51
|
Brown KA, Deiters A. Genetic Code Expansion of Mammalian Cells with Unnatural Amino Acids. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 7:187-199. [PMID: 26331526 DOI: 10.1002/9780470559277.ch150038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The expansion of the genetic code of mammalian cells enables the incorporation of unnatural amino acids into proteins. This is achieved by adding components to the protein biosynthetic machinery, specifically an engineered aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase/tRNA pair. The unnatural amino acids are chemically synthesized and supplemented to the growth medium. Using this methodology, fundamental new chemistries can be added to the functional repertoire of the genetic code of mammalian cells. This protocol outlines the steps necessary to incorporate a photocaged lysine into proteins and showcases its application in the optical triggering of protein translocation to the nucleus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kalyn A Brown
- University of Pittsburgh, Department of Chemistry, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Alexander Deiters
- University of Pittsburgh, Department of Chemistry, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Kharkar PM, Kiick KL, Kloxin AM. Design of Thiol- and Light-sensitive Degradable Hydrogels using Michael-type Addition Reactions. Polym Chem 2015; 6:5565-5574. [PMID: 26284125 PMCID: PMC4536978 DOI: 10.1039/c5py00750j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Injectable depots that respond to exogenous and endogenous stimuli present an attractive strategy for tunable, patient-specific drug delivery. Here, the design of injectable and multimodal degradable hydrogels that respond to externally applied light and physiological stimuli, specifically aqueous and reducing microenvironments, is reported. Rapid hydrogel formation was achieved using a thiol-maleimide click reaction between multifunctional poly(ethylene glycol) macromers. Hydrogel degradation kinetics in response to externally applied cytocompatible light, reducing conditions, and hydrolysis were characterized, and degradation of the gel was controlled over multiple time scales from seconds to days. Further, tailored release of an encapsulated model cargo, fluorescent nanobeads, was demonstrated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Prathamesh M. Kharkar
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Kristi L. Kiick
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
- Delaware Biotechnology Institute, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - April M. Kloxin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| |
Collapse
|
53
|
Ravikumar Y, Nadarajan SP, Yoo TH, Lee CS, Yun H. Unnatural amino acid mutagenesis-based enzyme engineering. Trends Biotechnol 2015; 33:462-70. [PMID: 26088007 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2015.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2015] [Revised: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Traditional enzyme engineering relies on substituting one amino acid by one of the other 19 natural amino acids to change the functional properties of an enzyme. However, incorporation of unnatural amino acids (UAAs) has been harnessed to engineer efficient enzymes for biocatalysis. Residue-specific and site-specific in vivo incorporation methods are becoming the preferred approach for producing enzymes with altered or improved functions. We describe the contribution of in vivo UAA incorporation methodologies to enzyme engineering as well as the future prospects for the field, including the integration of UAAs with other new advances in enzyme engineering.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuvaraj Ravikumar
- School of Biotechnology, Department of Biochemistry, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk 712-749, Korea
| | | | - Tae Hyeon Yoo
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, Suwon 443-749, Korea
| | - Chong-soon Lee
- School of Biotechnology, Department of Biochemistry, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk 712-749, Korea
| | - Hyungdon Yun
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
54
|
Govan JM, Young DD, Lively MO, Deiters A. Optically Triggered Immune Response through Photocaged Oligonucleotides. Tetrahedron Lett 2015; 56:3639-3642. [PMID: 26034339 DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2015.01.165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial and viral CpG oligonculeotides are unmethylated cytosine-phosphate-guanosine dinucleotide sequences and trigger an innate immune response through activation of the toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9). We have developed synthetic photocaged CpGs via site-specific incorporation of nitropiperonyloxymethyl (NPOM)-caged thymidine residues. These oligonucleotides enable the optical control of TLR9 function and thereby provide light-activation of an immune response. We provide a proof-of-concept model by applying a reporter assay in live cells and by quantification of endogenous production of interleukin 6.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mark O Lively
- Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157
| | - Alexander Deiters
- North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27167 ; University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260
| |
Collapse
|
55
|
Van der Berg JP, Velema WA, Szymanski W, Driessen AJM, Feringa BL. Controlling the activity of quorum sensing autoinducers with light. Chem Sci 2015; 6:3593-3598. [PMID: 29511521 PMCID: PMC5659144 DOI: 10.1039/c5sc00215j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacteria use Quorum Sensing (QS) to organize into communities and synchronize gene expression. Here we report on a method to externally interfere with QS system using light.
Bacteria use a communication system, called quorum sensing (QS), to organize into communities and synchronize gene expression to promote virulence and secure survival. Here we report on a proof-of-principle for externally interfering with this bacterial communication system, using light. By employing photoswitchable small molecules, we were able to photocontrol the QS-related bioluminescence in an Escherichia coli reporter strain, and the expression of target QS genes and pyocyanin production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J P Van der Berg
- Molecular Microbiology , Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute , University of Groningen , Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG , Groningen , The Netherlands .
| | - W A Velema
- Center for Systems Chemistry , Stratingh Institute for Chemistry , University of Groningen , Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG , Groningen , The Netherlands .
| | - W Szymanski
- Center for Systems Chemistry , Stratingh Institute for Chemistry , University of Groningen , Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG , Groningen , The Netherlands . .,Department of Radiology , University of Groningen , University Medical Centre Groningen , Groningen , The Netherlands
| | - A J M Driessen
- Molecular Microbiology , Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute , University of Groningen , Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG , Groningen , The Netherlands .
| | - B L Feringa
- Center for Systems Chemistry , Stratingh Institute for Chemistry , University of Groningen , Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG , Groningen , The Netherlands .
