Current diagnosis and treatment of spondylodiscitis

Vertebral osteomyelitis: a comparative, single-center study in northwestern China

BACKGROUND

Vertebral osteomyelitis (VO) is an infection of the spine with increasing prevalence due to improved diagnostics and aging populations. Multiple pathogens, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Brucella spp., and pyogenic bacteria, can cause VO, making differential diagnosis complex, especially in regions with endemic brucellosis and tuberculosis. Early and accurate diagnosis is essential for appropriate treatment.

METHODS

This was a single-center, retrospective, observational study performed between 2019 and 2022 in Kashi, Xinjiang.

RESULTS

In this study, a total of 319 patients were enrolled, comprising 45.5% with tuberculous vertebral osteomyelitis (TVO; 52.4% females), 37.9% with brucellar vertebral osteomyelitis (BVO; 19.8% females), and 16.6% with pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis (PVO; 52.8% females). Demographically, TVO had a longer mean time to diagnosis compared to BVO and PVO. BVO was more prevalent in male, and PVO patients had higher rates of spinal surgery history (45.3%) and diabetes (13.2%). Clinically, TVO patients presented with fever (72.4%), sweating (83.4%), weight loss (71.7%), and appetite loss (84.8%) more frequently, while BVO patients reported more lower back pain (86.0%). Laboratory investigations revealed significantly higher leucocyte and neutrophil levels in PVO, whereas TVO patients had elevated monocyte-to-lymphocyte and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratios. Radiologically, TVO patients exhibited a higher incidence of thoracic involvement (56.6%) and skip lesions (20%). Microbiologically, BVO and PVO had high positive culture rates (84.3 and 84.9%, respectively), with M. tuberculosis isolated from only 4.1% of TVO patients.

CONCLUSION

These findings underscore the distinct clinical, laboratory, and radiological characteristics of TVO, BVO, and PVO.

Efficacy of Additional Surgical Decompression on Functional Outcome in Pyogenic Spinal Epidural Abscess With No Neurological Deficit

Objective

The aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy of additional surgical decompression with antibiotics to treat pyogenic spinal epidural abscess (SEA) with no neurological deficits.

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed the data of patients diagnosed with spontaneous pyogenic SEA in the thoracolumbosacral area who presented with sciatica and no motor deficits in the lower extremities. The treatment took place in a single tertiary hospital. The effects of additional surgical decompression (decompressive laminectomy) and other clinical variables on functional outcome were assessed using the short form 36 (SF-36).

Results

Fifty-nine patients (49 men and 10 women, mean age 65.73±12.29 [41-89] years) were included in the analysis. Surgical decompression had been performed in 31 patients (Group S, treated with additional surgical decompression and antibiotics). There were five (15.2%, 5/33) unplanned operations to control leg sciatica among the patients with initially non-surgical plans, and 28 patients were finally treated with only antibiotics (group N-S). Group S showed a statistically significant increased cost of hospitalization compared to group N-S (15,856.37±7,952.83 vs. 10,672.62±4,654.17 US dollars, p=0.004) with no superiority of 6-month functional outcome after the completion of antibiotic treatment (53.65±4.74 vs. 51.75±7.96 SF-36 scores, p=0.266).

Conclusion

Although there is a possibility of requiring an unplanned operation to control leg sciatica during conservative antibiotic treatment, overall, additional surgical decompression in pyogenic SEA presenting with no motor deficit of the lower extremity showed increased medical burden and no greater benefit in terms of functional outcomes.

Imaging assessment of spine infection

This article comprehensively reviews current imaging concepts in spinal infection with primary focus on infectious spondylodiscitis (IS) as well as the less common entity of facet joint septic arthritis (FSA). This review encompasses the multimodality imaging appearances (radiographs, CT, MRI, and nuclear imaging) of spinal infection-both at initial presentation and during treatment-to aid the radiologist in guiding diagnosis and successful management. We discuss the pathophysiology of spinal infection in various patient populations (including the non-instrumented and postoperative spine) as well as the role of imaging-guided biopsy. We also highlight several non-infectious entities that can mimic IS (both clinically and radiologically) that should be considered during image interpretation to avoid misdiagnosis. These potential mimics include the following: Modic type 1 degenerative changes, acute Schmorl's node, neuropathic spondyloarthropathy, radiation osteitis, and inflammatory spondyloarthropathy (SAPHO syndrome).

Diagnosis and management of infections related to spinal pain interventions

Although relatively rare, infections related to spinal pain interventions pose significant risks with an increase in the frequency of these procedures. This review investigates the incidence, risk factors, and management of infections following spinal pain interventions, such as epidural steroid injections, nucleoplasty, and facet joint injections. Most of the existing literature comprises case reports and retrospective studies with limited prospective research, owing to the nature of these infections. Our analysis revealed that while the overall infection rate is low, potential complications, such as epidural abscesses and spondylodiscitis, can be severe and life-threatening. The risk factors include advanced age, diabetes, immunosuppression, and multiple spinal procedures. Early diagnosis and timely intervention are critical to prevent long-term morbidity. These findings emphasize the importance of developing standardized diagnostic algorithms and treatment guidelines to support clinicians in managing these infections effectively. Future research should focus on large-scale studies to understand the impact of these infections better and refine clinical management strategies.

Biofilm formation of Staphylococcus aureus on various implants used for surgical treatment of destructive spondylodiscitis

The incidence of spondylodiscitis has witnessed a significant increase in recent decades. Surgical intervention becomes necessary in case of bone destruction to remove infected tissue and restore spinal stability, often involving the implantation of a cage. Despite appropriate treatment, relapses occur in up to 20 percent of cases, resulting in substantial economic and social burdens. The formation of biofilm has been identified as a major contributor to relapse development. Currently, there is no consensus among German-speaking spinal surgeons or in the existing literature regarding the preferred choice of material to minimize relapse rates. Thus, the objective of this study is to investigate whether certain materials used in spinal implants exhibit varying degrees of susceptibility to bacterial attachment, thereby providing valuable insights for improving treatment outcomes.Eight cages of each PEEK, titanium-coated PEEK (Ti-PEEK), titanium (Ti), polyetherketoneketone (PEKK), tantalum (Ta) and antibiotic-loaded bone cement were incubated with 20% human plasma for 24 h. Subsequently, four implants were incubated with S. aureus for 24 h or 48 h each. The biofilm was then removed by sonication and the attained solution plated for Colony Forming Units (CFU) counting. Scanning electron microscopy was used to confirm bacterial attachment. The CFUs have been compared directly and in relation to the cages surface area. The surface area of the implants was PEEK 557 mm2, Ti-PEEK 472 mm2, Ti 985 mm2, PEKK 594 mm2, Ta 706 mm2, bone cement 123 mm2. The mean CFU count per implant and per mm2 surface area after 24 h and after 48 h was calculated. Bone cement was found to have significantly more CFUs per mm2 surface area than the other materials tested. When comparing the CFU count per implant, bone cement was statistically significantly more prone to biofilm formation than PEEK after 48 h. There was no statistical significance between the other materials when comparing both CFU count per mm2 surface area and CFU count per implant. The electron microscopic analysis showed the attachment of the bacteria, as well as production of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) as a sign for beginning biofilm formation. Antibiotic-loaded bone cement has shown statistically significantly more bacterial attachment than the other examined materials. No difference was found between the other materials regarding bacterial attachment after 24 h and 48 h. Proposed hypotheses for further studies include testing whether differences become apparent after longer incubation or with different pathogens involved in the pathogenesis of pyogenic spondylodiscitis.

Influence of instrumentation type on outcomes after surgical management of spondylodiscitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Spondylodiscitis refers to infection of the intervertebral disk and neighboring structures. Outcomes based on instrumentation type are not well reported in the literature, but are important in establishing guidelines for surgical management of spondylodiscitis. This study aims to clarify the effect of instrumentation material selection on clinical and radiographic outcomes in patients with spondylodiscitis.

METHODS

Studies that evaluated the use of polyetheretherketone (PEEK), titanium, allograft, and/or autologous bone grafts for spondylodiscitis were identified in the literature. Radiographic and clinical data were analyzed using a meta-analysis of proportions, with estimated risk and confidence intervals reported for our primary study outcomes.

RESULTS

Thirty-two retrospective studies totaling 1088 patients undergoing surgical management of spondylodiscitis with PEEK, TTN, allograft, and autologous bone graft instrumentation were included. There were no differences in fusion rates (p-interaction = 0.55) with rates of fusion of 93.4% with TTN, 98.6% with allograft, 84.2% with autologous bone graft, and 93.9% with PEEK. There were no differences in screw loosening (p-interaction = 0.52) with rates of 0.33% with TTN, 0% with allograft, 1.3% with autologous bone graft, and 8.2% with PEEK. There were no differences in reoperation (p-interaction = 0.59) with rates of 2.64% with TTN, 0% with allograft, 1.69% with autologous bone graft, and 3.3% with PEEK.

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis demonstrates that the choice of instrumentation type in the surgical management of spondylodiscitis resulted in no significant differences in rate of radiographic fusion, screw loosening, or reoperation. Future comparative studies to optimize guidelines for the management of spondylodiscitis are needed.

