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Ben-Aderet L, Merquiol E, Fahham D, Kumar A, Reich E, Ben-Nun Y, Kandel L, Haze A, Liebergall M, Kosińska MK, Steinmeyer J, Turk B, Blum G, Dvir-Ginzberg M. Detecting cathepsin activity in human osteoarthritis via activity-based probes. Arthritis Res Ther 2015; 17:69. [PMID: 25889265 PMCID: PMC4415352 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-015-0586-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Lysosomal cathepsins have been reported to contribute to Osteoarthritis (OA) pathophysiology due to their increase in pro-inflammatory conditions. Given the causal role of cathepsins in OA, monitoring their specific activity could provide means for assessing OA severity. To this end, we herein sought to assess a cathepsin activity-based probe (ABP), GB123, in vitro and in vivo. Methods Protein levels and activity of cathepsins B and S were monitored by immunoblot analysis and GB123 labeling in cultured primary chondrocytes and conditioned media, following stimuli with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and/or Interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β). Similarly, cathepsin activity was examined in sections of intact cartilage (IC) and degraded cartilage (DC) regions of OA. Finally, synovial fluid (SF) and serum from donors with no signs of diseases, early OA, late OA and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients were analyzed with GB123 to detect distinct activity levels of cathepsin B and S. Results Cathepsin activity in cell lysates, conditioned media explants and DC sections showed enhanced enzymatic activity of cathepsins B and S. Further histological analysis revealed that cathepsin activity was found higher in superficial zones of DC than in IC. Examining serum and SF revealed that cathepsin B is significantly elevated with OA severity in serum and SF, yet levels of cathepsin S are more correlated with synovitis and RA. Conclusions Based on our data, cathepsin activity monitored by ABPs correlated well with OA severity and joint inflammation, directing towards a novel etiological target for OA, which possesses significant translational potential in developing means for non-invasive detection of early signs of OA. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13075-015-0586-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louisa Ben-Aderet
- Laboratory of Cartilage Biology, Institute of Dental Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO BOX 12272, Ein Kerem Campus, Jerusalem, 9112001, Israel.
| | - Emmanuelle Merquiol
- School of Pharmacy- Institute for Drug Research, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO BOX 12065, Ein Kerem Campus, Jerusalem, 9112001, Israel.
| | - Duha Fahham
- School of Pharmacy- Institute for Drug Research, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO BOX 12065, Ein Kerem Campus, Jerusalem, 9112001, Israel.
| | - Ashok Kumar
- Laboratory of Cartilage Biology, Institute of Dental Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO BOX 12272, Ein Kerem Campus, Jerusalem, 9112001, Israel.
| | - Eli Reich
- Laboratory of Cartilage Biology, Institute of Dental Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO BOX 12272, Ein Kerem Campus, Jerusalem, 9112001, Israel.
| | - Yael Ben-Nun
- School of Pharmacy- Institute for Drug Research, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO BOX 12065, Ein Kerem Campus, Jerusalem, 9112001, Israel.
| | - Leonid Kandel
- Joint Replacement and Reconstructive Surgery Unit, Orthopaedic Surgery Complex, Hadassah Mount Scopus Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Amir Haze
- Joint Replacement and Reconstructive Surgery Unit, Orthopaedic Surgery Complex, Hadassah Mount Scopus Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Meir Liebergall
- Joint Replacement and Reconstructive Surgery Unit, Orthopaedic Surgery Complex, Hadassah Mount Scopus Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Marta K Kosińska
- Department of Orthopaedics, Laboratory for Experimental Orthopaedics, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany.
| | - Juergen Steinmeyer
- Department of Orthopaedics, Laboratory for Experimental Orthopaedics, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany.
| | - Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Galia Blum
- School of Pharmacy- Institute for Drug Research, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO BOX 12065, Ein Kerem Campus, Jerusalem, 9112001, Israel.
| | - Mona Dvir-Ginzberg
- Laboratory of Cartilage Biology, Institute of Dental Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, PO BOX 12272, Ein Kerem Campus, Jerusalem, 9112001, Israel.