| |
Collapse
|
56
|
ReimĂŁo-Pinto MM, Cordeiro A, Almeida C, Pinheiro AV, Moro A, Lima JC, Baptista PV. Dual-color control of nucleotide polymerization sensed by a fluorescence actuator. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2015; 13:751-6. [PMID: 24604475 DOI: 10.1039/c3pp50438g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Spatial and temporal control of molecular mechanisms can be achieved using photolabile bonds that connect biomolecules to protective caging groups, which can be cleaved upon irradiation of a specific wavelength, releasing the biomolecule ready-to-use. Here we apply and improve a previously reported strategy to tightly control in vitro transcription reactions. The strategy involves two caging molecules that block both ATP and GTP nucleotides. Additionally, we designed a molecular beacon complementary to the synthesized mRNA to infer its presence through a light signal. Upon release of both nucleotides through a specific monochromatic light (390 and 325 nm) we attain a light signal indicative of a successful in vitro transcription reaction. Similarly, in the absence of irradiation, no intense fluorescence signal was obtained. We believe this strategy could further be applied to DNA synthesis or the development of logic gates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Madalena M ReimĂŁo-Pinto
- CIGMH, Departamento CiĂȘncias da Vida, Faculdade de CiĂȘncias e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Campus de Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
57
|
Völker T, Meggers E. Transition-metal-mediated uncaging in living human cellsâan emerging alternative to photolabile protecting groups. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2015; 25:48-54. [PMID: 25561021 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Revised: 12/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Photolabile protecting groups have been widely used for activation strategies of caged substrates within living cells. However, an alternative uncaging method in which, instead of light, chemical compounds are used as activators (chemical uncaging) is still in its infancy. The recent advances in bioorthogonal reactions mediated by transition metals have shown that bioorthogonal catalysts have the potential to yield such a chemical activator. By now we have seen transition metal compounds that activate caged enzymes, toxigenic prodrugs and other small molecules such as fluorophores within living human cells. In this review we will focus on metal catalysts based on palladium, ruthenium and iron and we will mainly discuss their biocompatibility and catalytic efficiency in uncaging reactions within biological environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Timo Völker
- Fachbereich Chemie, Philipps-UniversitÀt Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 4, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Eric Meggers
- Fachbereich Chemie, Philipps-UniversitÀt Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 4, 35043 Marburg, Germany; College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
58
|
Hansen MJ, Velema WA, Lerch MM, Szymanski W, Feringa BL. Wavelength-selective cleavage of photoprotecting groups: strategies and applications in dynamic systems. Chem Soc Rev 2015; 44:3358-77. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cs00118h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Wavelength-selective deprotection is an attractive method to control multiple functions in one system using light.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mickel J. Hansen
- Centre for Systems Chemistry
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- University of Groningen
- Groningen
- The Netherlands
| | - Willem A. Velema
- Centre for Systems Chemistry
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- University of Groningen
- Groningen
- The Netherlands
| | - Michael M. Lerch
- Centre for Systems Chemistry
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- University of Groningen
- Groningen
- The Netherlands
| | - Wiktor Szymanski
- Centre for Systems Chemistry
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- University of Groningen
- Groningen
- The Netherlands
| | - Ben L. Feringa
- Centre for Systems Chemistry
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- University of Groningen
- Groningen
- The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
59
|
Control of oncogenic miRNA function by light-activated miRNA antagomirs. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1165:99-114. [PMID: 24839022 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0856-1_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are single stranded noncoding RNAs of approximately 22 nucleotides that act as posttranscriptional gene regulators by binding partially complementary sequences in the 3' untranslated region (3'-UTR) of target messenger RNAs (mRNAs). MicroRNAs regulate many biological processes including embryonal development, differentiation, apoptosis, and proliferation and the targets of miRNAs range from signalling proteins and transcription factors to RNA binding proteins. Recently, variations in the expression of certain miRNAs have been linked to a variety of human diseases including cancer and viral infections, validating miRNAs as potential targets for drug discovery. Several tools have been developed to control the function of individual miRNAs and have been applied to study their biological role and therapeutic potential; however, common methods lack a precise level of control that allows for the study of miRNA function with high spatial and temporal resolution. Toward this goal, a light-activated miRNA antagomir for mature miR-21 was developed through the site-specific installation of caging groups on the bases of selected nucleotides. Installation of caged nucleotides led to complete inhibition of the antagomir-miRNA hybridization and inactivation of antagomir function. The miRNA-inhibitory activity of the caged antagomirs was fully restored upon decaging through a brief UV irradiation. The synthesized antagomir was applied to the photochemical regulation of miR-21 function in mammalian cells. Moreover, spatial and temporal control over antagomir activity and thus miR-21 function was obtained in mammalian cells. The presented approach enables the precise regulation of miRNA function with unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution using UV irradiation and can be readily extended to any miRNA of interest.
Collapse
|
60
|
Gorka AP, Nani RR, Zhu J, Mackem S, Schnermann MJ. A near-IR uncaging strategy based on cyanine photochemistry. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:14153-9. [PMID: 25211609 PMCID: PMC4195383 DOI: 10.1021/ja5065203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
![]()
The development of photocaging groups
activated by near-IR light
would enable new approaches for basic research and allow for spatial
and temporal control of drug delivery. Here we report a near-IR light-initiated
uncaging reaction sequence based on readily synthesized C4âČ-dialkylamine-substituted
heptamethine cyanines. Phenol-containing small molecules are uncaged
through sequential release of the C4âČ-amine and intramolecular
cyclization. The release sequence is initiated by a previously unexploited
photochemical reaction of the cyanine fluorophore scaffold. The uncaging
process is compatible with biological milieu and is initiated with
low intensity 690 nm light. We show that cell viability can be inhibited
through light-dependent release of the estrogen receptor antagonist,
4-hydroxycyclofen. In addition, through uncaging of the same compound,
gene expression is controlled with near-IR light in a ligand-dependent
CreERT/LoxP-reporter cell line derived from transgenic
mice. These studies provide a chemical foundation that we expect will
enable specific delivery of small molecules using cytocompatible,
tissue penetrant near-IR light.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander P Gorka
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, National Cancer Institute , 376 Boyles Street, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
61
|
Velema WA, van der Berg JP, Szymanski W, Driessen AJM, Feringa BL. Orthogonal control of antibacterial activity with light. ACS Chem Biol 2014; 9:1969-74. [PMID: 25055227 DOI: 10.1021/cb500313f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Selection of a single bacterial strain out of a mixture of microorganisms is of crucial importance in healthcare and microbiology research. Novel approaches that can externally control bacterial selection are a valuable addition to the microbiology toolbox. In this proof-of-concept, two complementary antibiotics are protected with photocleavable groups that can be orthogonally addressed with different wavelengths of light. This allows for the light-triggered selection of a single bacterial strain out of a mixture of multiple strains, by choosing the right wavelength. Further improvement toward additional orthogonally addressable antibiotics might ultimately lead to a novel methodology for bacterial selection in complex populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jan Pieter van der Berg