It is time for a unified definition of native vertebral osteomyelitis: a framework proposal

In recent years, there has been a notable increase in research output on native vertebral osteomyelitis (NVO), coinciding with a rise in its incidence. However, clinical outcomes remain poor, due to frequent relapse and long-term sequelae. Additionally, the lack of a standardized definition and the use of various synonyms to describe this condition further complicate the clinical understanding and management of NVO. We propose a new framework to integrate the primary diagnostic tools at our disposal. These collectively fall into three main domains: clinical, radiological, and direct evidence. Moreover, they and can be divided into seven main categories: (a) clinical features, (b) inflammatory biomarkers, (c) imaging techniques, microbiologic evidence from (d) blood cultures and (e) invasive techniques, (f) histopathology, and (g) empirical evidence of improvement following the initiation of antimicrobial therapy. We provide a review on the evolution of these techniques, explaining why no single method is intrinsically sufficient to formulate an NVO diagnosis. Therefore, we argue for a consensus-driven, multi-domain approach to establish a comprehensive and universally accepted definition of NVO to enhance research comparability, reproducibility, and epidemiological tracking. Ongoing research effort is needed to refine these criteria further, emphasizing collaboration among experts through a Delphi method to achieve a standardized definition. This effort aims to streamline research, expedite accurate diagnoses, optimize diagnostic tools, and guide patient care effectively.

The Need for Comprehensive Medical Management in Pyogenic Spondylodiscitis: A Review Article

The incidence of spontaneous or primary spondylodiscitis has been increasing over the years, affecting the aging population with multiple comorbidities. Several conditions influencing treatment outcomes stand out, such as diabetes mellitus, renal insufficiency, cardiovascular and respiratory dysfunction, and malnutrition. Due to these, the question arises regarding properly managing their current conditions and pre-existing disease states. Treatment plans must consider all concomitant comorbidities rather than just the infectious process. This can be done with the help of multidisciplinary teams to provide comprehensive care for patients with pyogenic spondylodiscitis. To date, there is no article regarding comprehensive medicine for spontaneous pyogenic spondylodiscitis; hence, this paper reviews the evidence available in current literature, recognizes knowledge gaps, and suggests comprehensive care for treating patients with spinal infections. Pre-requisites for implementing multidisciplinary teams include leadership, administrative support, and team dynamics. This group comprises an appointed leader, coordinator, and different subspecialists, such as orthopedic surgeons, infectious disease specialists, internists, rehabilitation doctors, psychiatrists, microbiologists, radiologists, nutritionists, pharmacologists, nurses, and orthotists working together with mutual trust and respect. Employing collaborative teams allows faster time for diagnosis and improves clinical outcomes, better quality of life, and patient satisfaction. Forefront communication is clear and open between all team members to provide holistic patient care. With these in mind, the need for employing multidisciplinary teams and the feasibility of its implementation emerges, showing a promising and logical path toward providing comprehensive care in managing multimorbid patients with pyogenic spondylodiscitis.

The importance of the bacterial spectrum in the clinical diagnostics and management of patients with spontaneous pyogenic spondylodiscitis and isolated spinal epidural empyema: a 20-year cohort study at a single spine center

BACKGROUND

Personalized clinical management of spondylodiscitis (SD) and isolated spinal epidural empyema (ISEE) is challenging due to limited evidence of microbiologic findings and their clinical impact during the clinical course of the disease. We aimed to characterize clinico-microbiological and imaging phenotypes of SD and ISEE to provide useful insights that could improve outcomes and potentially modify guidelines.

METHODS

We performed chart review and collected data on the following parameters: bacterial antibiogram-resistogram, type of primary spinal infection, location of spinal infection, source of infection, method of detection, clinical complications (sepsis, septic embolism, and endocarditis), length of hospital and intensive care unit (ICU) stay, relapse rate, and disease-related mortality in patients with proven pyogenic SD and ISEE treated surgically in a university hospital in Germany between 2002 and 2022.

RESULTS

We included data from 187 patients (125 SD, 66.8% and 62 ISEE, 33.2%). Gram-positive bacteria (GPB) were overall more frequently detected than gram-negative bacteria (GNB) (GPB: 162, 86.6% vs. GNB: 25, 13.4%, p < 0.001). Infective endocarditis was caused only by GPB (GPB: 23, 16.5% vs. GNB: 0, 0.0%, p = 0.046). Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus was the most frequently isolated strain (MSSA: n = 100, 53.5%), occurred more frequently in the cervical spine compared to other bacteria (OB) (MSSA: 41, 41.0% vs. OB: 18, 20.7%, p = 0.004) and was most frequently detected in patients with skin infection as the primary source of infection (MSSA: 26, 40.6% vs. OB: 11, 16.7%, p = 0.002). Streptococcus spp. and Enterococcus spp. (SE: n = 31, 16.6%) were more often regarded as the cause of endocarditis (SE: 8, 27.6% vs. OB: 15, 11.4%, p = 0.037) and were less frequently detected in intraoperative specimens (SE: 19, 61.3% vs. OB: 138, 88.5%, p < 0.001). Enterobacterales (E: n = 20, 10.7%) were identified more frequently in urinary tract infections (E: 9, 50.0% vs. OB: 4, 3.6%, p < 0.001). Coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CoNS: n = 20, 10.7%) were characterized by a lower prevalence of sepsis (CoNS: 4, 20.0% vs. OB: 90, 53.9%, p = 0.004) and were more frequently detected in intraoperative specimens (CoNS: 20, 100. 0% vs. OB: 137, 82.0%, p = 0.048). Moreover, CoNS-associated cases showed a shorter length of ICU stay (CoNS: 2 [1-18] days vs. OB: 6 [1-53] days, median [interquartile range], p = 0.037), and occurred more frequently due to foreign body-associated infections (CoNS: 8, 61.5% vs. OB: 15, 12.8%, p = 0.008). The presence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) prolonged hospital stay by 56 [24-58] days and ICU stay by 16 [1-44] days, whereas patients with Pseudomonas aeruginosa spent only 20 [18-29] days in the hospital and no day in the ICU 0 [0-5] days.

CONCLUSIONS

Our retrospective cohort study identified distinct bacterial-specific manifestations in pyogenic SD and ISEE regarding clinical course, neuroanatomic targets, method of pathogen detection, and sources of infection. The clinico-microbiological patterns varied depending on the specific pathogens.

Dental Infection Causing Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia and Spinal Infection: A Case Report

Poor dentition as a source of infection causing bacteremia and spinal infections (such as paraspinal abscess, and discitis) should be considered even in the absence of recent dental surgery. The case presents a patient found to have an infection in the cervical and thoracic spine, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia, and poor dentition. Although the patient had a history of drug use, he denied a history of intravenous drug use. He had Crohn's disease that resulted in periodontal and endodontal tooth disease. The patient was found to have poor dentition with erythematous gums. He had not been to the dentist in over 24 years and had active dental caries. Since he presented with bacteremia and a spinal infection, it is likely the patient had an infection in the oral cavity that spread hematogenously to the blood, and then the spine. This report highlights the importance of considering tooth infections as the source of bacteremia and spinal infections.

Surgical treatment of Candida albicans spondylodiscitis

Introduction

Spinal infection poses a demanding diagnostic and treatment problem for which a multidisciplinary approach with spine surgeons, radiologists, and infectious disease specialists is required. Infections are usually caused by bacterial microorganisms, although fungal infections can also occur. Most patients with spinal infections diagnosed in the early stages can be successfully managed conservatively with antibiotics, bed rest, and spinal braces. In cases of gross or pending instability, progressive neurological deficits, failure of conservative treatment, spinal abscess formation, severe symptoms indicating sepsis, and failure of previous conservative treatment, surgical treatment is required.

Case presentation

A 64-year-old male presented to the Outpatient Department with a complaint of pain in bilateral upper extremities for 4 months. The pain was shooting in type, radiating to bilateral arms, forearms, and hands with no aggravating and relieving factors. He is a known case of carcinoma pyriform sinus for which he underwent various cycles of chemotherapy. Ten years later, a tracheostomy was performed for laryngeal edema, and again, an endoscopic gastrostomy was performed due to feeding difficulties. He then developed fever and cervical pain along with pain in the bilateral upper extremities. An infectious etiology was suspected for which multiple antibiotics were started with no positive response. An MRI was performed, which was suggestive of spondylodiscitis probably of tubercular origin. A biopsy was done to confirm the diagnosis, following which antitubercular (HRZE) therapy was started. He was also treated with Duloxetine and gabapentin, which resulted in minor improvements. Subsequent MRIs showed diffuse involvement of the multiple cervical vertebrae along with cord compression. Two stages of anterior corpectomy followed by posterior instrumentation were done. Following the procedure, the patient developed an infection, which was managed with antibiotics. The titanium implant was not removed. A muscle graft was planned with the pectoralis muscle and flap closure was done. The tissue was also sent for Gram stain, AFB stain, and GeneXpert, which showed normal findings. Finally, in tissue culture, Candida albicans was isolated. On performing the enzyme immunoassay test, it was found to be Aspergillus (Galactomannan antigen) positive as well. Antitubercular treatment was stopped. Then, he was managed with an antifungal, oral voriconazole, for the duration of 1 and a half years.