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Clark AK, Gruber-Schoffnegger D, Drdla-Schutting R, Gerhold KJ, Malcangio M, Sandkühler J. Selective activation of microglia facilitates synaptic strength. J Neurosci 2015; 35:4552-70. [PMID: 25788673 PMCID: PMC4363384 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2061-14.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Revised: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Synaptic plasticity is thought to be initiated by neurons only, with the prevailing view assigning glial cells mere specify supportive functions for synaptic transmission and plasticity. We now demonstrate that glial cells can control synaptic strength independent of neuronal activity. Here we show that selective activation of microglia in the rat is sufficient to rapidly facilitate synaptic strength between primary afferent C-fibers and lamina I neurons, the first synaptic relay in the nociceptive pathway. Specifically, the activation of the CX3CR1 receptor by fractalkine induces the release of interleukin-1β from microglia, which modulates NMDA signaling in postsynaptic neurons, leading to the release of an eicosanoid messenger, which ultimately enhances presynaptic neurotransmitter release. In contrast to the conventional view, this form of plasticity does not require enhanced neuronal activity to trigger the events leading to synaptic facilitation. Augmentation of synaptic strength in nociceptive pathways represents a cellular model of pain amplification. The present data thus suggest that, under chronic pain states, CX3CR1-mediated activation of microglia drives the facilitation of excitatory synaptic transmission in the dorsal horn, which contributes to pain hypersensitivity in chronic pain states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Clark
- Department of Neurophysiology, Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, A-1090 Vienna, Austria, and Wolfson Centre for Age Related Diseases, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom
| | - Doris Gruber-Schoffnegger
- Department of Neurophysiology, Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, A-1090 Vienna, Austria, and
| | - Ruth Drdla-Schutting
- Department of Neurophysiology, Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, A-1090 Vienna, Austria, and
| | - Katharina J Gerhold
- Department of Neurophysiology, Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, A-1090 Vienna, Austria, and
| | - Marzia Malcangio
- Wolfson Centre for Age Related Diseases, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom
| | - Jürgen Sandkühler
- Department of Neurophysiology, Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, A-1090 Vienna, Austria, and
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53
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Bian C, Zhao ZQ, Zhang YQ, Lü N. Involvement of CX3CL1/CX3CR1 signaling in spinal long term potentiation. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118842. [PMID: 25768734 PMCID: PMC4358970 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The long-term potentiation (LTP) of spinal C-fiber-evoked field potentials is considered as a fundamental mechanism of central sensitization in the spinal cord. Accumulating evidence has showed the contribution of spinal microglia to spinal LTP and pathological pain. As a key signaling of neurons-microglia interactions, the involvement of CX3CL1/CX3CR1 signaling in pathological pain has also been investigated extensively. The present study examined whether CX3CL1/CX3CR1 signaling plays a role in spinal LTP. The results showed that 10-trains tetanic stimulation (100 Hz, 2s) of the sciatic nerve (TSS) produced a significant LTP of C-fiber-evoked field potentials lasting for over 3 h in the rat spinal dorsal horn. Blockade of CX3CL1/CX3CR1 signaling with an anti-CX3CR1 neutralizing antibody (CX3CR1 AB) markedly suppressed TSS-induced LTP. Exogenous CX3CL1 significantly potentiated 3-trains TSS-induced LTP in rats. Consistently, spinal LTP of C-fiber-evoked field potentials was also induced by TSS (100 Hz, 1s, 4 trains) in all C57BL/6 wild type (WT) mice. However, in CX3CR1-/- mice, TSS failed to induce LTP and behavioral hypersensitivity, confirming an essential role of CX3CR1 in spinal LTP induction. Furthermore, blockade of IL-18 or IL-23, the potential downstream factors of CX3CL1/CX3CR1 signaling, with IL-18 BP or anti-IL-23 neutralizing antibody (IL-23 AB), obviously suppressed spinal LTP in rats. These results suggest that CX3CL1/CX3CR1 signaling is involved in LTP of C-fiber-evoked field potentials in the rodent spinal dorsal horn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Bian
- Institute of Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Zhi-Qi Zhao
- Institute of Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yu-Qiu Zhang
- Institute of Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- * E-mail: (NL); (YQZ)
| | - Ning Lü
- Institute of Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- * E-mail: (NL); (YQZ)
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54
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Huang W, Liang Q, Chen J, Zhu H, Xie W, Wang Y, Yang B, Peng W, Xiong X. Quantitative proteomic analysis of synovial tissue from rats with collagen-induced arthritis. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra18743e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathway networks involved in RA pathological process were analyzed by Ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Huang
- Institute of Integrated Medicine
- Xiangya Hospital
- Central South University
- Changsha
- PR China
| | - Qinghua Liang
- Institute of Integrated Medicine
- Xiangya Hospital
- Central South University
- Changsha
- PR China
| | - Jiang Chen
- Central of Telemedicine
- Xiangya Hospital