- Molecular Microbiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Arnold J. M. Driessen
- Molecular Microbiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | |
Collapse
|
62
|
Baker AS, Deiters A. Optical control of protein function through unnatural amino acid mutagenesis and other optogenetic approaches. ACS Chem Biol 2014; 9:1398-407. [PMID: 24819585 DOI: 10.1021/cb500176x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Biological processes are naturally regulated with high spatial and temporal resolution at the molecular, cellular, and systems level. To control and study processes with the same resolution, light-sensitive groups and domains have been employed to optically activate and deactivate protein function. Optical control is a noninvasive technique in which the amplitude, wavelength, spatial location, and timing of the light illumination can be easily controlled. This review focuses on applications of genetically encoded unnatural amino acids containing light-removable protecting groups to optically trigger protein function, while also discussing select optogenetic approaches using natural light-sensitive domains to engineer optical control of biological processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Austin S. Baker
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
| | - Alexander Deiters
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
| |
Collapse
|
63
|
Uprety R, Luo J, Liu J, Naro Y, Samanta S, Deiters A. Genetic Encoding of Caged Cysteine and Caged Homocysteine in Bacterial and Mammalian Cells. Chembiochem 2014; 15:1793-9. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201400073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
|
64
|
Respondek T, Sharma R, Herroon MK, Garner RN, Knoll JD, Cueny E, Turro C, Podgorski I, Kodanko JJ. Inhibition of cathepsin activity in a cell-based assay by a light-activated ruthenium compound. ChemMedChem 2014; 9:1306-15. [PMID: 24729544 PMCID: PMC4095795 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201400081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Light-activated inhibition of cathepsin activity was demonstrated in a cell-based assay. Inhibitors of cathepsin K, Cbz-Leu-NHCH2 CN (2) and Cbz-Leu-Ser(OBn)-CN (3), were caged within the complexes cis-[Ru(bpy)2 (2)2 ]Cl2 (4) and cis-[Ru(bpy)2 (3)2 ](BF4 )2 (5) (bpy=2,2'-bipyridine) as 1:1 mixtures of Î and Î stereoisomers. Complexes 4 and 5 were characterized by (1) H NMR, IR, and UV/Vis spectroscopies and electrospray mass spectrometry. Photochemical experiments confirm that 4 releases two molecules of 2 upon exposure to visible light for 15 min, whereas release of 3 by 5 requires longer irradiation times. IC50 determinations against purified cathepsinâ
K under light and dark conditions with 4 and 5 confirm that inhibition is enhanced from 35- to 88-fold, respectively, upon irradiation with visible light. No apparent toxicity was observed for 4 in the absence or presence of irradiation in bone marrow macrophage (BMM) or PC3 cells, as determined by MTT assays, at concentrations up to 10 ÎŒM. Compound 5 is well tolerated at lower concentrations (<1 ÎŒM), but does show growth-inhibitory effects at higher concentrations. Confocal microscopy experiments show that 4 decreases intracellular cathepsin activity in osteoclasts with light activation. These results support the further development of caged nitrile-based inhibitors as chemical tools for investigating spatial aspects of proteolysis within living systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Respondek
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, 5101 Cass Avenue, Detroit, MI 48202 (USA)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
65
|
Walsh S, Gardner L, Deiters A, Williams GJ. Intracellular light-activation of riboswitch activity. Chembiochem 2014; 15:1346-51. [PMID: 24861567 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201400024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
By combining a riboswitch with a cell-permeable photocaged small-molecule ligand, an optochemical gene control element was constructed that enabled spatial and temporal control of gene expression in bacterial cells. The simplicity of this strategy, coupled with the ability to create synthetic riboswitches with tailored ligand specificities and output in a variety of microorganisms, plants, and fungi might afford a general strategy to photocontrol gene expression in vivo. The ability to activate riboswitches by using light enables the interrogation and manipulation of a wide range of biological processes with high precision, and will have broad utility in the regulation of artificial genetic circuits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steven Walsh
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, 2620 Yarbrough Drive, Raleigh, NC 27695-8204 (USA)
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
66
|
SzymaĆski W, Velema WA, Feringa BL. Photocaging of Carboxylic Acids: A Modular Approach. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:8682-6. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201402665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2014] [Revised: 04/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
|
67
|
Hemphill J, Govan J, Uprety R, Tsang M, Deiters A. Site-specific promoter caging enables optochemical gene activation in cells and animals. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:7152-8. [PMID: 24802207 PMCID: PMC4333597 DOI: 10.1021/ja500327g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
![]()
In
cell and molecular biology, double-stranded circular DNA constructs,
known as plasmids, are extensively used to express a gene of interest.
These gene expression systems rely on a specific promoter region to
drive the transcription of genes either constitutively (i.e., in a
continually âONâ state) or conditionally (i.e., in response
to a specific transcription initiator). However, controlling plasmid-based
expression with high spatial and temporal resolution in cellular environments
and in multicellular organisms remains challenging. To overcome this
limitation, we have site-specifically installed nucleobase-caging
groups within a plasmid promoter region to enable optochemical control
of transcription and, thus, gene expression, via photolysis of the
caging groups. Through the light-responsive modification of plasmid-based
gene expression systems, we have demonstrated optochemical activation
of an exogenous fluorescent reporter gene in both tissue culture and
a live animal model, as well as light-induced overexpression of an
endogenous signaling protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James Hemphill
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University , Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
68
|
SzymaĆski W, Velema WA, Feringa BL. Photocaging of Carboxylic Acids: A Modular Approach. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201402665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|
69
|
Sharma R, Knoll JD, Martin PD, Podgorski I, Turro C, Kodanko JJ. Ruthenium tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine as an effective photocaging group for nitriles. Inorg Chem 2014; 53:3272-4. [PMID: 24661182 PMCID: PMC3993900 DOI: 10.1021/ic500299s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
![]()
Ruthenium(II)
tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (TPA) is an effective caging group for
nitriles that provides high levels of control over the enzyme activity
with light. Two caged nitriles were prepared, [Ru(TPA)(MeCN)2](PF6)2 (1) and [Ru(TPA)(3)2](PF6)2 (2), where 3 is the cathepsin K inhibitor Cbz-Leu-NHCH2CN, and characterized by various spectroscopic techniques
and mass spectrometry. Both 1 and 2 show
the release of a single nitrile within 20 min of irradiation with
365 nm light. Complex 2 acts as a potent, photoactivated
inhibitor of human cathepsin K. IC50 values were determined
for 2 and 3. Enzyme inhibition for 2 was enhanced by a factor of 89 upon exposure to light, with
IC50 values of 63 nM (light) and 5.6 ÎŒM (dark). The photochemical release of nitriles from the
caging fragment ruthenium tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (TPA) was studied.