Clinical discussion

Patients diagnosed with Candida spondylodiscitis tend to have favorable outcomes, likely linked to timely identification, thorough surgical debridement, and proper azole medication. Our case achieved success by promptly identifying and confirming it through tissue culture, detecting spinal cord compression, decompressing it, and initiating specific antifungal treatment. A delay in commencing antifungal therapy has been associated with poorer outcomes, especially in neurological health. Our patient received voriconazole for a full year, suggesting that favorable outcomes are achievable for fungal spondylodiscitis with swift and appropriate surgery and antifungal medication.

Conclusion

In summary, evaluation for fungal infection is essential in all cases of unexplained spinal infection in immunocompromised patients, regardless of presentation. If the antifungal treatment proves ineffective, a surgical approach is typically employed for the management of fungal spondylodiscitis. Our report details a successful case of fungal spondylodiscitis treated with a surgical approach and highlights the potential for a fungal infection to be a causative factor in noncompressive myelopathy, which may be sometimes mistaken for radiation myelitis.

Outcome of Targeted vs Empiric Antibiotic Therapy in the Treatment of Spondylodiscitis: A Retrospective Analysis of 201 Patients

BACKGROUND

Antibiotic treatment of spondylodiscitis is influenced by antibiotic stewardship; specifically, empirical antibiotic therapy is avoided in favor of-delayed-targeted antibiotic therapy after microbiological diagnosis. Only patients with neurological deficits or clinical signs of sepsis should be treated by empirical antibiotic therapy. However, the level of evidence for this treatment concept is weak.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to investigate whether patients who were treated with a nontargeted antibiotic therapy show a worse outcome than patients who were exclusively treated with targeted antibiotic therapy.

STUDY DESIGN/SETTING

A retrospective single-center data analysis.

PATIENT SAMPLE

We included 201 patients with spondylodiscitis who were treated at the authors' institution between 2013 and 2020.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Mortality rate, time in hospital, development of laboratory parameters, and development of pain (visual analog scale).

METHODS

We performed a retrospective data analysis of patients who were treated for spondylodiscitis from January 2013 to March 2020. Clinical and demographic data as well as outcome and complications were recorded and analyzed. We investigated whether patients who were treated by a nontargeted antibiotic therapy had a worse outcome than patients who were exclusively treated by targeted antibiotic therapy and which other clinical factors had an impact on clinical outcome.

RESULTS

A total of 201 patients were included, 37 of whom developed sepsis during their hospital stay, and 14 of these 37 patients died. The 14 patients who died represented (10.0%) of the subgroup who received an empirical antibiotic treatment before the targeted antibiotic therapy (n = 141). There were 0 deaths in the subgroup who did not receive an empirical antibiotic treatment (P < 0.05). The time to diagnosis since admission to the hospital was 10.5 (2.2) days in patients with sepsis; in patients without sepsis, it was 5.2 (0.9) days (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results of this investigation, the authors recommend delaying antibiotic therapy until targeted antibiotic therapy is possible. Furthermore, early diagnosis of spondylodiscitis and prevention and early detection of sepsis are essential to reduce the mortality rate of patients with spondylodiscitis.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 3

Spinal epidural abscess as predicting factor for the necessity of early surgical intervention in patients with pyogenic spondylitis

BACKGROUND

Pyogenic spondylitis is a condition with low incidence that can lead to neurological sequelae and even life-threatening conditions. While conservative methods, including antibiotics and bracing, are considered the first-line treatment option for pyogenic spondylitis, it is important to identify patients who require early surgical intervention to prevent progressive neurologic deficits or deterioration of the systemic condition. Surgical treatment should be considered in patients with progressive neurologic deficits or deteriorating systemic condition. However, currently, there is a lack of treatment guidelines, particularly with respect to whether surgical treatment is necessary for pyogenic spondylitis. This study aims to analyze the radiological epidural abscess on MRI and clinical factors to predict the need for early surgical intervention in patients with pyogenic spondylitis and provide comprehensive insight into the necessity of early surgical intervention in these patients.

METHODS

This study retrospectively reviewed 47 patients with pyogenic spondylitis including spondylodiscitis, vertebral osteomyelitis, epidural abscess, and/or psoas abscess. All patients received plain radiographs, and a gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan. All patients have either tissue biopsies and/or blood cultures for the diagnosis of a pathogen. Demographic data, laboratory tests, and clinical predisposing factors including comorbidities and concurrent other infections were analyzed.

RESULTS

We analyzed 47 patients, 25 of whom were female, with a mean age of 70,7 years. MRI revealed that 26 of 47 patients had epidural abscesses. The surgical group had a significantly higher incidence of epidural abscess than the non-surgical group (p = 0.001). In addition, both CRP and initial body temperature (BT) were substantially higher in the surgical group compared to the non-surgical group. There was no significant difference between the surgical group and the non-surgical group in terms of age, gender, comorbidities, and concurrent infectious disorders, as well as the number of affected segments and affected spine levels. However, the surgical group had lengthier hospital stays and received more antibiotics.

CONCLUSION

The presence of an epidural abscess on MRI should be regarded crucial in the decision-making process for early surgical treatment in patients with pyogenic spondylitis in order to improve clinical outcomes.

[Spondylodiscitis]

Spondylodiscitis is a severe infectious disease of the spine that affects the intervertebral discs and adjacent vertebrae. It can lead to nonspecific pain, limited mobility, and destruction of spinal structures. Various pathogens, such as bacteria, fungi, or parasites, can trigger the disease. An early diagnosis and targeted treatment are crucial to reduce the risk of serious complications. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with contrast agent and blood tests are essential for the diagnosis and assessing the course of the disease. The treatment includes conservative and surgical approaches. Conservative treatment consists of a minimum 6‑week antibiotic course and immobilization of the affected area. Surgical interventions, along with several weeks of antibiotic therapy, are indicated for instabilities or complications in order to eliminate the infection focus and to restore spinal stability.

Cervical spine spondylodiscitis: Review of literature on current treatment strategies

Infections of the spine are an ever-increasing health concern requiring an often complex and prolonged treatment that can lead to significant morbidity. Of particular interest is the cervical spine where there is an increase rate of post-infectious deformity, secondary neurological deficits and substantially higher rates of associated morbidity and mortality than the thoracic or lumbar spine. In this review, we explore the diagnosis and treatment of spondylodiscitis with particular focus on the cervical spine.

Spontaneous Cervical Spondylodiscitis With Retropharyngeal Abscess and Bacteremia: A Case Report

Retropharyngeal abscess is a deep neck infection, rarely reported in adults. Nevertheless, when it occurs, it is mostly in immunocompromised patients and it can have life-threatening complications such as airway obstruction. On the other hand, more insidious complications can develop, such as mediastinitis, spinal osteomyelitis, and epidural abscess which represent an emergency medical condition when the patient develops neurologic symptoms. All must be diagnosed early and treated promptly. Spinal infection is an ancient disease, yet, morbidity remains significant despite developments in surgical and radiologic methods and the discovery of antibiotics. Management frequently involves a combination of these to achieve the best results.  The aim of this case report, as a research design, is to describe scientific observations that we encountered in a clinical setting, expand our knowledge, and highlight the role of the interprofessional team in evaluating and managing these conditions.

Increasing incidence of spondylodiscitis in England: An analysis of the national health service (NHS) hospital episode statistics from 2012 to 2021

Background

Spondylodiscitis is a potentially life-threatening infection of the intervertebral disk and adjacent vertebral bodies, with a mortality rate of 2-20%. Given the aging population, the increase in immunosuppression, and intravenous drug use in England, the incidence of spondylodiscitis is postulated to be increasing; however, the exact epidemiological trend in England remains unknown.

Objective

The Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) database contains details of all secondary care admissions across NHS hospitals in England. This study aimed to use HES data to characterise the annual activity and longitudinal change of spondylodiscitis in England.

Methods

The HES database was interrogated for all cases of spondylodiscitis between 2012 and 2019. Data for the length of stay, waiting time, age-stratified admissions, and 'Finished Consultant Episodes' (FCEs), which correspond to a patient's hospital care under a lead clinician, were analysed.

Results

In total, 43135 FCEs for spondylodiscitis were identified between 2012 and 2022, of which 97.1% were adults. Overall admissions for spondylodiscitis have risen from 3 per 100,000 population in 2012/13 to 4.4 per 100,000 population in 2020/21. Similarly, FCEs have increased from 5.8 to 10.3 per 100,000 population, in 2012-2013 and 2020/21 respectively. The highest increase in admissions from 2012 to 2021 was recorded for those aged 70-74 (117% increase) and aged 75-59 (133% increase), among those of working age for those aged 60-64 years (91% increase).

Conclusion

Population-adjusted admissions for spondylodiscitis in England have risen by 44% between 2012 and 2021. Healthcare policymakers and providers must acknowledge the increasing burden of spondylodiscitis and make spondylodiscitis a research priority.

Determining threshold values for success after surgical treatment of lumbar spondylodiscitis using quality of life scores

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to determine threshold values of validated quality of life (QoL) scores, including Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) and Core Outcome Measures Index (COMI), for predicting a successful outcome following surgical treatment of lumbar spondylodiscitis (LS).

