551
|
Hickie IB, Banati R, Stewart CH, Lloyd AR. Are common childhood or adolescent infections risk factors for schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders? Med J Aust 2009. [DOI: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2009.tb02369.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ian B Hickie
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW
| | | | - Claire H Stewart
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW
| | - Andrew R Lloyd
- Inflammation Research Unit, School of Pathology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW
| |
Collapse
|
552
|
Gos T, Günther K, Bielau H, Dobrowolny H, Mawrin C, Trübner K, Brisch R, Steiner J, Bernstein HG, Jankowski Z, Bogerts B. Suicide and depression in the quantitative analysis of glutamic acid decarboxylase-Immunoreactive neuropil. J Affect Disord 2009; 113:45-55. [PMID: 18538859 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2008.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2007] [Revised: 04/25/2008] [Accepted: 04/25/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alterations of GABAergic neurotransmission are assumed to play a crucial role in the pathophysiology of mood disorders. Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) is the key enzyme of GABA synthesis. METHODS Immunohistochemical staining of GAD 65/67 was performed in the orbitofrontal, anterior cingulate and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLC), the entorhinal cortex (EC), the hippocampal formation, and the medial dorsal and lateral dorsal thalamic nuclei, with consecutive determination of GAD-immunoreactive (-ir) neuropil relative density. The study was performed on paraffin-embedded brains from 21 depressed patients (14 of whom had committed suicide) and 18 matched controls. The data were tested using Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney (U) and Spearman statistical procedures. RESULTS As shown by post-hoc U-tests, an increase in the relative density of GAD-ir neuropil was present in the hippocampal formation, specific for suicidal patients. The EC was the only area where non-suicidal patients also revealed an increase compared with controls. On the contrary, the DLC was the only area where a significant decrease existed, specific for non-suicidal patients. Numerous negative correlations were found between the investigated parameter and psychotropic medication. LIMITATIONS A major limitation of this study is the relatively small case number. A further limitation is given by the lack of data on drug exposure across the whole life span. The possible impact of unipolar-bipolar dichotomy of mood disorders on the obtained results should also be considered. CONCLUSION The study, revealing predominantly an increased relative density of GAD-ir neuropil, suggests the diathesis of GABAergic system specific for depressed suicidal patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Gos
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
553
|
Bipolar and major depressive disorder: neuroimaging the developmental-degenerative divide. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2009; 33:699-771. [PMID: 19428491 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 361] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2009] [Accepted: 01/14/2009] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Both major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder are the subject of a voluminous imaging and genetics literature. Here, we attempt a comprehensive review of MRI and metabolic PET studies conducted to date on these two disorders, and interpret our findings from the perspective of developmental and degenerative models of illness. Elevated activity and volume loss of the hippocampus, orbital and ventral prefrontal cortex are recurrent themes in the literature. In contrast, dorsal aspects of the PFC tend to display hypometabolism. Ventriculomegaly and white matter hyperintensities are intimately associated with depression in elderly populations and likely have a vascular origin. Important confounding influences are medication, phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity, and technological limitations. We suggest that environmental stress and genetic risk variants interact with each other in a complex manner to alter neural circuitry and precipitate illness. Imaging genetic approaches hold out promise for advancing our understanding of affective illness.