Caged complexes of the general formula [Ru(TPA)(RCN)2]2+ are stable in the dark but release a single nitrile upon
irradiation with 365 nm light. Photoactivated inhibition of cathepsin
K was demonstrated with a caged inhibitor complex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rajgopal Sharma
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University , 5101 Cass Avenue, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
70
|
Patterson DM, Nazarova LA, Prescher JA. Finding the right (bioorthogonal) chemistry. ACS Chem Biol 2014; 9:592-605. [PMID: 24437719 DOI: 10.1021/cb400828a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 531] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Bioorthogonal chemistries can be used to tag diverse classes of biomolecules in cells and other complex environments. With over 20 unique transformations now available, though, selecting an appropriate reaction for a given experiment is challenging. In this article, we compare and contrast the most common classes of bioorthogonal chemistries and provide a framework for matching the reactions with downstream applications. We also discuss ongoing efforts to identify novel biocompatible reactions and methods to control their reactivity. The continued expansion of the bioorthogonal toolkit will provide new insights into biomolecule networks and functions and thus refine our understanding of living systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David M. Patterson
- Departments of â Chemistry, âĄMolecular Biology & Biochemistry, and §Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Lidia A. Nazarova
- Departments of â Chemistry, âĄMolecular Biology & Biochemistry, and §Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Jennifer A. Prescher
- Departments of â Chemistry, âĄMolecular Biology & Biochemistry, and §Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| |
Collapse
|
71
|
Velema WA, Szymanski W, Feringa BL. Photopharmacology: Beyond Proof of Principle. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:2178-91. [DOI: 10.1021/ja413063e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 712] [Impact Index Per Article: 71.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Willem A. Velema
- Center for Systems Chemistry,
Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh
4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Wiktor Szymanski
- Center for Systems Chemistry,
Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh
4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ben L. Feringa
- Center for Systems Chemistry,
Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh
4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
72
|
Liu Q, Deiters A. Optochemical control of deoxyoligonucleotide function via a nucleobase-caging approach. Acc Chem Res 2014; 47:45-55. [PMID: 23981235 PMCID: PMC3946944 DOI: 10.1021/ar400036a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic oligonucleotides have been extensively applied tocontrol a wide range of biological processes such as gene expression, gene repair, DNA replication, and protein activity. Based on well-established sequence design rules that typically rely on Watson-Crick base pairing interactions researchers can readily program the function of these oligonucleotides. Therefore oligonucleotides provide a flexible platform for targeting a wide range of biological molecules, including DNA, RNA, and proteins. In addition, oligonucleotides are commonly used research tools in cell biology and developmental biology. However, a lack of conditional control methods has hampered the precise spatial and temporal regulation of oligonucleotide activity, which limits the application of these reagents to investigate complex biological questions. Nature controls biological function with a high level of spatial and temporal resolution and in order to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of biological processes, researchers need tools that allow for the perturbation of these processes with Nature's precision. Light represents an excellent external regulatory element since irradiation can be easily controlled spatially and temporally. Thus, researchers have developed several different methods to conditionally control oligonucleotide activity with light. One of the most versatile strategies is optochemical regulation through the installation and removal of photolabile caging groups on oligonucleotides. To produce switches that can control nucleic acid function with light, chemists introduce caging groups into the oligomer backbone or on specific nucleobases to block oligonucleotide function until the caging groups are removed by light exposure. In this Account, we focus on the application of caged nucleobases to the photoregulation of DNA function. Using this approach, we have both activated and deactivated gene expression optochemically at the transcriptional and translational level with spatial and temporal control. Specifically, we have used caged triplex-forming oligomers and DNA decoys to regulate transcription, and we have regulated translation with light-activated antisense agents. Moreover, we also discuss strategies that can trigger DNA enzymatic activity, DNA amplification, and DNA mutagenesis by light illumination. More recently, we have developed light-activated DNA logic operations, an advance that may lay the foundation for the optochemical control of complex DNA calculations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingyang Liu
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University , Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | | |
Collapse
|
73
|
Abstract
Manipulation of protein kinase activity is widely used to dissect signaling pathways controlling physiological and pathological processes. Common methods often cannot provide the desired spatial and temporal resolution in control of kinase activity. Regulation of kinase activity by photocaged kinase inhibitors has been successfully used to achieve tight temporal and local control, but inhibitors are limited to inactivation of kinases and often do not provide the desired specificity. Here we report detailed methods for light-mediated activation of kinases in living cells using engineered rapamycin-regulated kinases in conjunction with a photocaged analog of rapamycin.
Collapse
|
74
|
Poloni C, Szymanski W, Feringa BL. Photo-controlled deactivation of immobilised lipase. Chem Commun (Camb) 2014; 50:12645-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cc06087c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Immobilization of lipase on a quartz surface using a photoswitchable linker permits to control the deactivation of the enzyme by irradiation with light.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Poloni
- Centre for Systems Chemistry
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
- University of Groningen
- 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Wiktor Szymanski
- Centre for Systems Chemistry
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
- University of Groningen
- 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ben L. Feringa
- Centre for Systems Chemistry
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
- University of Groningen
- 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
75
|
Binder D, GrĂŒnberger A, Loeschcke A, Probst C, Bier C, Pietruszka J, Wiechert W, Kohlheyer D, Jaeger KE, Drepper T. Light-responsive control of bacterial gene expression: precise triggering of thelacpromoter activity using photocaged IPTG. Integr Biol (Camb) 2014; 6:755-65. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ib00027g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
An optogenetic tool was established allowing for precise, gradual and homogeneous light-triggering oflac-based gene expression in a non-invasive fashion.