- Central South University
- Changsha
- PR China
| | - Hao Zhu
- Institute of Integrated Medicine
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University
- Soochow
- PR China
| | - Wei Xie
- Department of Pathology & Immunology
- Baylor College of Medicine
- Houston
- USA
| | - Yang Wang
- Institute of Integrated Medicine
- Xiangya Hospital
- Central South University
- Changsha
- PR China
| | - Bo Yang
- Institute of Integrated Medicine
- Xiangya Hospital
- Central South University
- Changsha
- PR China
| | - Weijun Peng
- Department of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine
- The Second Xiangya Hospital
- Central South University
- Changsha 410011
- PR China
| | - Xingui Xiong
- Institute of Integrated Medicine
- Xiangya Hospital
- Central South University
- Changsha
- PR China
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55
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Old EA, Clark AK, Malcangio M. The role of glia in the spinal cord in neuropathic and inflammatory pain. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2015; 227:145-170. [PMID: 25846618 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-46450-2_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Chronic pain, both inflammatory and neuropathic, is a debilitating condition in which the pain experience persists after the painful stimulus has resolved. The efficacy of current treatment strategies using opioids, NSAIDS and anticonvulsants is limited by the extensive side effects observed in patients, underlining the necessity for novel therapeutic targets. Preclinical models of chronic pain have recently provided evidence for a critical role played by glial cells in the mechanisms underlying the chronicity of pain, both at the site of damage in the periphery and in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Here microglia and astrocytes respond to the increased input from the periphery and change morphology, increase in number and release pro-nociceptive mediators such as ATP, cytokines and chemokines. These gliotransmitters can sensitise neurons by activation of their cognate receptors thereby contributing to central sensitization which is fundamental for the generation of allodynia, hyperalgesia and spontaneous pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Amy Old
- Wolfson Centre for Age Related Diseases, King's College London, London, UK
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Willemen HLDM, Eijkelkamp N, Garza Carbajal A, Wang H, Mack M, Zijlstra J, Heijnen CJ, Kavelaars A. Monocytes/Macrophages control resolution of transient inflammatory pain. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2014; 15:496-506. [PMID: 24793056 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2014.01.491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2013] [Revised: 12/20/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Insights into mechanisms governing resolution of inflammatory pain are of great importance for many chronic pain-associated diseases. Here we investigate the role of macrophages/monocytes and the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10) in the resolution of transient inflammatory pain. Depletion of mice from peripheral monocytes/macrophages delayed resolution of intraplantar IL-1β- and carrageenan-induced inflammatory hyperalgesia from 1 to 3 days to >1 week. Intrathecal administration of a neutralizing IL-10 antibody also markedly delayed resolution of IL-1β- and carrageenan-induced inflammatory hyperalgesia. Recently, we showed that IL-1β- and carrageenan-induced hyperalgesia is significantly prolonged in LysM-GRK2(+/-) mice, which have reduced levels of G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) in LysM(+) myeloid cells. Here we show that adoptive transfer of wild-type, but not of GRK2(+/-), bone marrow-derived monocytes normalizes the resolution of IL-1β-induced hyperalgesia in LysM-GRK2(+/-) mice. Adoptive transfer of IL-10(-/-) bone marrow-derived monocytes failed to normalize the duration of IL-1β-induced hyperalgesia in LysM-GRK2(+/-) mice. Mechanistically, we show that GRK2(+/-) macrophages produce less IL-10 in vitro. In addition, intrathecal IL-10 administration attenuated IL-1β-induced hyperalgesia in LysM-GRK2(+/-) mice, whereas it had no effect in wild-type mice. Our data uncover a key role for monocytes/macrophages in promoting resolution of inflammatory hyperalgesia via a mechanism dependent on IL-10 signaling in dorsal root ganglia. PERSPECTIVE We show that IL-10-producing monocytes/macrophages promote resolution of transient inflammatory hyperalgesia. Additionally, we show that reduced monocyte/macrophage GRK2 impairs resolution of hyperalgesia and reduces IL-10 production. We propose that low GRK2 expression and/or impaired IL-10 production by monocytes/macrophages represent peripheral biomarkers for the risk of developing chronic pain after inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanneke L D M Willemen
- Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Niels Eijkelkamp
- Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Anibal Garza Carbajal
- Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department for Molecular Human Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | - Huijing Wang
- Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Matthias Mack
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Regensburg University Hospital, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Jitske Zijlstra
- Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Cobi J Heijnen
- Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Symptom Research, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Annemieke Kavelaars
- Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Symptom Research, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas.