METHODS

Patients with lumbar spondylodiscitis (LS) undergoing surgery in a tertiary referral hospital were included prospectively from 2008-2019. Data were collected both before surgery (T0) and one year after surgery (T1). QoL was measured using ODI and COMI. The successful clinical outcome was defined by the combination of the following four criteria: no recurrence of spondylodiscitis, back pain ≤4 on visual analogue scale or relief of ≥3 points, absence of LS-related neurological deficit, and radiological fusion of the affected segment. For subgroup analysis, group 1 consisted of patients with a favorable treatment outcome (meeting all four criteria), while group 2 included patients with unfavorable treatment outcome (meeting ≤3 criteria).

RESULTS

Ninety-two LS patients (median age = 66 years; age range = 57-74) were analyzed. QoL scores improved significantly. Threshold values for the ODI and COMI were calculated at 35 and 4.2 points, respectively. The area under curve for the ODI was 0.856 (95%-CI 0.767- 0.945; P<0.001) and 0.839 (95% CI-0.749-0.928; P<0.001) for the COMI score. Eighty percent of patients achieved a favorable outcome.

CONCLUSION

Objective measurement and evaluation of successful surgical treatment of spondylodiscitis require defined thresholds of quality of life scores. We were able to define such thresholds for Oswestry Disability Index and Core Outcome Measures Index. These can be useful to assess clinically relevant changes and therefore allow a more precise estimation of the post-surgical outcome.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II, Prognostic study.

Early fusion outcome after surgical treatment of single-level and multi-level pyogenic spondylodiscitis: experience at a level 1 center for spinal surgery-a single center cohort study

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective single center cohort study.

PURPOSE

Spinal instrumentation in combination with antibiotic therapy is a treatment option for acute or chronic pyogenic spondylodiscitis (PSD). This study compares the early fusion outcome for multi-level and single-level PSD after urgent surgical treatment with interbody fusion in combination with fixation.

METHODS

This is a retrospective cohort study. Over a 10 year period at a single institution, all surgically treated patients received surgical debridement, fusion und fixation of the spine to treat PSD. Multi-level cases were either adjacent to each other on the spine or distant. Fusion rates were assessed at 3 and 12 months after surgery. We analyzed demographic data, ASA status, duration of surgery, location and length of spine affected, Charlson comorbidity index (CCI), and early complications.

RESULTS

A total of 172 patients were included. Of these, 114 patients suffered from single-level and 58 from multi-level PSD. The most frequent location was the lumbar spine (54.0%) followed by the thoracic spine (18.0%). The PSD was adjacent in 19.0% and distant in 81.0% of multi-level cases. Fusion rates at the 3 month follow-up did not differ among the multi-level group (p = 0.27 for both adjacent and distant sites). In the single-level group, sufficient fusion was achieved in 70.2% of cases. Pathogen identification was possible 58.5% of the time.

CONCLUSIONS

Surgical treatment of multi-level PSD is a safe option. Our study demonstrates that there was no significant difference in early fusion outcomes between single-level and multi-level PSD, whether adjacent or distant.

Spinal infection with intraspinal abscess or empyema and acute myelopathy: comparative analysis of diagnostics, therapy, complications and outcome in primary care

INTRODUCTION

This study on pyogenic spinal infections with intraspinal epidural involvement (PSI +) compared the outcome of patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) to those without (noSCI) taking diagnostic algorithm, therapy, and complications into account.

METHODS

Patients were enrolled in an ambispective study (2012-2017). Diagnostic and therapeutic algorithms, complications, and neurological outcome were analyzed descriptively. Survival was analyzed applying Kaplan-Meier method and Cox regression.

RESULTS

In total, 134 patients with a median (IQR) age of 72 (61-79) years were analyzed. Baseline characteristics were similar between the SCI (n = 55) and noSCI (n = 79). A higher percentage of endocarditis (9% vs. 0%; p = 0.03) was detected in the noSCI group. The majority (81%) received combinatorial therapy including spinal surgery and antibiotic treatment. The surgery complication rate was 16%. At discharge, improvement in neurologic function was present in 27% of the SCI patients. Length of stay, duration of ventilation and the burden of disease-associated complications were significantly higher in the SCI group (e.g., urinary tract infection, pressure ulcers). Lethality risk factors were age (HR 1.09, 95% CI 1.02-1.16, p = 0.014), and empyema/abscess extension (≥ 3 infected spinal segments, HR 4.72, 95% CI 1.57-14.20, p = 0.006), dominating over additional effects of Charlson comorbidity index, SCI, and type of treatment. The overall lethality rate was 11%.

CONCLUSION

PSI + are associated with higher in-hospital mortality, particularly when multiple spinal segments are involved. However, survival is similar with (SCI) or without myelopathy (noSCI). If SCI develops, the rate of disease complications is higher and early specialized SCI care might be substantial to reduce complication rates.

Acute Pyogenic Spondylitis Caused by Streptococcus Constellatus in an Obese Patient: A Case Report

Streptococcus constellatus (S. constellatus) is a well-known part of the normal flora in humans. Pyogenic spondylitis (PS) induced by S. constellatus is very rare. In this case, a 46-year-old male patient presented to our hospital with a 2-month history of low back pain and weakness in both legs. Based on his clinical manifestations, laboratory findings, blood culture results, imaging and histopathological findings, the patient was diagnosed with PS caused by S. constellatus. One unique aspect of this case is the acute and severe course of infection, which resulted in multiple organ dysfunction syndrome and septic shock in the first week and rapid vertebral destruction within 2 months of the patient’s admission. His obese status may be relevant to his presentation. This case report suggests that S. constellatus infections should not be overlooked, especially in patients with known risk factors and predispositions to infectious diseases.

Vacuum Sealing Drainage for Primary Thoracolumbar Spondylodiscitis: A Technical Note

Primary spinal infection is a challenge for neurosurgeons. Here, for the first time, we introduced the vacuum sealing drainage (VSD) sponge into the intervertebral space for the primary thoracolumbar infection treatment. This study included 6 bedridden patients with thoracolumbar spondylodiscitis without deformity formation. All 6 patients were treated with the VSD in our hospital from June 30, 2018, to August 31, 2019. All 6 cases of thoracolumbar infection achieved clinical cure at 3-month follow-up, and no surgical-related mortalities occurred in our series. One patient died of acute cerebral infarction 5 months after surgery, and the remaining 5 patients completed a 12-month follow-up without recurrence. The JOA score of all 6 cases improved significantly after VSD treatment. VSD is feasible for safe and effective treatment for primary thoracolumbar infection. The short-term follow-up effect is definite.

Surgical Management of Lumbar Hardware Failure Due to Recurrent Postoperative Spondylodiscitis: Case Report

Spondylodiscitis is a rare bacterial infection of the vertebrae and intervertebral discs that causes inflammation and follows a destructive course. When conservative management fails, surgical management requires immediate debridement of the infective focus, with decompression and stabilization through a ventral approach. The most frequently involved locations are the lumbar spine (58%), thoracic (30%), and cervical (11%) regions. Gram-positive organisms such as Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus species are the most commonly isolated organisms (67% and 24%, respectively). Pathophysiologically, infectious spondylodiscitis begins in the anterior portion of the vertebral body, due to its rich vascular supply, and then spreads to the rest of the vertebral body and along the medullary spaces. In this study, we report the management of recurrent lumbar postoperative spondylodiscitis with transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF) hardware failure in a 62-year-old female.

Can we predict favourable quality of life after surgically treated vertebral osteomyelitis? Analysis of a prospective study

PURPOSE

Vertebral osteomyelitis (VO) is a severe clinical entity associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Several studies have showed that successful treatment of VO patients leads to significantly improved quality of life (QoL). Nevertheless, QoL levels of these patients remained below those of the general population. There are rarely studies focusing on predicting factors for favourable QoL after surgically treated VO. The aim of this study was to identify factors influencing positively the QoL of patients undergoing surgery for VO.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective monocentric study including surgically treated VO patients from 2008 to 2016. Data were collected before (T0) and 1 year (T1) after surgery. Primary outcome was favourable QoL defined as back pain with disability restricting normal life activity with a cutoff value ≥ 12 on Oswestry Disability Index (ODI).

ETHICS

Ethical approval was given by the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Cologne (09-182).

RESULTS

A total of 119 patients surviving 1 year after surgically treated VO were analysed. Favourable QoL was achieved in 35/119 patients. On multivariate analysis, younger age (hazard ratio = HR: 0.95; 95% CI 0.91-0.99; p = 0.022), lower albumin (HR: 0.9; 0.83-0.98; p = 0.019) an ASA score ≤ 2 (HR:4.24; 95%CI 1.42-12.68; p = 0.010), and a lower preoperative leg pain on the VAS (HR: 0.86; 95% CI 0.76-0.97; p = 0.018) were identified as independent risk factors for favourable QoL. Interestingly, the absence of neurological deficits was not predictive for a favourable outcome by means of QoL.

CONCLUSION

One-third of surgically treated VO patients (29%) in our cohort achieved favourable QoL by means of ODI. Our findings can facilitate an estimation of the prognosis when informing the patient before surgery, and underscore that spine disability questionnaires, such as ODI, measuring QoL, are mandatory to evaluate comprehensively the outcome of this entity.