Collapse
|
76
|
Reisinger B, Kuzmanovic N, Löffler P, Merkl R, König B, Sterner R. Nutzung natĂŒrlicher Proteinsymmetrie zum Design lichtschaltbarer Enzyminhibitoren. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201307207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
|
77
|
Reisinger B, Kuzmanovic N, Löffler P, Merkl R, König B, Sterner R. Exploiting protein symmetry to design light-controllable enzyme inhibitors. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013; 53:595-8. [PMID: 24520030 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201307207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The activity of the metabolic branch-point enzyme PriA from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (mtPriA) can be controlled reversibly by light. Two-pronged inhibitors based on the dithienylethene scaffold were designed utilizing mtPriA's natural rotational symmetry. Switching from the flexible, ring-open to the rigid, ring-closed isomer reduces inhibition activity by one order of magnitude.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Reisinger
- Institut fĂŒr Biophysik und physikalische Biochemie, UniversitĂ€t Regensburg, 93040 Regensburg (Germany)
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
78
|
Fournier L, Aujard I, Leâ
Saux T, Maurin S, Beaupierre S, Baudin J, Jullien L. Coumarinylmethyl Caging Groups with Redshifted Absorption. Chemistry 2013; 19:17494-507. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201302630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2013] [Revised: 08/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ludovic Fournier
- Ecole Normale SupĂ©rieure, DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRSâENSâUPMC, Paris 06 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05 (France)
| | - Isabelle Aujard
- Ecole Normale SupĂ©rieure, DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRSâENSâUPMC, Paris 06 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05 (France)
| | - Thomas Leâ
Saux
- Ecole Normale SupĂ©rieure, DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRSâENSâUPMC, Paris 06 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05 (France)
- UPMC Paris 06, 4, Place Jussieu, 75232 Paris Cedex 05 (France)
| | - Sylvie Maurin
- Ecole Normale SupĂ©rieure, DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRSâENSâUPMC, Paris 06 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05 (France)
| | - Sandra Beaupierre
- Ecole Normale SupĂ©rieure, DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRSâENSâUPMC, Paris 06 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05 (France)
| | - JeanâBernard Baudin
- Ecole Normale SupĂ©rieure, DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRSâENSâUPMC, Paris 06 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05 (France)
| | - Ludovic Jullien
- Ecole Normale SupĂ©rieure, DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRSâENSâUPMC, Paris 06 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05 (France)
- UPMC Paris 06, 4, Place Jussieu, 75232 Paris Cedex 05 (France)
| |
Collapse
|
79
|
Govan JM, Uprety R, Thomas M, Lusic H, Lively MO, Deiters A. Cellular delivery and photochemical activation of antisense agents through a nucleobase caging strategy. ACS Chem Biol 2013; 8:2272-82. [PMID: 23915424 DOI: 10.1021/cb400293e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Antisense oligonucleotides are powerful tools to regulate gene expression in cells and model organisms. However, a transfection or microinjection is typically needed for efficient delivery of the antisense agent. We report the conjugation of multiple HIV TAT peptides to a hairpin-protected antisense agent through a light-cleavable nucleobase caging group. This conjugation allows for the facile delivery of the antisense agent without a transfection reagent, and photochemical activation offers precise control over gene expression. The developed approach is highly modular, as demonstrated by the conjugation of folic acid to the caged antisense agent. This enabled targeted cell delivery through cell-surface folate receptors followed by photochemical triggering of antisense activity. Importantly, the presented strategy delivers native oligonucleotides after light-activation, devoid of any delivery functionalities or modifications that could otherwise impair their antisense activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeane M. Govan
- North Carolina State University, Department of Chemistry, Raleigh,
North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Rajendra Uprety
- North Carolina State University, Department of Chemistry, Raleigh,
North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Meryl Thomas
- North Carolina State University, Department of Chemistry, Raleigh,
North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Hrvoje Lusic
- North Carolina State University, Department of Chemistry, Raleigh,
North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Mark O. Lively
- Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Center for Structural Biology, Winston-Salem,
North Carolina 27157, United States
| | - Alexander Deiters
- North Carolina State University, Department of Chemistry, Raleigh,
North Carolina 27695, United States
| |
Collapse
|
80
|
Tang X, Zhang J, Sun J, Wang Y, Wu J, Zhang L. Caged nucleotides/nucleosides and their photochemical biology. Org Biomol Chem 2013; 11:7814-24. [PMID: 24132515 DOI: 10.1039/c3ob41735b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Nucleotides and nucleosides are not only key units of DNA/RNA that store genetic information, but are also the regulators of many biological events of our lives. By caging the key functional groups or key residues of nucleotides with photosensitive moieties, it will be possible to trigger biological events of target nucleotides with spatiotemporal resolution and amplitude upon light activation or photomodulate polymerase reactions with the caged nucleotide analogues for next-generation sequencing (NGS) and bioorthogonal labeling. This review highlights three different caging strategies for nucleotides and demonstrates the photochemical biology of these caged nucleotides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xinjing Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, the School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, No. 38, Xueyuan Rd., Beijing 100191, China.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
81
|
Olson JP, Banghart MR, Sabatini BL, Ellis-Davies GCR. Spectral evolution of a photochemical protecting group for orthogonal two-color uncaging with visible light. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:15948-54. [PMID: 24117060 DOI: 10.1021/ja408225k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Caged compounds are molecules rendered functionally inert by derivatization with a photochemical protecting group. We describe the design logic behind the development of a diethylaminocoumarin (DEAC) caging chromophore, DEAC450, that absorbs blue light strongly (Δ450 = 43,000 M(-1) cm(-1)) and violet light 11-fold more weakly. The absorption minimum is in the wavelength range (340-360 nm) that is traditionally used for photolysis of many widely used nitroaromatic caged compounds (e.g., 4-carboxymethoxy-5,7-dinitroindolinyl(CDNI)-GABA). We used this chromophore to synthesize DEAC450-caged cAMP and found this probe was very stable toward aqueous hydrolysis in the electronic ground state but was photolyzed with a quantum efficiency of 0.78. When DEAC450-cAMP and CDNI-GABA where co-applied to striatal cholinergic interneurons, the caged compounds were photolyzed in an chromatically orthogonal manner using blue and violet light so as to modulate the neuronal firing rate in a bidirectional way.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy P Olson
- Department of Neuroscience, Mount Sinai School of Medicine , New York, New York 10029, United States
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
82
|
Murat P, Gormally MV, Sanders D, Antonio MD, Balasubramanian S. Light-mediated in cell downregulation of G-quadruplex-containing genes using a photo-caged ligand. Chem Commun (Camb) 2013; 49:8453-5. [PMID: 23949446 PMCID: PMC4155816 DOI: 10.1039/c3cc44737e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The use of a caged G-quadruplex ligand allows for transcriptional control of quadruplex-containing genes using UV light as an external trigger. An important oncogene, SRC, involved in the initiation and proliferation of epithelial tumours is shown to be significantly downregulated in cells treated by the caged ligand in synergy with UV light treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Murat
- Department of Chemistry , The University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge , CB2 1EW , UK .
| | - Michael V. Gormally
- Department of Chemistry , The University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge , CB2 1EW , UK .
| | - Debbie Sanders
- Cambridge Institute , Cancer Research UK , Li Ka Shing Center , Cambridge , CB2 0RE , UK
| | - Marco Di Antonio
- Department of Chemistry , The University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge , CB2 1EW , UK .
| | - Shankar Balasubramanian
- Department of Chemistry , The University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road , Cambridge , CB2 1EW , UK .
