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Choolani M, Mahyuddin AP, Hahn S. The promise of fetal cells in maternal blood. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2012; 26:655-67. [PMID: 22795236 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2012.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2012] [Revised: 05/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/10/2012] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Delaying childbirth increases the proportion of advanced maternal age pregnancies. This increases the number of pregnancies requiring invasive prenatal testing. Prenatal diagnosis of chromosomal aneuploidies and monogenic disorders requires fetal cells obtained through invasive procedures (i.e. chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis). These procedures carry a risk of fetal loss, which causes anxiety to at-risk couples. Intact fetal cells entering maternal circulation have raised the possibility of non-invasive prenatal diagnosis. Rarity of fetal cells, however, has made it challenging. Fetal nucleated red blood cells are ideal candidate target cells because they have limited lifespan, contain true representation of fetal genotype, contain specific fetal cell identifiers (embryonic and fetal globins), and allow interrogation with chromosomal fluorescence in-situ hybridisation and possibly with array comparative genomic hybridisation. The utility of fetal nucleated red blood cells in non-invasive prenatal diagnosis has not reached clinical application because of the inconsistencies in enrichment strategies and rarity of cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahesh Choolani
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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Abstract
Polymeric nanoparticles-based therapeutics show great promise in the treatment of a wide range of diseases, due to the flexibility in which their structures can be modified, with intricate definition over their compositions, structures and properties. Advances in polymerization chemistries and the application of reactive, efficient and orthogonal chemical modification reactions have enabled the engineering of multifunctional polymeric nanoparticles with precise control over the architectures of the individual polymer components, to direct their assembly and subsequent transformations into nanoparticles of selective overall shapes, sizes, internal morphologies, external surface charges and functionalizations. In addition, incorporation of certain functionalities can modulate the responsiveness of these nanostructures to specific stimuli through the use of remote activation. Furthermore, they can be equipped with smart components to allow their delivery beyond certain biological barriers, such as skin, mucus, blood, extracellular matrix, cellular and subcellular organelles. This tutorial review highlights the importance of well-defined chemistries, with detailed ties to specific biological hurdles and opportunities, in the design of nanostructures for various biomedical delivery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud Elsabahy
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, P.O. Box 30012, 3255 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77842-3012, United States
- Laboratory for Synthetic-Biologic Interactions, Texas A&M University, P.O. Box 30012, 3255 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77842-3012, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Karen L. Wooley
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, P.O. Box 30012, 3255 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77842-3012, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, P.O. Box 30012, 3255 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77842-3012, United States
- Laboratory for Synthetic-Biologic Interactions, Texas A&M University, P.O. Box 30012, 3255 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77842-3012, United States
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Varadarajan N, Kwon DS, Law KM, Ogunniyi AO, Anahtar MN, Richter JM, Walker BD, Love JC. Rapid, efficient functional characterization and recovery of HIV-specific human CD8+ T cells using microengraving. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:3885-90. [PMID: 22355106 PMCID: PMC3309713 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1111205109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The nature of certain clinical samples (tissue biopsies, fluids) or the subjects themselves (pediatric subjects, neonates) often constrain the number of cells available to evaluate the breadth of functional T-cell responses to infections or therapeutic interventions. The methods most commonly used to assess this functional diversity ex vivo and to recover specific cells to expand in vitro usually require more than 10(6) cells. Here we present a process to identify antigen-specific responses efficiently ex vivo from 10(4)-10(5) single cells from blood or mucosal tissues using dense arrays of subnanoliter wells. The approach combines on-chip imaging cytometry with a technique for capturing secreted proteins--called "microengraving"--to enumerate antigen-specific responses by single T cells in a manner comparable to conventional assays such as ELISpot and intracellular cytokine staining. Unlike those assays, however, the individual cells identified can be recovered readily by micromanipulation for further characterization in vitro. Applying this method to assess HIV-specific T-cell responses demonstrates that it is possible to establish clonal CD8(+) T-cell lines that represent the most abundant specificities present in circulation using 100- to 1,000-fold fewer cells than traditional approaches require and without extensive genotypic analysis a priori. This rapid (<24 h), efficient, and inexpensive process should improve the comparative study of human T-cell immunology across ages and anatomic compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navin Varadarajan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Douglas S. Kwon