PMMA-Cement-PLIF Is Safe and Effective as a Single-Stage Posterior Procedure in Treating Pyogenic Erosive Lumbar Spondylodiscitis—A Single-Center Retrospective Study of 73 Cases

Background: Surgical treatment for erosive pyogenic spondylodiscitis of the lumbar spine is challenging as, following debridement of the intervertebral and bony abscess, a large and irregular defect is created. Sufficient defect reconstruction with conventional implants using a posterior approach is often impossible. Therefore, we developed the “Cement-PLIF”, a single-stage posterior lumbar procedure, combining posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF) with defect-filling using antibiotic-loaded polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA). This study first describes and evaluates the procedure’s efficacy, safety, and infection eradication rate. Radiological implant stability, bone-regeneration, sagittal profile reconstruction, procedure-related complications, and pre-existing comorbidities were further analyzed. Methods: A retrospective cohort study analyzing 73 consecutive patients with a minimum of a one-year follow-up from 2000–2017. Patient-reported pain levels and improvement in infectious serological parameters evaluated the clinical outcome. Sagittal profile reconstruction, anterior bone-regeneration, and posterior fusion were analyzed in a.p. and lateral radiographs. A Kaplan–Meier analysis was used to determine the impact of pre-existing comorbidities on mortality. Pre-existing comorbidities were quantified using the Charlson-Comorbidity Index (CCI). Results: Mean follow-up was 3.3 (range: 1–16; ±3.2) years. There was no evidence of infection persistence in all patients at the one-year follow-up. One patient underwent revision surgery for early local infection recurrence (1.4%). Five (6.9%) patients required an early secondary intervention at the same level due to minor complications. Radiological follow-up revealed implant stability in 70/73 (95.9%) cases. Successful sagittal reconstruction was demonstrated in all patients (p < 0.001). There was a significant correlation between Kaplan–Meier survival and the number of pre-existing comorbidities (24-months-survival: CCI ≤ 3: 100%; CCI ≥ 3: 84.6%; p = 0.005). Conclusions: The Cement-PLIF procedure for pyogenic erosive spondylodiscitis is an effective and safe treatment as evaluated by infection elimination, clinical outcome, restoration, and maintenance of stability and sagittal alignment.

Diagnosis of vertebral osteomyelitis

Native vertebral osteomyelitis (NVO) is a potentially fatal infection which has seen a gradual increase in its incidence over the past decades. The infection is insidious, presenting with symptoms of back pain. Fever is present in about 60 % of patients. Prompt diagnosis of NVO is important to prevent the development of complications. Numerous laboratory and imaging tools can be deployed to accurately establish the diagnosis. Imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance, nuclear imaging, and computed tomography are essential in diagnosing NVO but can also be useful in image-guided biopsies. Laboratory tools include routine blood tests, inflammatory markers, and routine culture techniques of aspirated specimens. Recent advances in molecular techniques can assist in identifying offending pathogen(s). In this review, we detail the arsenal of techniques that can be utilized to reach a diagnosis of NVO.

The Hamburg Spondylodiscitis Assessment Score (HSAS) for Immediate Evaluation of Mortality Risk on Hospital Admission

(1) Background: Patients with spondylodiscitis often present with unspecific and heterogeneous symptoms that delay diagnosis and inevitable therapeutic steps leading to increased mortality rates of up to 27%. A rapid initial triage is essential to identify patients at risk for a complicative disease course. We therefore aimed to develop a risk assessment score using fast available parameters to predict in-hospital mortality of patients admitted with spondylodiscitis. (2) Methods: A retrospective data analysis of 307 patients with spondylodiscitis recruited from 2013 to 2020 was carried out. Patients were grouped according to all-cause mortality. Via logistic regression, individual patient and clinical characteristics predictive of mortality were identified. A weighted sum score to estimate a patient's risk of mortality was developed and validated in a randomly selected subgroup of spondylodiscitis patients. (3) Results: 14% of patients with spondylodiscitis died during their in-hospital stay at a tertiary center for spinal surgery. Univariate and logistic regression analyses of parameters recorded at hospital admission showed that age older than 72.5 years, rheumatoid arthritis, creatinine > 1.29 mg/dL and CRP > 140.5 mg/L increased the risk of mortality 3.9-fold, 9.4-fold, 4.3-fold and 4.1-fold, respectively. S. aureus detection increased the risk of mortality by 2.3-fold. (4) Conclusions: The novel Hamburg Spondylodiscitis Assessment Score (HSAS) shows a good fit identifying patients at low-, moderate-, high- and very high risk for in hospital mortality on admission (AUC: 0.795; p < 0.001). The implementation of the HSAS into clinical practice could ease identification of high-risk patients using readily available parameters alone, improving the patient's safety and outcome.

Single-stage debridement via autogenous iliac bone graft through the OLIF corridor and lateral fixation in treating spontaneous single-level lumbar pyogenic spondylodiscitis

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to investigate the efficacy and safety of mini-open oblique debridement and lumbar interbody fusion combined with lateral screw fixation for treating single-level pyogenic spondylodiscitis.

METHODS

Twelve patients with single-level lumbar pyogenic spondylodiscitis underwent OLIF combined with lateral screw fixation were analyzed. Patients underwent follow-up for 12 to 24 months. The clinical characteristics, etiological examinations, operative time, intraoperative blood loss, Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), visual analog scale score (VAS), postoperative complications, and the bony fusion rate were recorded.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up period of time was 14.8 months. The average operative time and intra-operative blood loss were 129.0 ± 19.76 min and 309.2 ± 92.96 mL, respectively. No severe intra-operative complications were observed during surgery, except in 1 case that develops abdominal pain and distension after surgery, 2 cases that develop left-sided transient thigh pain/numbness and 8 cases that complains of donor site (iliac crest) pain. All of these symptoms disappeared 8 weeks after surgery. Tissue sample cultures were obtained from all patients intraoperatively and four (33.3%) were positive, including 2 with Staphylococcus aureus, 1 with Staphylococcus epidermidis, and 1 with Escherichia coli. During an average of 22.5 ± 2.1 days (range, 14-29 days) after surgery, WBC, CPR, and ESR levels in all patients had returned to normal. All patients were pain free with no recurring infection. Solid bony fusions were observed in all cases within 6 months, including 10 with I grade fusion, 2 with II grade fusion according to the classification suggested by Burkus et al. No fixation failure was observed during follow up and solid bony fusions were observed in all 12 patients at finally follow-up. A significant postoperative increase was also observed in the mean segmental height and lordosis (P < 0.05), followed by a slight decrease of segmental height and lordosis at final follow-up. At the final follow up, the mean VAS (1.5 ± 0.6) and ODI (18.9 ± 7.6) were significantly lower than VAS (8.4 ± 2.7) and ODI (71.2 ± 16.5) before surgery (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Single-stage debridement with autogenous iliac bone graft through the OLIF corridor and lateral fixation was a feasible surgical approach in our consecutive 12 cases of pyogenic spondylitis.

A Case of Diffuse Brucellar Spondylodiscitis

Diffuse brucellar spondylodiscitis is the most severe subtype of osteoarticular brucellosis and is defined as a brucellar infection involving an entire vertebral body, typically a lumbar vertebra, with spread to the adjacent disc space, vertebra, and even extravertebral spaces, including epidural, paraspinal, or intramuscular locations. Although it is a relatively rare diagnosis in the US healthcare system, it should be considered in all patients with severe back pain, radicular symptoms, and a history of extensive exposure to an endemic area. Any delays in treatment can be associated with an increased risk of permanent neurological deficits or death. Here, we present a case of diffuse brucellar spondylodiscitis in a patient who presented to our facility with a history of extensive exposure to an endemic area. While an MRI can reveal pathognomonic findings in brucellar spondylodiscitis, for our case, it was nonspecific. The MRI provided early evidence of an infectious etiology which prompted immediate broad-spectrum antimicrobial coverage until causal organisms were identified and culture sensitivities directed targeted antibiotic therapy. The patient was able to recover over the course of four months without surgical intervention. At her final clinical follow-up, she had no neurological deficits and had complete resolution of her radicular symptoms.

A Rare Case of Sphingomonas paucimobilis Spondylodiscitis Managed Surgically

Introduction:

Sphingomonas paucimobilis is an opportunistic pathogen and a rare cause of human infection. This case report shows bacteremia with pyogenic spondylodiscitis in lumbosacral spine caused by Sphingomonas and discusses its clinical diagnosis, treatment, and literature reviews.

Case Report:

Patient presented with severe low back pain, inability to walk and fever following a L5-S1 decompression elsewhere, which corresponded clinico-radiologically with a picture of a spondylodiscitis on radiographs, magnetic resonance imaging, and computed tomography. His blood culture was positive for S. paucimobilis. He was treated successfully by surgical debridement, stabilization, and fusion along with intravenous Linezolid followed by oral therapy, based on the antibiotic susceptibility profile. Repeat blood culture was negative after 7 weeks of antibiotic therapy. Patient improved symptomatically with radiographs showing good fusion at 1 year follow-up. S. paucimobilis, though a low virulence organism, is an emerging pathogen and should be dealt with cautiously.

Conclusion:

This reiterates the importance of culture as unusual organisms may be isolated and appropriate antibiotics form the mainstay of treatment.