Collapse
|
554
|
Gos T, Krell D, Brisch R, Bielau H, Trübner K, Steiner J, Bernstein HG, Bogerts B. Demonstration of decreased activity of dorsal raphe nucleus neurons in depressed suicidal patients by the AgNOR staining method. J Affect Disord 2008; 111:251-60. [PMID: 18423885 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2007] [Revised: 03/05/2008] [Accepted: 03/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Suicide and depression are closely related yet distinct phenomena. In both these phenomena, research has focused on central serotonergic system disturbances. The dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) is the main source of serotonergic innervation of limbic structures crucial for the regulation of emotionally influenced behaviour. METHODS The study was carried out on paraffin-embedded brains from 23 depressed patients (12 suicides and 11 non-suicides) and 26 matched controls without mental disorders. The karyometric parameters of DRN neurons were evaluated by the AgNOR silver staining method. RESULTS The significant effect of suicide on the nuclear area was found in the cumulative analysis of all DRN subnuclei (ANOVA, P=0.032). A decreased mean value of this parameter was observed in the suicides group versus controls (t-test, P=0.032). This effect was especially pronounced in the violent suicide victims (t-test, P=0.001), who also demonstrated a decreased AgNOR area versus controls (t-test, P=0.007). No significant effect of depression or polarity on AgNOR parameters was found. LIMITATIONS A major limitation of this study is relatively small case number. A further limitation is given by the lack of data on drug exposure across the whole life span. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that hypoactivity of DRN neurons is a distinct phenomenon in depression, specific only for suicidal subgroup of depressed patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Gos
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland; Department of Psychiatry, Otto-von-Guericke-University, Magdeburg, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
555
|
Zheng LT, Hwang J, Ock J, Lee MG, Lee WH, Suk K. The antipsychotic spiperone attenuates inflammatory response in cultured microglia via the reduction of proinflammatory cytokine expression and nitric oxide production. J Neurochem 2008; 107:1225-35. [PMID: 18786164 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05675.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Glial activation and neuroinflammatory processes play an important role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and HIV dementia. Activated glia cells can secrete various proinflammatory cytokines and neurotoxic mediators, which may influence neuronal cell survival. Recent studies have demonstrated that glia cell-mediated neuroinflammation is also related to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. In the present study, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects of antipsychotics were investigated using cultured brain cells as a model. The results showed that spiperone significantly decreased the production of nitric oxide in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated BV-2 microglia cells, primary microglia and primary astrocyte cultures. Spiperone also significantly inhibited nitric oxide production in adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP)-stimulated primary microglia cultures. Spiperone markedly decreased the production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in BV-2 microglia cells. Spiperone attenuated the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha at mRNA levels in BV-2 microglia cells. Spiperone inhibited nuclear translocation and DNA binding of the p65 subunit of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB), inhibitor of kappa B (IkappaB) degradation, and phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in the lipopolysaccharide-stimulated BV-2 microglia cells. Moreover, spiperone was neuroprotective, as the drug reduced microglia-mediated neuroblastoma cell death in the microglia/neuron co-culture. These results imply that the antipsychotic spiperone has anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in the central nervous system by modulating glial activation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Long Tai Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Brain Science and Engineering Institute, CMRI, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
556
|
van Berckel BN, Bossong MG, Boellaard R, Kloet R, Schuitemaker A, Caspers E, Luurtsema G, Windhorst AD, Cahn W, Lammertsma AA, Kahn RS. Microglia activation in recent-onset schizophrenia: a quantitative (R)-[11C]PK11195 positron emission tomography study. Biol Psychiatry 2008; 64:820-2. [PMID: 18534557 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 462] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2008] [Revised: 04/14/2008] [Accepted: 04/14/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is a brain disease involving progressive loss of gray matter of unknown cause. Most likely, this loss reflects neuronal damage, which should, in turn, be accompanied by microglia activation. Microglia activation can be quantified in vivo using (R)-[(11)C]PK11195 and positron emission tomography (PET). The purpose of this study was to investigate whether microglia activation occurs in patients with recent-onset schizophrenia. METHODS Ten patients with recent-onset schizophrenia and 10 age-matched healthy control subjects were included. A fully quantitative (R)-[(11)C]PK11195 PET scan was performed on all subjects, including arterial sampling to generate a metabolite-corrected input curve. RESULTS Compared with control subjects, binding potential of (R)-[(11)C]PK11195 in total gray matter was increased in patients with schizophrenia. There were no differences in other PET parameters. CONCLUSIONS Activated microglia are present in schizophrenia patients within the first 5 years of disease onset. This suggests that, in this period, neuronal injury is present and that neuronal damage may be involved in the loss of gray matter associated with this disease. Microglia may form a novel target for neuroprotective therapies in schizophrenia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bart N van Berckel
- Department of Psychiatry, Rudolf Magnus Institute for Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
557
|
S100B-immunopositive glia is elevated in paranoid as compared to residual schizophrenia: a morphometric study. J Psychiatr Res 2008; 42:868-76. [PMID: 18001771 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2007] [Revised: 09/28/2007] [Accepted: 10/02/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Several studies have revealed increased S100B levels in peripheral blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with schizophrenia. In this context, it was postulated that elevated levels of S100B may indicate changes of pathophysiological significance to brain tissue in general and astrocytes in particular. However, no histological study has been published on the cellular distribution of S100B in the brain of individuals with schizophrenia to clarify this hypothesis. METHODS The cell-density of S100B-immunopositive glia was analyzed in the anterior cingulate, dorsolateral prefrontal (DLPF), orbitofrontal, and superior temporal cortices/adjacent white matter, pyramidal layer/alveus of the hippocampus, and the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus of 18 patients with schizophrenia and 16 matched control subjects. RESULTS Cortical brain regions contained more S100B-immunopositive glia in the schizophrenia group relative to controls (P=0.046). This effect was caused by the paranoid schizophrenia subgroup (P=0.018). Separate analysis of white matter revealed no diagnostic main group effect (P=0.846). However, the white matter of patients with paranoid schizophrenia contained more (mainly oligodendrocytic) S100B-positive glia as compared to residual schizophrenia (P=0.021). These effects were particularly pronounced in the DLPF brain area. CONCLUSION Our study reveals distinct histological patterns of S100B immunoeactive glia in two schizophrenia subtypes. This may be indicative of a heterogenic pathophysiology or distinct compensatory abilities: Astro-/oligodendroglial activation may result in increased cellular S100B in paranoid schizophrenia. On the contrary, residual schizophrenia may be caused by white matter oligodendroglial damage or dysfunction, associated with a release of S100B into body fluids.