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Bjurstrom MF, Giron SE, Griffis CA. Cerebrospinal Fluid Cytokines and Neurotrophic Factors in Human Chronic Pain Populations: A Comprehensive Review. Pain Pract 2014; 16:183-203. [PMID: 25353056 DOI: 10.1111/papr.12252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Chronic pain is a prevalent and debilitating condition, conveying immense human burden. Suffering is caused not only by painful symptoms, but also through psychopathological and detrimental physical consequences, generating enormous societal costs. The current treatment armamentarium often fails to achieve satisfying pain relief; thus, research directed toward elucidating the complex pathophysiological mechanisms underlying chronic pain syndromes is imperative. Central neuroimmune activation and neuroinflammation have emerged as driving forces in the transition from acute to chronic pain, leading to central sensitization and decreased opioid efficacy, through processes in which glia have been highlighted as key contributors. Under normal conditions, glia exert a protective role, but in different pathological states, a deleterious role is evident--directly and indirectly modulating and enhancing pain transmission properties of neurons, and shaping synaptic plasticity in a dysfunctional manner. Cytokines and neurotrophic factors have been identified as pivotal mediators involved in neuroimmune activation pathways and cascades in various preclinical chronic pain models. Research confirming these findings in humans has so far been scarce, but this comprehensive review provides coherent data supporting the clear association of a mechanistic role of altered central cytokines and neurotrophic factors in a number of chronic pain states despite varying etiologies. Given the importance of these factors in neuropathic and inflammatory chronic pain states, prospective therapeutic strategies, and directions for future research in this emerging field, are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin F Bjurstrom
- Cousins Center for Psychoneuroimmunology, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, California, U.S.A
| | - Sarah E Giron
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Southern California (USC), Los Angeles, California, U.S.A
| | - Charles A Griffis
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, California, U.S.A
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58
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Distinct spatial distribution of microglia and macrophages following mesenchymal stem cell implantation in mouse brain. Immunol Cell Biol 2014; 92:650-8. [DOI: 10.1038/icb.2014.49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Revised: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Carr FB, Géranton SM, Hunt SP. Descending controls modulate inflammatory joint pain and regulate CXC chemokine and iNOS expression in the dorsal horn. Mol Pain 2014; 10:39. [PMID: 24947159 PMCID: PMC4080690 DOI: 10.1186/1744-8069-10-39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Descending control of nociceptive processing, by pathways originating in the rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM) and terminating in the dorsal horn, contributes to behavioural hypersensitivity in a number of pain models. Two facilitatory pathways have been identified and are characterized by serotonin (5-HT) content or expression of the mu opiate receptor. Here we investigated the contribution of these pathways to inflammatory joint pain behaviour and gene expression changes in the dorsal horn. Results Selective lesion of the descending serotonergic (5-HT) pathway by prior intrathecal administration of 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine attenuated hypersensitivity at early time points following ankle injection of CFA. In a separate study ablation of the mu opioid receptor expressing (MOR+) cells of the RVM, by microinjection of the toxin dermorphin-saporin, resulted in a more prolonged attenuation of hypersensitivity post CFA. Microarray analysis was carried out to identify changes in dorsal horn gene expression associated with descending facilitation by the MOR+ pathway at 7d post joint inflammation. This analysis led to the identification of a number of genes including the chemokines Cxcl9 and Cxcl10, their common receptor Cxcr3, and the proinflammatory gene Nos2 (inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS). Conclusions These findings demonstrate that joint pain behaviour is dependent in part on descending facilitation via the RVM, and identify a novel pathway driving CXC chemokine and iNOS expression in the dorsal horn.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Stephen P Hunt
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK.
