1 (R132H) mutation, P53 (patchy), MIB-1 index (4–6%), and absent ATRX protein expression. DNA analysis showed no evidence of methylation of the MGMT gene promoter. The presence of prominent microvascular proliferation and areas of necrosis were consistent with an IDH-mutant glioblastoma (WHO Grade 4).

Methods: The patient refused standard of care (SOC) and steroid medication after initial diagnosis, but was knowledgeable and self-motivated enough to consume a low-carbohydrate ketogenic diet consisting mostly of saturated fats, minimal vegetables, and a variety of meats. The patient used the glucose ketone index calculator to maintain his Glucose Ketone Index (GKI) near 2.0 without body weight loss.

Results: The tumor continued to grow slowly without expected vasogenic edema until 2017, when the patient opted for surgical debulking. The enhancing area, centered in the inferior frontal gyrus, was surgically excised. The pathology specimen confirmed IDH1-mutant GBM. Following surgery, the patient continued with a self-administered ketogenic diet to maintain low GKI values, indicative of therapeutic ketosis. At the time of this report (May 2021), the patient remains alive with a good quality of life, except for occasional seizures. MRI continues to show slow interval progression of the tumor.

Conclusion: This is the first report of confirmed IDH1-mutant GBM treated with KMT and surgical debulking without chemo- or radiotherapy. The long-term survival of this patient, now at 80 months, could be due in part to a therapeutic metabolic synergy between KMT and the IDH1 mutation that simultaneously target the glycolysis and glutaminolysis pathways that are essential for GBM growth. Further studies are needed to determine if this non-toxic therapeutic strategy could be effective in providing long-term management for other GBM patients with or without IDH mutations.

Opposed Interplay between IDH1 Mutations and the WNT/β-Catenin Pathway: Added Information for Glioma Classification

Gliomas are the main common primary intraparenchymal brain tumor in the central nervous system (CNS), with approximately 7% of the death caused by cancers. In the WHO 2016 classification, molecular dysregulations are part of the definition of particular brain tumor entities for the first time. Nevertheless, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Several studies have shown that 75% to 80% of secondary glioblastoma (GBM) showed IDH1 mutations, whereas only 5% of primary GBM have IDH1 mutations. IDH1 mutations lead to better overall survival in gliomas patients. IDH1 mutations are associated with lower stimulation of the HIF-1α a, aerobic glycolysis and angiogenesis. The stimulation of HIF-1α and the process of angiogenesis appears to be activated only when hypoxia occurs in IDH1-mutated gliomas. In contrast, the observed upregulation of the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway in gliomas is associated with proliferation, invasion, aggressive-ness and angiogenesis.. Molecular pathways of the malignancy process are involved in early stages of WNT/β-catenin pathway-activated-gliomas, and this even under normoxic conditions. IDH1 mutations lead to decreased activity of the WNT/β-catenin pathway and its enzymatic targets. The opposed interplay between IDH1 mutations and the canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway in gliomas could participate in better understanding of the observed evolution of different tumors and could reinforce the glioma classification.

Ketogenic diet treatment in diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma in children: Retrospective analysis of feasibility, safety, and survival data

Background

Diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) is one of the most devastating diseases among children with cancer, thus novel strategies are urgently needed.

Aims

We retrospectively evaluated DIPG patients exposed to the carbohydrate restricted ketogenic diet (KD) with regard of feasibility, safety, and overall survival (OS).

Methods and results

Searches of MEDLINE and Embase identified five hits meeting the search criteria (diagnosis of DIPG and exposure to KD). One additional case was identified by contact with experts. Individual patient data were extracted from publications or obtained from investigators. The inclusion criteria for analysis of the data were defined as DIPG patients who were exposed to the KD for ≥3 months. Feasibility, as described in the literature, was the number of patients able to follow the KD for 3 months out of all DIPG patients identified. OS was estimated by the Kaplan‐Meier method.

Five DIPG patients (males, n = 3; median age 4.4 years; range, 2.5‐15 years) meeting the inclusion criteria were identified. Analysis of the available data suggested that the KD is generally relatively well tolerated. Only mild gastro‐intestinal complaints, one borderline hypoglycemia (2.4 mmol/L) and one hyperketosis (max 7.2 mmol/L) were observed. Five out of six DIPG patients identified adhered for ≥3 months (median KD duration, 6.5 months; range, 0.25‐2 years) to the diet. The median OS was 18.7 months.

Conclusion

Our study provides evidence that it may be feasible for pediatric DIPG patients to adhere for at least 3 months to KD. In particular cases, diet modifications were done. The clinical outcome and OS appear not to be impacted in a negative way. KD might be proposed as adjuvant therapy when large prospective studies have shown feasibility and safety. Future studies might ideally assess the impact of KD on clinical outcome, quality of life, and efficacy.