Operative Treatment of Adult Pyogenic Spondylodiscitis: A Retrospective Study of 32 Cases

Background Spondylodiscitis is a potentially life-threatening infection that imposes a significant financial burden on healthcare systems. Current reports suggest an increase in the incidence of spondylodiscitis, which could be attributed to the aging population and the growing rates of drug abuse. This study aims to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of surgical treatment of spondylodiscitis. Materials and methods Thirty-two cases diagnosed with spondylodiscitis and treated operatively between 2010 and 2015 were enrolled in this study. Indications for surgery were progressive neurologic involvement, progressive spinal deformity or instability, impending fracture, epidural abscess, and poor response to antibiotics. Patients underwent a single-stage procedure. A combined anterior and posterior approach was used in 28 of the patients. In 20 patients, a titanium mesh cage was used for reconstruction. The mean follow-up was 5.6 years. Results There were 18 males and 14 females. The mean age of the patients was 68.4 years (range 56-78). The cervical spine was affected in two cases (6.3%), the thoracic spine in 12 cases (37.5%), and the lumbar spine in 18 cases (56.3%). The most commonly isolated microorganisms were Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. There was neither mortality nor severe complications. Fusion was achieved in all the patients. There was complete resolution of the neurologic deficits that were recorded preoperatively. No signs of recurrent or residual infection were recorded until the last follow-up. Conclusions Our data suggest that early detection and surgical intervention of spondylodiskitis is associated with favorable outcomes.

[Spondylodiscitis and epidural abscesses]

CLINICAL/METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEM

Spondylodiscitis is an inflammation of the intervertebral disc, which in adults is generally associated with spondylitis of the adjacent vertebrae. It often presents clinically with nonspecific symptoms such as back or neck pain. It may be caused by various pathogens, especially bacteria. One or more vertebral segments can be affected. The infection can spread to surrounding compartments and can lead to epidural abscesses. Radiology, in particular magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), plays an important role in the diagnostic work-up and in the follow-up to monitor response to therapy. Treatment consists of conservative (antibiotics) and invasive approaches, including surgery. Interventional puncture and drainage is a promising alternative to surgery, especially in early stages of abscess formation.

STANDARD RADIOLOGICAL METHODS

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), nuclear medical procedures, conventional x‑ray.

PERFORMANCE

MRI has the highest value. CT and nuclear medical procedures can be used as a supplement to MRI and in patients with contraindications for MRI.

PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS

With adequate diagnosis and therapy, spondylodiscitis has a good prognosis. In addition to targeted or calculated drug therapy, invasive treatment is the main focus, especially for epidural abscesses. Interventional radiological drainage can represent a less invasive alternative to surgical treatment.

Bacterial adhesion characteristics on implant materials for intervertebral cages: titanium or PEEK for spinal infections?

PURPOSE

Surgical intervention with intercorporal stabilisation in spinal infections is increasingly needed. Our aim was to compare titanium and polyetheretherketon (PEEK) cages according to their adhesion characteristics of different bacteria species in vitro.

METHODS

Plates made from PEEK, polished titanium (Ti), two-surface-titanium (TiMe) (n = 2-3) and original PEEK and porous trabecular structured titanium (TiLi) interbody cages (n = 4) were inoculated in different bacterial solutions, S.aureus (MSSA, MRSA), S.epidermidis and E.coli. Growth characteristics were analysed. Biofilms and bacteria were visualised using confocal- and electron microscopy.

RESULTS

Quantitative adherence of MSSA, MRSA, S.epidermidis and E.coli to Ti, TiMe and PEEK plates were different, with polished titanium being mainly advantageous over PEEK and TiMe with significantly less counts of colony forming units (CFU) for MRSA after 56 h compared to TiMe and at 72 h compared to PEEK (p = 0.04 and p = 0.005). For MSSA, more adherent bacteria were detected on PEEK than on TiMe at 32 h (p = 0.02). For PEEK and TiLi cages, significant differences were found after 8 and 72 h for S.epidermidis (p = 0.02 and p = 0.008) and after 72 h for MSSA (p = 0.002) with higher bacterial counts on PEEK, whereas E.coli showed more CFU on TiLi than PEEK (p = 0.05). Electron microscopy demonstrated enhanced adhesion in transition areas.

CONCLUSION

For S.epidermidis, MSSA and MRSA PEEK cages showed a higher adherence in terms of CFU count, whereas for E.coli PEEK seemed to be advantageous. Electron microscopic visualisation shows that bacteria did not adhere at the titanium mesh structure, but at the border zones of polished material to rougher parts.

Non-contrast versus contrast-enhanced MR in the diagnosis of spondylitis: A quantitative concordance-analysis

Introduction

: Magnetic Resonance (MR) imaging using gadolinium contrast media is an essential imaging modality in diagnosing spondylitis. However, gadolinium contrast is not widely available in Indonesia and relatively expensive. Many MR studies in Indonesia are performed without contrast administration. It is unclear how confident non-contrast MR can diagnose tuberculous spondylitis in comparison to standard contrast MR.

Purposes

: This study aims to evaluate the concordance between the contrast MR and non-contrast spine MR in diagnosing tuberculous spondylitis. We also evaluate the interobserver agreement between the general radiologist and musculoskeletal radiologist in interpreting non-contrast MR of spondylitis.

Materials and Methods

: A cross-sectional study using secondary data was performed to evaluate the concordance between the MR results regarding the usage of contrast media in diagnosing spondylitis. The inclusion criteria were patients over 17 years old who underwent complete sequences of contrast-enhanced MR examination of the spine, referred to radiology with the clinical diagnosis of suspected tuberculous spondylitis, spondylodiscitis, or both. All of the non-contrast and contrast-enhanced MR results were read and interpreted by two independent observers, a musculoskeletal radiologist and a general radiologist, blindly. The interobserver agreement analysis of the MR examination was conducted using Kappa and McNemar test.

Results

: There was no significant difference between the contrast and non-contrast MR in diagnosing spondylitis (P= 0.368) and no significant difference in the interpretation of MR between the first and the second observer (P =  0.343). The concordance between the contrast and non-contrast spine MR in diagnosing spondylitis (R: 0.88, P < 0.001) and the interpretation of MR between both observers (R: 0.65, P < 0.001) were showed in this study.

Conclusion

: There is a high concordance between the contrast and non-contrast MR in diagnosing tuberculous spondylitis. Although contrast MR is preferred as the standard imaging method of spondylitis, in case gadolinium contrast is unavailable, non-contrast MR can still provide valuable information in diagnosing spondylitis.

Antimicrobial therapy and assessing therapeutic response in culture-negative pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis: a retrospective comparative study with culture-positive pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis

Background

There are still controversies regarding the treatment and outcomes in culture-negative pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis (PVO). The purpose of this study is to investigate the antimicrobial therapy, assessment of therapeutic response, and outcome of culture-negative PVO compared to culture-positive PVO.

Methods

A retrospective study was performed with non-surgical lumbar PVO patients. The patients were divided into two groups based on the causative bacterial identification (CN group with culture-negative PVO and CP group with culture-positive PVO). The clinical features, use of antibiotics, laboratory data, and outcomes were compared between the two groups.

Results

Seventy-three patients with 41 (56.2%) of the CN group and 32 (43.8%) of the CP group were enrolled. The CN group showed a shorter duration of parenteral antibiotics (45.88 ± 16.14 vs. 57.31 ± 24.39, p = 0.019) but a tendency of prolonged duration of total (parenteral + oral) antibiotics (101.17 ± 52.84 vs. 84.19 ± 50.29 days, p = 0.168). When parenteral antibiotics were discontinued or switched to oral antibiotics, the mean erythrocyte segmentation rate (ESR, normal range: < 25 mm/h), C-reactive protein (CRP, normal range: < 0.5 mg/dL) level, and visual analog scale (VAS) score of back pain were 42.86 ± 24.05 mm/h, 0.91 ± 1.18 mg/dL, and 4.05 ± 1.07, respectively, with no significant differences between the two groups. The recurrence rates of CN and CP groups were 7.3% (3/41) and 6.3% (2/32), respectively (p = 1.000). The presence of epidural abscess was the most significant factor for the identification of causative bacteria (p = 0.002), and there was no significant relationship between the use of empirical antibiotics before tissue culture and the causative bacterial identification (p = 0.194).

Conclusions

The CN group required a shorter duration of parenteral antibiotics than the CP group. Discontinuation of parenteral antibiotics or changing the administration route can be considered based on the values of ESR, CRP, and VAS score of back pain. The presence of epidural abscess was the most significant factor for the identification of causative bacteria.

Implications for diagnosis and treatment of peri-spinal implant infections from experiences in periprosthetic joint infections-a literature comparison and review

Both, periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) and peri-spinal implant infection (PSII) are serious complications occurring in arthroplasty and spine instrumentation with absolute numbers expected to rise in the next years. The currently existing literature data describing the characteristics of PSII are limited when compared to PJI studies. However, both PJI and PSII exhibit similarities concerning pathogenesis, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis. This literature review aims at comparing PJI and PSII and to develop implications for diagnosis and treatment of PSII from existing studies about PJI. The review was performed on the basis of a structured PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Medline analysis and existing guidelines, with 99 references being included. The results indicate that specific terms like re-infection should be defined in the context of PSII based on existing definitions of PJI, that in vitro biofilm studies and studies analyzing different prosthesis surfaces in arthroplasty could be used for PSII, and that histopathology as an additional standard tool in PSII diagnosis might be helpful. In addition, the development of a standardized algorithm-based treatment system with antibiotic protocols, including long term suppression, for PSII similar to the ones existing for PJI is necessary.