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Walsh DA, McWilliams DF. Mechanisms, impact and management of pain in rheumatoid arthritis. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2014; 10:581-92. [PMID: 24861185 DOI: 10.1038/nrrheum.2014.64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
People with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) identify pain as their most important symptom, one that often persists despite optimal control of inflammatory disease. RA pain arises from multiple mechanisms, involving inflammation, peripheral and central pain processing and, with disease progression, structural change within the joint. Consequently, RA pain has a wide range of characteristics-constant or intermittent, localized or widespread-and is often associated with psychological distress and fatigue. Dominant pain mechanisms in an individual are identified by critical evaluation of clinical symptoms and signs, and by laboratory and imaging tests. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for effective management, although evidence from preclinical models should be interpreted with caution. A range of pharmacological analgesic and immunomodulatory agents, psychological interventions and surgery may help manage RA pain. Pain contributes importantly to the clinical assessment of inflammatory disease activity, and noninflammatory components of RA pain should be considered when gauging eligibility for or response to biologic agents. Further randomized controlled trials are required to determine the optimal usage of analgesics in RA, and novel agents with greater efficacy and lower propensity for adverse events are urgently needed. Meanwhile, targeted use of existing treatments could reduce pain in people with RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Walsh
- Arthritis Research UK Pain Centre, Academic Rheumatology, University of Nottingham, Clinical Sciences Building, City Hospital, Hucknall Road, Nottingham NG5 1PB, UK
| | - Daniel F McWilliams
- Arthritis Research UK Pain Centre, Academic Rheumatology, University of Nottingham, Clinical Sciences Building, City Hospital, Hucknall Road, Nottingham NG5 1PB, UK
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Kim M, Jeon J, Baek J, Choi J, Park EJ, Song J, Bang H, Suh KH, Kim YH, Kim J, Kim D, Min KH, Lee KO. Synthesis of Vinyl Sulfone-tethered Proline Derivatives as Highly Selective Cathepsin S Inhibitors. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2014. [DOI: 10.5012/bkcs.2014.35.2.345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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62
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Jha MK, Suk K. Glia-based biomarkers and their functional role in the CNS. Expert Rev Proteomics 2014; 10:43-63. [DOI: 10.1586/epr.12.70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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63
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Zhao P, Metcalf M, Bunnett NW. Biased signaling of protease-activated receptors. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2014; 5:67. [PMID: 24860547 PMCID: PMC4026716 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2014.00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 04/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In addition to their role in protein degradation and digestion, proteases can also function as hormone-like signaling molecules that regulate vital patho-physiological processes, including inflammation, hemostasis, pain, and repair mechanisms. Certain proteases can signal to cells by cleaving protease-activated receptors (PARs), a family of four G protein-coupled receptors. PARs are expressed by almost all cell types, control important physiological and disease-relevant processes, and are an emerging therapeutic target for major diseases. Most information about PAR activation and function derives from studies of a few proteases, for example thrombin in the case of PAR1, PAR3, and PAR4, and trypsin in the case of PAR2 and PAR4. These proteases cleave PARs at established sites with the extracellular N-terminal domains, and expose tethered ligands that stabilize conformations of the cleaved receptors that activate the canonical pathways of G protein- and/or β-arrestin-dependent signaling. However, a growing number of proteases have been identified that cleave PARs at divergent sites to activate distinct patterns of receptor signaling and trafficking. The capacity of these proteases to