- Cambridge Institute , Cancer Research UK , Li Ka Shing Center , Cambridge , CB2 0RE , UK
- School of Clinical Medicine , The University of Cambridge , Addenbrooke's Hospital , Hills Road , Cambridge , CB2 0SP , UK
| |
Collapse
|
83
|
Govan JM, Young DD, Lusic H, Liu Q, Lively MO, Deiters A. Optochemical control of RNA interference in mammalian cells. Nucleic Acids Res 2013; 41:10518-28. [PMID: 24021631 PMCID: PMC3905849 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkt806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) have been widely used in mammalian tissue culture and model organisms to selectively silence genes of interest. One limitation of this technology is the lack of precise external control over the gene-silencing event. The use of photocleavable protecting groups installed on nucleobases is a promising strategy to circumvent this limitation, providing high spatial and temporal control over siRNA or miRNA activation. Here, we have designed, synthesized and site-specifically incorporated new photocaged guanosine and uridine RNA phosphoramidites into short RNA duplexes. We demonstrated the applicability of these photocaged siRNAs in the light-regulation of the expression of an exogenous green fluorescent protein reporter gene and an endogenous target gene, the mitosis motor protein, Eg5. Two different approaches were investigated with the caged RNA molecules: the light-regulation of catalytic RNA cleavage by RISC and the light-regulation of seed region recognition. The ability to regulate both functions with light enables the application of this optochemical methodology to a wide range of small regulatory RNA molecules.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeane M Govan
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA, Department of Chemistry, College of William & Mary, Williamsburg, VA 32187, USA, Center for Structural Biology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA and Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
84
|
Yang Y, Velmurugan B, Liu X, Xing B. NIR photoresponsive crosslinked upconverting nanocarriers toward selective intracellular drug release. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2013; 9:2937-2944. [PMID: 23554151 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201201765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2012] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
An NIR-responsive mesoporous silica coated upconverting nanoparticle (UCNP) conjugate is developed for controllable drug delivery and fluorescence imaging in living cells. In this work, antitumor drug doxorubicin (Dox) molecules are encapsulated within cross-linked photocaged mesoporous silica coated UCNPs. Upon 980 nm light irradiation, Dox could be selectively released through the photocleavage of theo-nitrobenzyl (NB) caged linker by the converted UV emission from UCNPs. This NIR light-responsive nanoparticle conjugate demonstrates high efficiency for the controlled release of the drug in cancer cells. Upon functionalization of the nanocarrier with folic acid (FA), this photocaged FA-conjugated silica-UCNP nanocarrier will also allow targeted intracellular drug delivery and selective fluorescence imaging towards the cell lines with high level expression of folate receptor (FR).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yanmei Yang
- Division of Chemistry & Biological Chemistry, School of Physical & Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 637371, Singapore
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
85
|
Hemphill J, Chou C, Chin JW, Deiters A. Genetically encoded light-activated transcription for spatiotemporal control of gene expression and gene silencing in mammalian cells. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:13433-9. [PMID: 23931657 DOI: 10.1021/ja4051026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Photocaging provides a method to spatially and temporally control biological function and gene expression with high resolution. Proteins can be photochemically controlled through the site-specific installation of caging groups on amino acid side chains that are essential for protein function. The photocaging of a synthetic gene network using unnatural amino acid mutagenesis in mammalian cells was demonstrated with an engineered bacteriophage RNA polymerase. A caged T7 RNA polymerase was expressed in cells with an expanded genetic code and used in the photochemical activation of genes under control of an orthogonal T7 promoter, demonstrating tight spatial and temporal control. The synthetic gene expression system was validated with two reporter genes (luciferase and EGFP) and applied to the light-triggered transcription of short hairpin RNA constructs for the induction of RNA interference.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James Hemphill
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University , Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
86
|
Fournier L, Gauron C, Xu L, Aujard I, Le Saux T, Gagey-Eilstein N, Maurin S, Dubruille S, Baudin JB, Bensimon D, Volovitch M, Vriz S, Jullien L. A blue-absorbing photolabile protecting group for in vivo chromatically orthogonal photoactivation. ACS Chem Biol 2013; 8:1528-36. [PMID: 23651265 DOI: 10.1021/cb400178m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The small and synthetically easily accessible 7-diethylamino-4-thiocoumarinylmethyl photolabile protecting group has been validated for uncaging with blue light. It exhibits a significant action cross-section for uncaging in the 470-500 nm wavelength range and a low light absorption between 350 and 400 nm. These attractive features have been implemented in living zebrafish embryos to perform chromatic orthogonal photoactivation of two biologically active species controlling biological development with UV and blue-cyan light sources, respectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ludovic Fournier
- Ecole Normale Supérieure,
DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRS-ENS-UPMC 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Carole Gauron
- CollĂšge de France, Center
for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), CNRS, UMR 7241, INSERM, U1050, 11, Place Marcelin Berthelot,
75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Lijun Xu
- Ecole Normale Supérieure,
DĂ©partement de Physique and DĂ©partement de Biologie,
Laboratoire de Physique Statistique, UMR CNRS-ENS 8550, 24 rue Lhomond, F-75231 Paris, France
| | - Isabelle Aujard
- Ecole Normale Supérieure,
DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRS-ENS-UPMC 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Thomas Le Saux
- Ecole Normale Supérieure,
DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRS-ENS-UPMC 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
- UPMC, 4, Place Jussieu,
75232 Paris Cedex 05, France,
| | - Nathalie Gagey-Eilstein
- Ecole Normale Supérieure,
DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRS-ENS-UPMC 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Sylvie Maurin
- Ecole Normale Supérieure,
DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRS-ENS-UPMC 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Sylvie Dubruille
- Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, CNRS, UMR 176, 26, rue dâUlm, Paris F-75248,
France
| | - Jean-Bernard Baudin
- Ecole Normale Supérieure,
DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRS-ENS-UPMC 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - David Bensimon
- Ecole Normale Supérieure,
DĂ©partement de Physique and DĂ©partement de Biologie,
Laboratoire de Physique Statistique, UMR CNRS-ENS 8550, 24 rue Lhomond, F-75231 Paris, France
- Department of Chemistry
and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles,
California, United States
| | - Michel Volovitch
- CollĂšge de France, Center
for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), CNRS, UMR 7241, INSERM, U1050, 11, Place Marcelin Berthelot,
75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Sophie Vriz
- CollĂšge de France, Center
for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), CNRS, UMR 7241, INSERM, U1050, 11, Place Marcelin Berthelot,
75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Ludovic Jullien