- The Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Charlestown, MA 02129; Divisions of
- Infectious Diseases and
| | - Kenneth M. Law
- The Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Charlestown, MA 02129; Divisions of
| | - Adebola O. Ogunniyi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Melis N. Anahtar
- The Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Charlestown, MA 02129; Divisions of
| | - James M. Richter
- Gastroenterology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114; and
| | - Bruce D. Walker
- The Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Charlestown, MA 02129; Divisions of
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815
| | - J. Christopher Love
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
- The Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Charlestown, MA 02129; Divisions of
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Analytical technologies for integrated single-cell analysis of human immune responses. Methods Mol Biol 2012; 853:211-35. [PMID: 22323150 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-567-1_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The immune system is a network of cells in which the constitutive members interact through dense and sometimes overlapping connections. The extreme complexity of this network poses a significant challenge for monitoring pathological conditions (e.g., food allergies, autoimmunity, and other chronic inflammatory diseases) and for discovering robust signatures of immunological responses that correlate with or predict the efficacy of interventions. The diversity among immune cells found in clinical samples (variations in cellular functions, lineages, and clonotypic breadth) requires approaches for monitoring immune responses with single-cell resolution.In this chapter, we present an engineering approach for integrated single-cell analysis that uses interchangeable modular operations to provide a comprehensive characterization of the phenotypic, functional, and genetic variations for individual cells. We focus on the use of microfabricated devices to isolate and interrogate single cells, and on the analytical components that enable subsequent detection, correlation, and interpretation of multidimensional sets of data. We discuss specific challenges and opportunities in the realization of this concept, and review two examples where it has been implemented. The presented approach should provide a basis for the design and implementation of nonconventional bioanalytical processes for studying specific responses of an immune system.
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Varadarajan N, Julg B, Yamanaka YJ, Chen H, Ogunniyi AO, McAndrew E, Porter LC, Piechocka-Trocha A, Hill BJ, Douek DC, Pereyra F, Walker BD, Love JC. A high-throughput single-cell analysis of human CD8⁺ T cell functions reveals discordance for cytokine secretion and cytolysis. J Clin Invest 2011; 121:4322-31. [PMID: 21965332 DOI: 10.1172/jci58653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2011] [Accepted: 08/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
CD8+ T cells are a key component of the adaptive immune response to viral infection. An inadequate CD8+ T cell response is thought to be partly responsible for the persistent chronic infection that arises following infection with HIV. It is therefore critical to identify ways to define what constitutes an adequate or inadequate response. IFN-γ production has been used as a measure of T cell function, but the relationship between cytokine production and the ability of a cell to lyse virus-infected cells is not clear. Moreover, the ability to assess multiple CD8+ T cell functions with single-cell resolution using freshly isolated blood samples, and subsequently to recover these cells for further functional analyses, has not been achieved. As described here, to address this need, we have developed a high-throughput, automated assay in 125-pl microwells to simultaneously evaluate the ability of thousands of individual CD8+ T cells from HIV-infected patients to mediate lysis and to produce cytokines. This concurrent, direct analysis enabled us to investigate the correlation between immediate cytotoxic activity and short-term cytokine secretion. The majority of in vivo primed, circulating HIV-specific CD8+ T cells were discordant for cytolysis and cytokine secretion, notably IFN-γ, when encountering cognate antigen presented on defined numbers of cells. Our approach should facilitate determination of signatures of functional variance among individual effector CD8+ T cells, including those from mucosal samples and those induced by vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navin Varadarajan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqing Lin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Gothenburg, S-41296, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Ryan D, Ren K, Wu H. Single-cell assays. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2011; 5:21501. [PMID: 21559238 PMCID: PMC3089644 DOI: 10.1063/1.3574448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2010] [Accepted: 03/11/2011] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