trigger distinct signaling pathways is referred to as biased signaling, and can lead to unique patho-physiological outcomes. Given that a different repertoire of proteases are activated in various patho-physiological conditions that may activate PARs by different mechanisms, signaling bias may account for the divergent actions of proteases and PARs. Moreover, therapies that target disease-relevant biased signaling pathways may be more effective and selective approaches for the treatment of protease- and PAR-driven diseases. Thus, rather than mediating the actions of a few proteases, PARs may integrate the biological actions of a wide spectrum of proteases in different patho-physiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peishen Zhao
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Matthew Metcalf
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Nigel W. Bunnett
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- *Correspondence: Nigel W. Bunnett, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia e-mail:
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Abstract
Neuropathic pain represents a major problem in clinical medicine because it causes debilitating suffering and is largely resistant to currently available analgesics. A characteristic of neuropathic pain is abnormal response to somatic sensory stimulation. Thus, patients suffering peripheral neuropathies may experience pain caused by stimuli which are normally nonpainful, such as simple touching of the skin or by changes in temperature, as well as exaggerated responses to noxious stimuli. Convincing evidence suggests that this hypersensitivity is the result of pain remaining centralized. In particular, at the first pain synapse in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, the gain of neurons is increased and neurons begin to be activated by innocuous inputs. In recent years, it has become appreciated that a remote damage in the peripheral nervous system results in neuronal plasticity and changes in microglial and astrocyte activity, as well as infiltration of macrophages and T cells, which all contribute to central sensitization. Specifically, the release of pronociceptive factors such as cytokines and chemokines from neurons and non-neuronal cells can sensitize neurons of the first pain synapse. In this article we review the current evidence for the role of cytokines in mediating spinal neuron–non-neuronal cell communication in neuropathic pain mechanisms following peripheral nerve injury. Specific and selective control of cytokine-mediated neuronal–glia interactions results in attenuation of the hypersensitivity to both noxious and innocuous stimuli observed in neuropathic pain models, and may represent an avenue for future therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Clark
- Wolfson Centre for Age Related Diseases, King's College London, London, UK
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Inhibition of cathepsin S produces neuroprotective effects after traumatic brain injury in mice. Mediators Inflamm 2013; 2013:187873. [PMID: 24282339 PMCID: PMC3824312 DOI: 10.1155/2013/187873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Revised: 08/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cathepsin S (CatS) is a cysteine protease normally present in lysosomes. It has long been regarded as an enzyme that is primarily involved in general protein degradation. More recently, mounting evidence has shown that it is involved in Alzheimer disease, seizures, age-related inflammatory processes, and neuropathic pain. In this study, we investigated the time course of CatS protein and mRNA expression and the cellular distribution of CatS in a mouse model of traumatic brain injury (TBI). To clarify the roles of CatS in TBI, we injected the mice intraventricularly with LHVS, a nonbrain penetrant, irreversible CatS inhibitor, and examined the effect on inflammation and neurobehavioral function. We found that expression of CatS was increased as early as 1 h after TBI at both protein and mRNA levels. The increased expression was detected in microglia and neurons. Inhibition of CatS significantly reduced the level of TBI-induced inflammatory factors in brain tissue and alleviated brain edema. Additionally, administration of LHVS led to a decrease in neuronal degeneration and improved neurobehavioral function. These results imply that CatS is involved in the secondary injury after TBI and provide a new perspective for preventing secondary injury after TBI.