The Glioblastoma Microenvironment: Morphology, Metabolism, and Molecular Signature of Glial Dynamics to Discover Metabolic Rewiring Sequence

Different functional states determine glioblastoma (GBM) heterogeneity. Brain cancer cells coexist with the glial cells in a functional syncytium based on a continuous metabolic rewiring. However, standard glioma therapies do not account for the effects of the glial cells within the tumor microenvironment. This may be a possible reason for the lack of improvements in patients with high-grade gliomas therapies. Cell metabolism and bioenergetic fitness depend on the availability of nutrients and interactions in the microenvironment. It is strictly related to the cell location in the tumor mass, proximity to blood vessels, biochemical gradients, and tumor evolution, underlying the influence of the context and the timeline in anti-tumor therapeutic approaches. Besides the cancer metabolic strategies, here we review the modifications found in the GBM-associated glia, focusing on morphological, molecular, and metabolic features. We propose to analyze the GBM metabolic rewiring processes from a systems biology perspective. We aim at defining the crosstalk between GBM and the glial cells as modules. The complex networking may be expressed by metabolic modules corresponding to the GBM growth and spreading phases. Variation in the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) rate and regulation appears to be the most important part of the metabolic and functional heterogeneity, correlating with glycolysis and response to hypoxia. Integrated metabolic modules along with molecular and morphological features could allow the identification of key factors for controlling the GBM-stroma metabolism in multi-targeted, time-dependent therapies.

The Pros and Cons of Low Carbohydrate and Ketogenic Diets in the Prevention and Treatment of Cancer

Ketogenic diets are low carbohydrate (CHO), high fat diets that are currently very popular for weight loss. Since cancer cells typically consume far more glucose than normal cells, low CHO diets are currently being considered as possible therapeutic regimens to manage cancer. However, our understanding of the safety and efficacy of such CHO-restricted diets in the prevention and treatment of cancer is still in its infancy. In this perspective we provide an overview of the current state of knowledge regarding the use of low CHO diets in the prevention and treatment of cancer. We also highlight the gaps in our knowledge regarding the potential usefulness of low CHO diets in cancer. While pre-clinical rodent studies have provided convincing evidence that CHO restriction may be effective in reducing cancer growth, there has not been sufficient attention given to the effect of these low CHO diets, that are often high in fats and low in soluble fiber, on inflammation. This is important, given that different fats have distinct effects on inflammation. As well, we demonstrate that short chain fatty acids, which are produced via the fermentation of fiber by our gut microbiome, have more anti-inflammatory properties than β-hydroxybutyrate, a ketone body produced during nutritional ketosis that is touted to have anti-inflammatory activity. Since chronic inflammation is strongly associated with cancer formation, defining the type of fats in low CHO diets may contribute to our understanding of whether these diets may work simply by reducing glucose bioavailability, or via modulation of inflammatory responses.

Metabolic changes and anti-tumor effects of a ketogenic diet combined with anti-angiogenic therapy in a glioblastoma mouse model

The ketogenic diet (KD) is a high fat and low carbohydrate diet that produces ketone bodies through imitation of starvation. The combination of KD and Bevacizumab (Bev), a VEGF inhibitor, is considered to further reduce the supply of glucose to the tumor. The metabolite changes in U87 glioblastoma mouse models treated with KD and/or Bev were examined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The combination therapy of KD and Bev showed a decrease in the rate of tumor growth and an increase in the survival time of mice, although KD alone did not have survival benefit. In the metabolome analysis, the pattern of changes for most amino acids are similar between tumor and brain tissues, however, some amino acids such as aspartic acid and glutamic acid were different between tumors and brain tissues. The KD enhanced the anti-tumor efficacy of Bev in a glioblastoma intracranial implantation mouse model, based on lowest levels of microvascular density (CD31) and cellular proliferation markers (Ki-67 and CCND1) in KD + Bev tumors compared to the other groups. These results suggested that KD combined with Bev may be a useful treatment strategy for patients with GBM.

Ketogenic Diet for Malignant Gliomas: a Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In this review, we examine the postulated mechanisms of therapeutic effect of ketogenic diets in the treatment of gliomas, review the completed clinical trials, and discuss further directions in this field.

RECENT FINDINGS

Cancers including gliomas are characterized by derangements in cellular metabolism. In vitro and animal studies have revealed that dietary interventions to reduce glucose and glycolytic pathways in gliomas may have a therapeutic effect. Early trials in patients with malignant gliomas have shown feasibility, but are not robust enough yet to demonstrate clinical applicability. Therapies for malignant gliomas of the brain are increasingly using a multi-targeted approach. The use of ketogenic diets and its variants may offer a unique and promising anti-glioma treatment by exploiting metabolic alterations seen in cancers including gliomas seen at the cellular level, which may work in concert with other therapies.