This review presents an overview of literature that describes the applications of microfluidics to assay individual cells. We quantify the content of an individual mammalian cell, so that we can understand what criteria a single-cell assay must satisfy to be successful. We put in context the justification for single-cell assays and identify the characteristics that are relevant to single-cell assays. We review the literature from the past 24 months that describe the methods that use microfabrication-conventional or otherwise-and microfluidics in particular to study individual cells, and we present our views on how an increasing emphasis on three-dimensional cell culture and the demonstration of the first chemically defined cell might impact single-cell assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Declan Ryan
- Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
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Gunasekaran K, Nguyen TH, Maynard HD, Davis TP, Bulmus V. Conjugation of siRNA with Comb-Type PEG Enhances Serum Stability and Gene Silencing Efficiency. Macromol Rapid Commun 2011; 32:654-9. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.201000804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Revised: 01/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Lee SH, Mok H, Park TG. Di- and Triblock siRNA-PEG Copolymers: PEG Density Effect of Polyelectrolyte Complexes on Cellular Uptake and Gene Silencing Efficiency. Macromol Biosci 2010; 11:410-8. [DOI: 10.1002/mabi.201000347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Love KR, Panagiotou V, Jiang B, Stadheim TA, Love JC. Integrated single-cell analysis shows Pichia pastoris secretes protein stochastically. Biotechnol Bioeng 2010; 106:319-25. [PMID: 20148400 DOI: 10.1002/bit.22688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The production of heterologous proteins by secretion from cellular hosts is an important determinant for the cost of biotherapeutics. A single-cell analytical method called microengraving was used to examine the heterogeneity in secretion by the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris. We show that constitutive secretion of a human Fc fragment by P. pastoris is not cell-cycle dependent, but rather fluctuates between states of high and low productivity in a stochastic manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry Routenberg Love
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA.
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Han Q, Bradshaw EM, Nilsson B, Hafler DA, Love JC. Multidimensional analysis of the frequencies and rates of cytokine secretion from single cells by quantitative microengraving. LAB ON A CHIP 2010; 10:1391-400. [PMID: 20376398 PMCID: PMC3128808 DOI: 10.1039/b926849a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The large diversity of cells that comprise the human immune system requires methods that can resolve the individual contributions of specific subsets to an immunological response. Microengraving is process that uses a dense, elastomeric array of microwells to generate microarrays of proteins secreted from large numbers of individual live cells (approximately 10(4)-10(5) cells/assay). In this paper, we describe an approach based on this technology to quantify the rates of secretion from single immune cells. Numerical simulations of the microengraving process indicated an operating regime between 30 min-4 h that permits quantitative analysis of the rates of secretion. Through experimental validation, we demonstrate that microengraving can provide quantitative measurements of both the frequencies and the distribution in rates of secretion for up to four cytokines simultaneously released from individual viable primary immune cells. The experimental limits of detection ranged from 0.5 to 4 molecules/s for IL-6, IL-17, IFNgamma, IL-2, and TNFalpha. These multidimensional measures resolve the number and intensities of responses by cells exposed to stimuli with greater sensitivity than single-parameter assays for cytokine release. We show that cells from different donors exhibit distinct responses based on both the frequency and magnitude of cytokine secretion when stimulated under different activating conditions. Primary T cells with specific profiles of secretion can also be recovered after microengraving for subsequent expansion in vitro. These examples demonstrate the utility of quantitative, multidimensional profiles of single cells for analyzing the diversity and dynamics of immune responses in vitro and for identifying rare cells from clinical samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Han
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Elizabeth M. Bradshaw
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Björn Nilsson
- The Eli and Edythe L. Broad Institute, Seven Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - David A. Hafler
- The Eli and Edythe L. Broad Institute, Seven Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Department of Neurology, Yale University, 15 York Street, P.O. Box 208018, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - J. Christopher Love
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA 02139
- The Eli and Edythe L. Broad Institute, Seven Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Correspondence should be addressed to: J. Christopher Love, Ph.D., Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Bldg. 66-456, Cambridge, MA 02139, Phone: 617-324-2300, Fax: 617-258-5042,
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