- Ecole Normale Supérieure,
DĂ©partement de Chimie, UMR CNRS-ENS-UPMC 8640 PASTEUR, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
- UPMC, 4, Place Jussieu,
75232 Paris Cedex 05, France,
| |
Collapse
|
87
|
Feng Z, Zhang W, Xu J, Gauron C, Ducos B, Vriz S, Volovitch M, Jullien L, Weiss S, Bensimon D. Optical control and study of biological processes at the single-cell level in a live organism. REPORTS ON PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. PHYSICAL SOCIETY (GREAT BRITAIN) 2013; 76:072601. [PMID: 23764902 PMCID: PMC3736146 DOI: 10.1088/0034-4885/76/7/072601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Living organisms are made of cells that are capable of responding to external signals by modifying their internal state and subsequently their external environment. Revealing and understanding the spatio-temporal dynamics of these complex interaction networks is the subject of a field known as systems biology. To investigate these interactions (a necessary step before understanding or modelling them) one needs to develop means to control or interfere spatially and temporally with these processes and to monitor their response on a fast timescale (< minute) and with single-cell resolution. In 2012, an EMBO workshop on 'single-cell physiology' (organized by some of us) was held in Paris to discuss those issues in the light of recent developments that allow for precise spatio-temporal perturbations and observations. This review will be largely based on the investigations reported there. We will first present a non-exhaustive list of examples of cellular interactions and developmental pathways that could benefit from these new approaches. We will review some of the novel tools that have been developed for the observation of cellular activity and then discuss the recent breakthroughs in optical super-resolution microscopy that allow for optical observations beyond the diffraction limit. We will review the various means to photo-control the activity of biomolecules, which allow for local perturbations of physiological processes. We will end up this review with a report on the current status of optogenetics: the use of photo-sensitive DNA-encoded proteins as sensitive reporters and efficient actuators to perturb and monitor physiological processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiping Feng
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
88
|
SzymaĆski W, Beierle JM, Kistemaker HAV, Velema WA, Feringa BL. Reversible Photocontrol of Biological Systems by the Incorporation of Molecular Photoswitches. Chem Rev 2013; 113:6114-78. [DOI: 10.1021/cr300179f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 847] [Impact Index Per Article: 77.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Wiktor SzymaĆski
- Stratingh Institute
for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The
Netherlands
| | - John M. Beierle
- Stratingh Institute
for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The
Netherlands
| | - Hans A. V. Kistemaker
- Stratingh Institute
for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The
Netherlands
| | - Willem A. Velema
- Stratingh Institute
for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The
Netherlands
| | - Ben L. Feringa
- Stratingh Institute
for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The
Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
89
|
Connelly CM, Uprety R, Hemphill J, Deiters A. Spatiotemporal control of microRNA function using light-activated antagomirs. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2013; 8:2987-93. [PMID: 22945263 DOI: 10.1039/c2mb25175b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that act as post-transcriptional gene regulators and have been shown to regulate many biological processes including embryonal development, cell differentiation, apoptosis, and proliferation. Variations in the expression of certain miRNAs have been linked to a wide range of human diseases - especially cancer - and the diversity of miRNA targets suggests that they are involved in various cellular networks. Several tools have been developed to control the function of individual miRNAs and have been applied to study their biogenesis, biological role, and therapeutic potential; however, common methods lack a precise level of control that allows for the study of miRNA function with high spatial and temporal resolution. Light-activated miRNA antagomirs for mature miR-122 and miR-21 were developed through the site-specific installation of caging groups on the bases of selected nucleotides. Installation of caged nucleotides led to complete inhibition of the antagomir-miRNA hybridization and thus inactivation of antagomir function. The miRNA-inhibitory activity of the caged antagomirs was fully restored upon decaging through a brief UV irradiation. The synthesized antagomirs were applied to the photochemical regulation of miRNA function in mammalian cells. Moreover, spatial control over antagomir activity was obtained in mammalian cells through localized UV exposure. The presented approach enables the precise regulation of miRNA function and miRNA networks with unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution using UV irradiation and can be extended to any miRNA of interest.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Colleen M Connelly
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
90
|
Ulrich S, Dumy P, Boturyn D, Renaudet O. Engineering of biomolecules for sensing and imaging applications. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/s1773-2247(13)50001-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
|
91
|
Ahmed I, Fruk L. The power of light: photosensitive tools for chemical biology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 9:565-70. [DOI: 10.1039/c2mb25407g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
92
|
Saxton MJ. Wanted: a positive control for anomalous subdiffusion. Biophys J 2012; 103:2411-22. [PMID: 23260043 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2012.10.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2012] [Revised: 09/23/2012] [Accepted: 10/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Anomalous subdiffusion in cells and model systems is an active area of research. The main questions are whether diffusion is anomalous or normal, and if it is anomalous, its mechanism. The subject is controversial, especially the hypothesis that crowding causes anomalous subdiffusion. Anomalous subdiffusion measurements would be strengthened by an experimental standard, particularly one able to cross-calibrate the different types of measurements. Criteria for a calibration standard are proposed. First, diffusion must be anomalous over the length and timescales of the different measurements. The length-scale is fundamental; the time scale can be adjusted through the viscosity of the medium. Second, the standard must be theoretically well understood, with a known anomalous subdiffusion exponent, ideally readily tunable. Third, the standard must be simple, reproducible, and independently characterizable (by, for example, electron microscopy for nanostructures). Candidate experimental standards are evaluated, including obstructed lipid bilayers; aqueous systems obstructed by nanopillars; a continuum percolation system in which a prescribed fraction of randomly chosen obstacles in a regular array is ablated; single-file diffusion in pores; transient anomalous subdiffusion due to binding of particles in arrays such as transcription factors in randomized DNA arrays; and computer-generated physical trajectories.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Saxton
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, California, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
93
|
Synthesis and photoactivity of a Pt(II) complex based on an o-nitrobenzyl-derived ligand. Inorganica Chim Acta 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ica.2012.06.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
|
94
|
LabruĂšre R, Alouane A, Leâ
Saux T, Aujard I, Pelupessy P, Gautier A, Dubruille S, Schmidt F, Jullien L. âSelf-Immolativeâ Spacer for Uncaging with Fluorescence Reporting. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:9344-7. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201204032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