Maintenance of Energy Homeostasis during Calorically Restricted Ketogenic Diet and Fasting-MR-Spectroscopic Insights from the ERGO2 Trial

Simple Summary

The glioblastoma is a highly malignant brain tumor with very limited treatment options up to date. Metabolism of this tumor is highly dependent on glucose uptake. It is believed that glioblastoma cells cannot metabolize ketone bodies, which are found in the blood during periods of fasting or ketogenic dieting. According to this hypothesis, dieting could lead to cancer cell starvation. The ERGO2 (Ernaehrungsumstellung bei Patienten mit Rezidiv eines Glioblastoms) MR-spectroscopic imaging subtrial was designed to investigate tumor metabolism in patients randomized to calorically restricted ketogenic diet/intermittent fasting versus standard diet. The non-invasive investigation of tumor metabolism is of high clinical interest.

Abstract

Background: The ERGO2 (Ernaehrungsumstellung bei Patienten mit Rezidiv eines Glioblastoms) MR-spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) subtrial investigated metabolism in patients randomized to calorically restricted ketogenic diet/intermittent fasting (crKD-IF) versus standard diet (SD) in addition to re-irradiation (RT) for recurrent malignant glioma. Intracerebral concentrations of ketone bodies (KB), intracellular pH (pH_i), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) were non-invasively determined. Methods: 50 patients were randomized (1:1): Group A keeping a crKD-IF for nine days, and Group B a SD. RT was performed on day 4–8. Twenty-three patients received an extended MRSI-protocol (¹H decoupled ³¹P MRSI with 3D chemical shift imaging (CSI) and 2D ¹H point-resolved spectroscopy (PRESS)) at a 3T scanner at baseline and on day 6. Voxels were selected from the area of recurrent tumor and contralateral hemisphere. Spectra were analyzed with LCModel, adding simulated signals of 3-hydroxybutyrate (βOHB), acetone (Acn) and acetoacetate (AcAc) to the standard basis set. Results: Acn was the only reliably MRSI-detectable KB within tumor tissue and/or normal appearing white matter (NAWM). It was detected in 4/11 patients in Group A and in 0/8 patients in Group B. MRSI results showed no significant depletion of ATP in tumor tissue of patients at day 6 during crKD-IF, even though there were a significant difference in ketone serum levels between Group A and B at day 6 and a decline in fasting glucose in Group A from baseline to day 6. The tumor specific alkaline pH_i was maintained. Conclusions: Our metabolic findings suggest that tumor cells maintain energy homeostasis even with reduced serum glucose levels and may generate additional ATP through other sources.

Acetate Revisited: A Key Biomolecule at the Nexus of Metabolism, Epigenetics, and Oncogenesis - Part 2: Acetate and ACSS2 in Health and Disease

Acetate, the shortest chain fatty acid, has been implicated in providing health benefits whether it is derived from the diet or is generated from microbial fermentation of fiber in the gut. These health benefits range widely from improved cardiac function to enhanced red blood cell generation and memory formation. Understanding how acetate could influence so many disparate biological functions is now an area of intensive research. Protein acetylation is one of the most common post-translational modifications and increased systemic acetate strongly drives protein acetylation. By virtue of acetylation impacting the activity of virtually every class of protein, acetate driven alterations in signaling and gene transcription have been associated with several common human diseases, including cancer. In part 2 of this review, we will focus on some of the roles that acetate plays in health and human disease. The acetate-activating enzyme acyl-CoA short-chain synthetase family member 2 (ACSS2) will be a major part of that focus due to its role in targeted protein acetylation reactions that can regulate central metabolism and stress responses. ACSS2 is the only known enzyme that can recycle acetate derived from deacetylation reactions in the cytoplasm and nucleus of cells, including both protein and metabolite deacetylation reactions. As such, ACSS2 can recycle acetate derived from histone deacetylase reactions as well as protein deacetylation reactions mediated by sirtuins, among many others. Notably, ACSS2 can activate acetate released from acetylated metabolites including N-acetylaspartate (NAA), the most concentrated acetylated metabolite in the human brain. NAA has been associated with the metabolic reprograming of cancer cells, where ACSS2 also plays a role. Here, we discuss the context-specific roles that acetate can play in health and disease.

Ketogenic diet: a tool for the management of neuroendocrine neoplasms?

Neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) are a heterogeneous group of neoplasms, whose incidence has rapidly increased in the last years. Nutrition plays an important role in their management; indeed, malnutrition negatively impacts on rates of complications, hospitalization, hospital stay, costs and mortality. Furthermore, it has been reported that a poor nutritional status could influence the outcome of patients with pancreatic NENs. Moreover, obesity, predisposing to insulin resistance and compensatory hyperinsulinemia, could stimulate the growth of these neoplasms. Ketogenic diet (KD), a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet with adequate amounts of protein, has been reported to be a promising approach for the management of several types of cancer, mostly gynecological and neurological ones. Indeed, it appears to sensitize most cancers to standard treatment by exploiting the reprogramed metabolism of cancer cells and thus resulting in a promising candidate as an adjuvant cancer therapy. Thus, the aim of this review is to provide an overview on the importance of nutrition in cancer management and in particular in NENs' setting. Furthermore, we reported the current evidence on the efficacy of KD in the management of cancer and based on molecular mechanisms; we also hypothesize the potential use of this nutritional pattern in the management of NENs.