Antibiotic treatment of postoperative spinal implant infections

Postoperative spinal implant infection (PSII) is a serious complication after spinal surgery. It is associated with increased morbidity and mortality for affected patients as well as significant costs for the healthcare system. Due to the formation of biofilm on foreign material, both diagnosis and treatment of PSII can pose a considerable challenge. Modern treatment protocols allow efficient eradication and good clinical outcomes in the majority of patients. In this article, we review the current antibiotic treatment concepts for PSII including the correct choice of antibiotics and their combination. In cases of late-onset PSII where the implants can be removed, two weeks of intravenous (IV) antibiotics followed by 4 weeks of oral antibiotics seem appropriate. If the implant needs to be retained, a 2-week IV antibiotic treatment should be followed by 10 weeks of oral antibiotic therapy with biofilm activity or, in case of problematic pathogens, a long-term suppression therapy. Initial empiric antibiotic therapy should cover staphylococci, streptococci, enterococci and Gram-negative bacilli as the most common pathogens. Antibiotic adjustments according to the type of pathogen and its antimicrobial susceptibility are essential for successful eradication of infection.

Comprehensive treatment algorithm of postoperative spinal implant infection

Postoperative spinal implant infection (PSII) is a commonly found and serious complication after instrumented spinal surgery. Whereas early-onset PSII usually can be diagnosed by clinical symptoms, the diagnosis of late-onset PSII can be often made only by examination of intraoperatively collected samples. The treatment of PSII consists of surgical and antibiotic therapy schemes. In case of early PSII, the retention of spinal implants is a feasible option, whereas late PSII is usually treated by one-staged exchange of the spinal implants. Radical debridement of surrounding tissue should be performed in any case of PSII. The antibiotic treatment depends on either the implants can be removed or need to be retained or exchanged, respectively. If the causative pathogens are sensitive for biofilm-active antibiotic agents, the duration of antibiotic treatment amounts to 12 weeks with retention of spinal implants. In case of problematic pathogens, the application of antibiotics needs to be prolonged for an individual duration. Antibiotic treatment should always be initiated with an intravenous application for at least 2 weeks.

Posterior stabilisation without formal debridement for the treatment of non-tuberculous pyogenic spinal infection in frail and debilitated population - A systematic review and meta-analysis

Non-tuberculous pyogenic spinal infection (PSI) incorporates a variety of different clinical conditions. Surgical interventions may be necessary for severe cases where there is evidence of spinal instability or neurological compromise. The primary surgical procedure, for late-stage PSI, focuses on the anterior approach with aggressive debridement of the infected tissue regions. An alternative treatment method that employs a posterior approach without any formal debridement, is seen as controversial. To the best of our knowledge, few case series and no systematic reviews are assessing the value of this posterior technique. We aim to evaluate the effectiveness of the posterior approach without formal debridement and the associated clinical outcomes, for PSI cases requiring surgical intervention. Several databases including MEDLINE, NHS Evidence, and the Cochrane database were searched from the date of creation of each database to December 16, 2019. A selection of the keywords used includes: "posterior approach", "debridement" and "discitis". Studies were excluded if they involved the anterior approach, carried out formal debridement, or were tuberculous spinal infection cases. We accepted any study type which included adult patients, with spinal infection at any level of the vertebral column. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines were used to follow standard systematic review structure. The main clinical outcomes evaluated include pain, neurological recovery (Frankel Grading System, FGS) post-operative complications, and functional outcomes (Kirkaldy-Willis Criteria and Spine Tango Combined Outcome Measure Index, COMI). Post-surgical neurological improvement was demonstrated with a mean FGS improvement of 1.12 in 102 patients over the included four articles. Post-operative neurological function was found to be improved at a statistically significant level when a random-effects model was applied, with the effect size found to be at 0.68 (p < 0.001). Pain level was improved significantly postoperatively. There were also enhanced functional outcomes post-intervention when the Kirkaldy-Willis criteria and COMI scores were assessed in certain studies. Within the limit of the available literature, our results showed that the posterior approach with posterior stabilisation without formal debridement can result in successful infection resolution, improved pain scores and neurological outcomes. However, Larger series with longer follow-up duration is strongly recommended.

A rare case of spinal epidural abscess: diagnostic challenges and rehabilitation outcomes

Introduction: Spinal epidural abscess is a rare clinical entity with considerable morbidity. Even with prompt diagnosis and treatment, many patients are left with persistent residual neurological deficits. Case report: The purpose of this article is to report a rare case of primary pyogenic spinal epidural abscess. The patient admitted to our clinic because of lumbar pain of increasing severity and fever. Case management consisted of surgical and medical treatment with antibiotics. Postoperatively, with proper rehabilitation program, he markedly improved. Conclusions: Despite a correct management, spinal epidural abscess is associated with a high degree of morbidity and mortality. Proper treatment, rehabilitation programs and long-term follow-up is critical for a better outcome.

CT-guided discitis-osteomyelitis biopsies: needle gauge and microbiology results

PURPOSE

To compare the microbiology results and needle gauge for CT-guided biopsies of suspected discitis-osteomyelitis.

METHODS

All CT-guided biopsies performed for suspected discitis-osteomyelitis at our institution between 2002 and 2019 were reviewed. Biopsy location, needle type and gauge, microbiology, pathology, and clinical and imaging follow-up were obtained through chart review. Yield, sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy were calculated. A pairwise analysis of different needle gauges was also performed with calculations of odds ratios. Naïve Bayes predictive modeling was performed.

RESULTS

241 (age: 59 ± 18 years; 88 [35%] F, 162 [65%] M) biopsies were performed. There were 3 (1%) 11 gauge (G), and 13 (5%) 12-G biopsies; 23 (10%) 13-G biopsies; 75 (31%) 14-G biopsies; and 90 (37%) 16-G, 33 (14%) 18-G, and 4 (2%) 20 G biopsies. True disease status (presence of infection) was determined via either pathology findings (205, 86%) or clinical and imaging follow-up (36, 14%). The most common true positive pathogen was Staphylococcus aureus (31, 33%). Overall biopsy yield, sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy were 39%, 56%, 89%, and 66%, respectively. Pooled biopsy yield, sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy was 56%, 69%, 71%, and 69% for 11-13-G needles and 36%, 53%, 91%, and 65% for 14-20-G needles, respectively, with an odds ratio between the two groups of 2.29 (P = 0.021). Pooled biopsy yield, sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy was 48%, 63%, 85%, and 68% for 11-14-G needles and 32%, 49%, 91%, and 64% for 16-20-G needles, respectively, with an odds ratio between the two groups of 2.02 (P = 0.0086).

CONCLUSION

The use of a larger inner bore diameter/lower gauge biopsy needle may increase the likelihood of culturing the causative microorganism for CT-guided biopsies of discitis-osteomyelitis.

Quality of life and mortality after surgical treatment for vertebral osteomyelitis (VO): a prospective study

PURPOSE

Vertebral osteomyelitis (VO) has a high mortality and leads to chronic pain and functional disability. Surgical treatment is often necessary. To date, little is known about the consequences of surgery on patient outcome. The aim of this study was to determine the quality of life (QoL) and mortality rates of surgically treated VO patients for a period of 2 years.

METHODS

Patients with VO undergoing surgical treatment in a tertiary referral hospital from 2008 to 2015 were included prospectively. Data were collected before (T0) as well as 1 year (T1) and 2 years (T2) post-surgery. Within the European Spine Tango registry, prospective patient and QoL data were collected using validated outcome scores: Oswestry Disability Index, Short Form 36/EuroQol, Visual Analog Scale, and Core Outcome Measures Index.

RESULTS

From 195 patients surgically treated for VO, QoL data were available from 136 patients at T0, 100 patients at T1, and 82 patients at T2, respectively. The 1- and 2-year mortality rates were 20% and 23%. Mainly all QoL outcome scores showed significant improvement at T1 and did not change significantly from T1 to T2.

CONCLUSION

Surgical treatment of VO patients leads to significantly improved QoL. Nevertheless, QoL levels were below those of the general population. Our results underscore that spine disability questionnaires measuring QoL are mandatory to demonstrate comprehensively the severity of this entity. Our study confirms a high mortality and points out the role of VO as a potentially life-threatening condition.

Spinal Infections: An Update

Spinal infection poses a demanding diagnostic and treatment problem for which a multidisciplinary approach with spine surgeons, radiologists, and infectious disease specialists is required. Infections are usually caused by bacterial microorganisms, although fungal infections can also occur. The most common route for spinal infection is through hematogenous spread of the microorganism from a distant infected area. Most patients with spinal infections diagnosed in early stages can be successfully managed conservatively with antibiotics, bed rest, and spinal braces. In cases of gross or pending instability, progressive neurological deficits, failure of conservative treatment, spinal abscess formation, severe symptoms indicating sepsis, and failure of previous conservative treatment, surgical treatment is required. In either case, close monitoring of the patients with spinal infection with serial neurological examinations and imaging studies is necessary.

[Diagnostics of acute and chronic back pain]

BACKGROUND

Back pain is ranked as the fourth highest medical expense per year. The number of affected patients is constantly increasing because of increasing chronification due to insufficient recognition of the cause.