|
95
|
LabruĂšre R, Alouane A, Leâ
Saux T, Aujard I, Pelupessy P, Gautier A, Dubruille S, Schmidt F, Jullien L. âSelf-Immolativeâ Spacer for Uncaging with Fluorescence Reporting. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201204032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
|
96
|
Brieke C, Rohrbach F, Gottschalk A, Mayer G, Heckel A. Light-controlled tools. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:8446-76. [PMID: 22829531 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201202134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 738] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Spatial and temporal control over chemical and biological processes plays a key role in life, where the whole is often much more than the sum of its parts. Quite trivially, the molecules of a cell do not form a living system if they are only arranged in a random fashion. If we want to understand these relationships and especially the problems arising from malfunction, tools are necessary that allow us to design sophisticated experiments that address these questions. Highly valuable in this respect are external triggers that enable us to precisely determine where, when, and to what extent a process is started or stopped. Light is an ideal external trigger: It is highly selective and if applied correctly also harmless. It can be generated and manipulated with well-established techniques, and many ways exist to apply light to living systems--from cells to higher organisms. This Review will focus on developments over the last six years and includes discussions on the underlying technologies as well as their applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Clara Brieke
- Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute for Organic Chemistry and Chemical Biology Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Max-von-Laue-Strasse 9, 60438 Frankfurt/Main, Germany
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
97
|
Brieke C, Rohrbach F, Gottschalk A, Mayer G, Heckel A. Lichtgesteuerte Werkzeuge. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201202134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Clara Brieke
- GoetheâUniversitĂ€t Frankfurt, Institut fĂŒr Organische Chemie und Chemische Biologie, BuchmannâInstitut fĂŒr Molekulare Lebenswissenschaften, MaxâvonâLaueâStraĂe 9, 60438 Frankfurt/Main (Deutschland)
| | - Falk Rohrbach
- UniversitĂ€t Bonn, LIMESâInstitut, GerhardâDomagkâStraĂe 1, 53121 Bonn (Deutschland)
| | - Alexander Gottschalk
- BuchmannâInstitut fĂŒr Molekulare Lebenswissenschaften, Institut fĂŒr Biochemie, MaxâvonâLaueâStraĂe 15, 60438 Frankfurt/Main (Deutschland)
| | - GĂŒnter Mayer
- UniversitĂ€t Bonn, LIMESâInstitut, GerhardâDomagkâStraĂe 1, 53121 Bonn (Deutschland)
| | - Alexander Heckel
- GoetheâUniversitĂ€t Frankfurt, Institut fĂŒr Organische Chemie und Chemische Biologie, BuchmannâInstitut fĂŒr Molekulare Lebenswissenschaften, MaxâvonâLaueâStraĂe 9, 60438 Frankfurt/Main (Deutschland)
| |
Collapse
|
98
|
Govan JM, Uprety R, Hemphill J, Lively MO, Deiters A. Regulation of transcription through light-activation and light-deactivation of triplex-forming oligonucleotides in mammalian cells. ACS Chem Biol 2012; 7:1247-56. [PMID: 22540192 DOI: 10.1021/cb300161r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Triplex-forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) are efficient tools to regulate gene expression through the inhibition of transcription. Here, nucleobase-caging technology was applied to the temporal regulation of transcription through light-activated TFOs. Through site-specific incorporation of caged thymidine nucleotides, the TFO:DNA triplex formation is blocked, rendering the TFO inactive. However, after a brief UV irradiation, the caging groups are removed, activating the TFO and leading to the inhibition of transcription. Furthermore, the synthesis and site-specific incorporation of caged deoxycytidine nucleotides within TFO inhibitor sequences was developed, allowing for the light-deactivation of TFO function and thus photochemical activation of gene expression. After UV-induced removal of the caging groups, the TFO forms a DNA dumbbell structure, rendering it inactive, releasing it from the DNA, and activating transcription. These are the first examples of light-regulated TFOs and their application in the photochemical activation and deactivation of gene expression. In addition, hairpin loop structures were found to significantly increase the efficacy of phosphodiester DNA-based TFOs in tissue culture.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeane M. Govan
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
27695, United States
| | - Rajendra Uprety
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
27695, United States
| | - James Hemphill
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
27695, United States
| | - Mark O. Lively
- Center
for Structural Biology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem,
North Carolina 27157, United States
| | - Alexander Deiters
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
27695, United States
| |
Collapse
|
99
|
SĂĄnchez MI, MartĂnez-Costas J, Gonzalez F, Bermudez MA, VĂĄzquez ME, Mascareñas JL. In vivo light-driven DNA binding and cellular uptake of nucleic acid stains. ACS Chem Biol 2012; 7:1276-80. [PMID: 22550994 DOI: 10.1021/cb300100r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Chemical derivatization of nucleic stains such as ethidium bromide or DAPI with tailored, photoresponsive caging groups, allows for "on demand" spatiotemporal control of their in vivo nucleic acid binding, as well as for improving their cellular uptake. This effect was particularly noteworthy for a nitro-veratryloxycarbonyl-caged derivative of ethidium bromide that, in contrast with the parent stain, is effectively internalized into living cells. The activation strategy works in light-accessible, therapeutically relevant settings, such as human retinas, and can even be applied for the release of active compounds in the eyes of living mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Francisco Gonzalez
- Departamento de FisiologĂa, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago
de Compostela, Spain
- Servicio
de OftalmologĂa, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago de Compostela, 15706 Santiago de Compostela,
Spain
| | - MarĂa A. Bermudez
- Departamento de FisiologĂa, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago
de Compostela, Spain
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
100
|
Gardner L, Deiters A. Light-controlled synthetic gene circuits. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2012; 16:292-9. [PMID: 22633822 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2012.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2012] [Revised: 04/10/2012] [Accepted: 04/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Highly complex synthetic gene circuits have been engineered in living organisms to develop systems with new biological properties. A precise trigger to activate or deactivate these complex systems is desired in order to tightly control different parts of a synthetic or natural network. Light represents an excellent tool to achieve this goal as it can be regulated in timing, location, intensity, and wavelength, which allows for precise spatiotemporal control over genetic circuits. Recently, light has been used as a trigger to control the biological function of small molecules, oligonucleotides, and proteins involved as parts in gene circuits. Light activation has enabled the construction of unique systems in living organisms such as band-pass filters and edge-detectors in bacterial cells. Additionally, light also allows for the regulation of intermediate steps of complex dynamic pathways in mammalian cells such as those involved in kinase networks. Herein we describe recent advancements in the area of light-controlled synthetic networks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Gardner
- North Carolina State University, Department of Chemistry, Raleigh, NC 27695, United States
| | | |
Collapse
|