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Shi Q, Abusarah J, Baroudi G, Fernandes JC, Fahmi H, Benderdour M. Response to 'Ramipril attenuates lipid peroxidation and cardiac fibrosis in an experimental model of rheumatoid arthritis' - authors' reply. Arthritis Res Ther 2013; 15:406. [PMID: 23566352 PMCID: PMC3672737 DOI: 10.1186/ar4196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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Ogbonna AC, Clark AK, Gentry C, Hobbs C, Malcangio M. Pain-like behaviour and spinal changes in the monosodium iodoacetate model of osteoarthritis in C57Bl/6 mice. Eur J Pain 2012; 17:514-26. [PMID: 23169679 DOI: 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2012.00223.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Osteoarthritis (OA) is a highly prevalent, age-related pain condition that poses a significant clinical problem. Here, in the monosodium iodoacetate (MIA) model of OA, we have characterized pain behaviours and associated changes at the first pain synapse in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. METHODS Mice received intra-articular injections of 0.5, 0.75 and 1 mg MIA and mechanical paw withdrawal threshold was monitored for up to 4 weeks. An intrathecal injection of peptide antagonist calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP8-37 ) was given 3 weeks post MIA and paw withdrawal thresholds were measured after 1 and 3 h. Immunohistochemical analysis of the lumbar dorsal horn was carried out and activity-evoked CGRP release was measured from isolated lumbar dorsal horn slices - with dorsal roots attached. RESULTS By 2 weeks after intra-articular MIA injection, mechanical hypersensitivity was established in the ipsilateral hindpaw. There was no evidence of sensory neuron damage in lumbar dorsal root ganglia 7 days after 1 mg MIA. However, both dorsal horn neuron activation and microglial response (Fos and Iba-1 immunostaining) but not reactive astrocytes (glial fibrillary acidic protein) were observed. Evoked CGRP release was greater from dorsal horn slices of MIA-treated mice compared with control. Furthermore, intrathecal administration of peptide antagonist CGRP8-37 acutely attenuated established MIA-induced mechanical hypersensitivity. CONCLUSIONS Intra-articular MIA is associated with referred mechanical hypersensitivity and increased release of CGRP from primary afferent fibres in the dorsal horn where second-order neuron activation is associated with a microglial response. Antagonism of CGRP receptor activation provides a therapeutic avenue for the treatment of pain in OA.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Ogbonna
- Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, King's College London, UK
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Willemen HLDM, Huo XJ, Mao-Ying QL, Zijlstra J, Heijnen CJ, Kavelaars A. MicroRNA-124 as a novel treatment for persistent hyperalgesia. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:143. [PMID: 22731384 PMCID: PMC3418202 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2012] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Chronic pain is often associated with microglia activation in the spinal cord. We recently showed that microglial levels of the kinase G protein–coupled receptor kinase (GRK)2 are reduced in models of chronic pain. We also found that mice with a cell-specific reduction of around 50% in GRK2 level in microglia/macrophages (LysM-GRK2+/− mice) develop prolonged inflammatory hyperalgesia concomitantly with ongoing spinal microglia/macrophage activation. The microRNA miR-124 is thought to keep microglia/macrophages in brain and spinal cord in a quiescent state. In the present study, we investigated the contribution of miR-124 to regulation of hyperalgesia and microglia/macrophage activation in GRK2-deficient mice. In addition, we investigated the effect of miR-124 on chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain in wild-type (WT) mice. Methods Hyperalgesia was induced by intraplantar IL-1β in WT and LysM-GRK2+/− mice. We determined spinal cord microglia/macrophage miR-124 expression and levels of pro-inflammatory M1 and anti-inflammatory M2 activation markers. The effect of intrathecal miR-124 treatment on IL-1β-induced hyperalgesia and spinal M1/M2 phenotype, and on carrageenan-induced and spared nerve injury-induced chronic hyperalgesia in WT mice was analyzed. Results Transition from acute to persistent hyperalgesia in LysM-GRK2+/− mice is associated with reduced spinal cord microglia miR-124 levels. In our LysM-GRK2+/− mice, there was a switch towards a pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype together with increased pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Intrathecal administration of miR-124 completely prevented the transition to persistent pain in response to IL-1β in LysM-GRK2+/− mice. The miR-124 treatment also normalized expression of spinal M1/M2 markers of LysM-GRK2+/− mice. Moreover, intrathecal miR-124 treatment reversed the persistent hyperalgesia induced by carrageenan in WT mice and prevented development of mechanical allodynia in the spared nerve injury model of chronic neuropathic pain in WT mice. Conclusions We present the first evidence that intrathecal miR-124 treatment can be used to prevent and treat persistent inflammatory and neuropathic pain. In addition, we show for the first time that persistent hyperalgesia in GRK2-deficient mice is associated with an increased ratio of M1/M2 type markers in spinal cord microglia/macrophages, which is restored by miR-124 treatment. We propose that intrathecal miR-124 treatment might be a powerful novel treatment for pathological chronic pain with persistent microglia activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanneke L D M Willemen
- Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease-NIDOD, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, 3584 EA, The Netherlands
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