METHODS

The diagnosis of back pain is based on three important pillars. On the one hand, a detailed anamnesis and correct clinical examination by the responsible physician is extremely important, followed by an experienced radiologist who is responsible for determining the imaged-based ethiology of the symptoms.

RESULTS/CONCLUSION

Anamnesis and clinical examination play an important role in identifying patients with a real underlying pathology for the symptomatology in order to provide them with direct imaging for further evaluation. Corresponding pathology in most cases of acute back pain is generally not found but here psychosocial factors ("yellow flags") are in the foreground. Attention should always be paid to the presence of "red flags" and the possibility of extraspinal causes.

Spondylodiscitis: experience of surgical management of complicated cases after failed antibiotic treatment

INTRODUCTION

The term Spondylodiscitis (SD) involves infection of the vertebra (Spondylitis), infection of the intervertebral disc (Discitis), or both (Spondylodiscitis). SD represents a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge to any spine surgeon. Any delay in its diagnosis or management may cause serious long-term morbidity or even lead to mortality. In this study, we report the experience of our Institution in the management of severe and complicated cases of SD.

METHODS

Over a period of 1 year, 39 patients with the diagnosis of SD were surgically treated in Assiut University Hospital, Assiut, Egypt. The management processes were tailored according to the clinical condition, radiological and lab studies of each case; and patients were then prospectively followed-up until they were cured (for a minimum of 6 months). The outcomes were analyzed, to be able to give recommendations while aiming to improve the overall outcome of such dangerous health issue.

RESULTS

In this series, patients were managed surgically by drainage and debridement of the infection site with/without instrumented fusion. Results included: satisfactory fusion was achieved in 97.3% of patients (confidence interval [CI] = 0.6856-1.3421). Neurological Improvement Rate (NIR) was 71.5% (Statistically significant improvement P-value = 0.014) and reoperation rate was 5% (CI = 0.00621-0.18525). Mortality rate was 7.7% (CI = 0.016-0.209). Several aspects were analyzed in each case.

CONCLUSION

Surgical management of severe and complicated cases of SD allows for effective debridement and rapid cure of inflammation, earlier patient mobilization and significantly shorter duration of antibiotic usage.

Pyogenic Spondylodiscitis due to Streptococcus constellatus in an Immunocompromised Male Patient: A Case Report and Review of the Literature

Pyogenic spondylodiscitis is a primary infection of the intervertebral disc and is a rare entity. Here, we describe the case of a 64-year-old male patient, a professional breeder, who attended the Emergency Department with sciatica and back pain that was worsening for a week. The patient had no history of surgery or trauma. The patient had poor oral hygiene. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan showed lumbar spondylodiscitis, and blood cultures revealed Streptococcus constellatus. The patient was initially treated with vancomycin but due to renal failure deterioration, the treatment was changed to daptomycin for 8 weeks. During hospitalization, he endured renal injury and nosocomial respiratory tract infection. The patient was discharged with no further complications. Follow-up revealed improvement of neurological signs. In our case, it seems that poor oral hygiene was the cause of bacteremia, which underlies the importance of a good oral health status in immunocompromised patients not only to prevent but also to successfully eliminate any dental source of infection. S. constellatus is an extremely rare pathogen and to our knowledge only two other cases of pyogenic spondylodiscitis are reported in the literature. Early diagnosis is very important for the prognosis of these patients.

Conservative Treatment of Spondylodiscitis: Possible Therapeutic Solution in Case of Failure of Standard Therapy

Introduction:

Spondylodiscitis (SD) is an uncommon disease but not rare, because it represents around 3–5% of all cases of osteomyelitis. Late diagnosis and/or inadequate treatment often cause irreversible damage to cause neurological deficit. Most require only conservative treatment, sometimes a surgical approach is required.

Aim:

The purpose of this study is to propose a conservative protocol to treat spondylodiscitis when the standard conservative treatment has failed. This alternative treatment has been for a long time at the Codivilla-Putti Institute.

Methods:

We performed a prospective cohort study of 192 consecutive patients who underwent paravertebral intramuscular injections of antibiotic associated with standard treatment at our Center from January 2010 to December 2015 with SD. Of this 192 patients we selected 98 who had already undergone standard antibiotic therapy at another hospital without resolution of the disease. All patients have performed our protocol that provides a total of 3 cycles, each of 3 weeks, repeated at approximately 5 weeks apart. For each patient we evaluated Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR), C-Reactive Protein (CRP), White Blood Cells (WBC) indexes, SF36 and VAS Score at the beginning and at the end of the treatment.

Results:

At a mean follow up of 22 months (range 60-12), clinical healing was achieved in 87 patients (88,9%) of cases with significant reduction in back pain and functional limitation. The VAS Score and the SF36 were better at the end of treatment compared to previous “GOLD STANDARD” treatments in the previous hospitalization in another hospital. In most cases there were slightly reduced in inflammatory indexes.

Conclusion:

There are no studies in the literature demonstrating the effective efficacy of local infiltrative treatment with antibiotics, associated with standard treatment protocol. We believe that our protocol in treating SD, favors an early functional recovery, and be able to offer more chance of success than the standard treatment.

SponDT (Spondylodiscitis Diagnosis and Treatment): spondylodiscitis scoring system

BACKGROUND

Spondylodiscitis is a chameleon among infectious diseases due to the lack of specific symptoms with which it is associated. It is nevertheless a serious infection, with 7% mortality of hospitalized patients, in large part because of delayed diagnosis. The aim of this study was to develop a diagnosis and course-of-disease index to optimize its treatment.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Through analysis of 296 patients between January 1998 and December 2013, we developed a scoring system for spondylodiscitis, which we term SponDT (Spondylodiscitis Diagnosis and Treatment) based on three traits: (1) the inflammatory marker C-reactive protein (CRP) (mg/dl), (2) pain according to a numeric rating scale (NRS) and (3) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to monitor its progression following treatment.

RESULTS

The number of patients receiving treatment increased over the past 15 years of our study. We also found an increasing age of patients at the point of diagnosis across the study, with an average age of 67.7 years. In 34% of patients, spondylodiscitis developed spontaneously. Almost 70% of them did not receive treatment until the first diagnosis using SponDT. Following treatment against spondylodiscitis, pain intensity decreased from 6.0 to 3.1 NRS. The inflammatory markers also decreased (CRP from 119.2 to 46.7 mg/dl). Similarly, MRI revealed a regression in inflammation following treatment. By employing SponDT, patients were diagnosed and entered into treatment with a score of 5.6 (severe spondylodiscitis) and discharged with a score of 2.4 (light/healed spondylodiscitis).

CONCLUSION

SponDT can be used to support the diagnosis of spondylodiscitis, particularly in patients suffering from back pain and elevated levels of inflammation, and can be used during the course of treatment to optimize control of therapy.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IIa-evidence from at least one well-designed controlled trial which is not randomized.

Computed-tomography-guided biopsy in suspected spondylodiscitis: Single-center experience including 201 biopsy procedures

Our propose is to evaluate CT-guided biopsies in suspected spondylodiscitis with respect to puncture site, microbiology findings, histopathology findings and impact on antibiotic therapy. 86 CT-guided spine interventions in suspected spondylodiscitis comprising 201 biopsy procedures were analyzed. Medical records of all patients were screened for microbiology and histopathology reports as well as date, duration and kind of antibiotic therapy. Statistical analyses included calculation of Chi2-tests and logistic regression analyses. Locations of biopsies were intervertebral disc (48.3%), paravertebral soft-tissue (38.3%) and vertebral body (10.9%). Positive microbiological findings were found altogether in 33.8% of cases, positive histopathological findings in 53.6%. Significant associations between positive microbiological findings, positive histopathological findings and antibiotic therapy, respectively, were found. Location of biopsies did not significantly influence rate of positive findings. From the variables age, white blood cell count, serum creatinine and puncture site, none were found to be an independent predictor for a positive microbiological result. We concluded that CT-guided biopsy of intervertebral disc and paravertebral soft tissue yields positive microbiologic findings in a significant proportion of cases. Puncture site is not associated with positive results of microbiology or histopathology.

Treatment algorithm for spontaneous spinal infections: A review of the literature

Background:

Primary spinal infections are rare pathologies with an estimated incidence of 5% of all osteomyelitis. The diagnosis can be challenging and this might result in a late identification. The etiological diagnosis is the primary concern to determine the most appropriate treatment. The aim of this review article was to identify the importance of a methodological attitude toward accurate and prompt diagnosis using an algorithm to aid on spinal infection management.

Methods:

A search was done on spinal infection in some databases including PubMed, ISI Web of Knowledge, Google Scholar, Ebsco, Embasco, and Scopus.

Results:

Literature reveals that on the basis of a clinical suspicion, the diagnosis can be formulated with a rational use of physical, radiological, and microbiological examinations. Microbiological culture samples can be obtained by a percutaneous computed tomography-guided procedure or by an open surgical biopsy. When possible, the samples should be harvested before antibiotic treatment is started. Indications for surgical treatment include neurological deficits or sepsis, spine instability and/or deformity, presence of epidural abscess and failure of conservative treatment.

Conclusion:

A multidisciplinary approach involving both a spinal surgeon and an infectious disease specialist is necessary to better define the treatment strategy. Based on literature findings, a treatment algorithm for the diagnosis and management of primary spinal infections is proposed.