Collapse
|
558
|
Kato T, Mizoguchi Y, Monji A, Horikawa H, Suzuki SO, Seki Y, Iwaki T, Hashioka S, Kanba S. Inhibitory effects of aripiprazole on interferon--induced microglial activation via intracellular Ca2+regulationin vitro. J Neurochem 2008; 106:815-25. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05435.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
|
559
|
Tonelli LH, Stiller J, Rujescu D, Giegling I, Schneider B, Maurer K, Schnabel A, Möller HJ, Chen HH, Postolache TT. Elevated cytokine expression in the orbitofrontal cortex of victims of suicide. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2008; 117:198-206. [PMID: 18081924 PMCID: PMC2612100 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01128.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Based on the reported association between cytokines with depression and suicide, and evidence of increased markers of inflammation in the brain of suicide victims, the present study examined the expression of cytokines in the orbitofrontal cortex of suicide victims. METHOD In a postmortem sample obtained from the Brodman area 11 of suicides (n = 34) and controls (n = 17), real-time RT-PCR was used to compare the expression of mRNA species for tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin (IL)-1 beta, 4, 5, 6, and 13. RESULTS Increased expression of IL-4 was found in women suicide victims and IL-13 in men suicide victims. Elevated but not significant cytokine expression was also observed for TNF-alpha in women suicide victims. CONCLUSION To our knowledge, these results provide the first evidence of the presence of mRNA transcripts of type 2 T-helper cytokines in the human orbitofrontal cortex and their increased expression in the brain of suicides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L. H. Tonelli
- Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - J. Stiller
- Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD,Neurology Consultation Service, St Elizabeths Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
| | - D. Rujescu
- Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - I. Giegling
- Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - B. Schneider
- Department of Psychiatry, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - K. Maurer
- Department of Psychiatry, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - A. Schnabel
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - H.-J. Möller
- Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - H. H. Chen
- Division of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - T. T. Postolache
- Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| |
Collapse
|
560
|
Hashioka S, Klegeris A, Monji A, Kato T, Sawada M, McGeer PL, Kanba S. Antidepressants inhibit interferon-gamma-induced microglial production of IL-6 and nitric oxide. Exp Neurol 2007; 206:33-42. [PMID: 17481608 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2007.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2007] [Revised: 03/17/2007] [Accepted: 03/23/2007] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Circumstantial evidence has suggested that activated microglia may be associated with the pathogenesis of depression. Pro-inflammatory cytokines may also be involved. Therefore, we examined the effects of various types of antidepressants, as well as the mood-stabilizer lithium chloride, on interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma)-induced microglial production of the pro-inflammatory mediators interleukin-6 (IL-6) and nitric oxide (NO). Treatment of the murine microglial 6-3 cells with 100 U/ml of IFN-gamma resulted in an eightfold increase in IL-6 and a tenfold increase in NO into the culture medium. Pretreatment with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluvoxamine, the relatively selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor reboxetine, or the non-selective monoaminergic reuptake inhibitor imipramine, significantly inhibited IL-6 and NO production in a dose-dependent manner. These inhibitions were reversed significantly by SQ 22536, a cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) inhibitor, and, except for reboxetine, by the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor Rp-adenosine3',5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate triethylammonium salt (Rp-3',5'-cAMPS). Lithium chloride, which is believed to act by inhibiting the calcium-dependent release of noradrenaline, had a different spectrum of action on microglial 6-3 cells. It enhanced IFN-gamma-stimulated IL-6 production and inhibited NO production. The inhibitory effect of lithium chloride was not reversed by either SQ 22536 or Rp-3',5'-cAMPS. These results suggest that antidepressants have inhibitory effects on IFN-gamma-activated microglia and these effects are, at least partially, mediated by the cAMP-dependent PKA pathway. On the other hand, the mood stabilizer and anti-manic agent lithium chloride has mixed effects on IFN-gamma-induced microglial activation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sadayuki Hashioka
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Maidashi 3-1-1, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582 Japan.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|