Soshiho-Tang, a Traditional Herbal Medicine, Alleviates Atopic Dermatitis Symptoms via Regulation of Inflammatory Mediators

Soshiho-tang (SST) is a well-known traditional herbal medicine used for the treatment of many diseases. The aims of this study are to investigate the effects of SST on atopic dermatitis (AD) symptoms and to examine its mechanism. Human keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells were stimulated with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)/IFN-γ to induce AD-like keratinocyte environment. 2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) was used to induce AD-like skin lesions in the dorsal skin of BALB/c mice. SST and dexamethasone were administered orally for 14 day. As a result, SST treatment increased the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), an anti-oxidative factor, and the nuclear translocation of NF-E2 p45-related factor 2 (Nrf2). In addition, the treatment also decreased the expression level of inflammatory mediator nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and the adhesion molecule intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1). SST treatment (75 and 150 mg/kg) significantly relieved AD symptoms in DNCB-induced AD-like mice by restoring skin thickness, spleen weight, immunoglobulin E (IgE), interleukin 4 (IL-4), pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, and expression of several other mediators. We found that SST alleviates AD-like skin lesions and skin inflammation by modulating various atopic symptoms and inflammatory mediators. Therefore, SST can be used as an alternative drug for the treatment of AD.

Toll-like receptor 4 contributes to uterine activation by upregulating pro-inflammatory cytokine and CAP expression via the NF-κB/P38MAPK signaling pathway during pregnancy

Evidence indicates that inflammatory response is significant during the physiological process of human parturition; however, the specific signaling pathway that triggers inflammation is undefined. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are key upstream gatekeepers that control inflammatory activation before preterm delivery. Our previous study showed that TLR4 expression was significantly increased in human pregnancy tissue during preterm and term labor. Therefore, we explore whether TLR4 plays a role in term labor by initiating inflammatory responses, therefore promoting uterine activation. The results showed that expression of TLR4, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), CC chemokine ligand 2 (CCL-2), and uterine contraction-associated proteins (CAPs) was upregulated in the human and mice term labor (TL) group compared with the not-in-labor (TNL) group, and the TLR4 level positively correlated with CAP expression. In pregnant TLR4-knockout (TLR4^-/- ) mice, gestation length was extended by 8 hr compared with the wild-type group, and the expression of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, CCL-2, and CAPs was decreased in TLR4^-/- mice. Furthermore, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and P38MAPK activation is involved in the initiation of labor but was inhibited in TLR4^-/- mice. In uterine smooth muscle cells, the expression of inflammatory cytokines and CAPs decreased when the NF-κB and P38MAPK pathway was inhibited. Our data suggest that TLR4 is a key factor in regulating the inflammatory response that drives uterine activation and delivery initiation via activating the NF-κB/P38MAPK pathway.

Robustaflavone Isolated from Nandina domestica Using Bioactivity-Guided Fractionation Downregulates Inflammatory Mediators

Nandina domestica (Berberidaceae) has been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of cough. This plant is distributed in Korea, Japan, China, and India This study aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory phytochemicals obtained from the N. domestica fruits. We isolated a biflavonoid-type phytochemical, robustaflavone (R), from N. domestica fruits through bioactivity-guided fractionation based on its capacity to inhibit inflammation. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of R isolated from N. domestica has not yet been studied. In the present study, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory activities of R using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. We have shown that R reduces the production of nitric oxide (NO), pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and IL-6. Western blot analysis showed that R suppresses the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and downregulates the expression of LPS-induced nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and the phosphorylation of extracellular-regulated kinases (pERK 1/2). Moreover, R inhibited IL-8 release in LPS-induced human colonic epithelial cells (HT-29). These results suggest that R could be a potential therapeutic candidate for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

Complete biosynthetic pathways of ascofuranone and ascochlorin in Acremonium egyptiacum

Ascofuranone (AF) and ascochlorin (AC) are meroterpenoids produced by various filamentous fungi, including Acremonium egyptiacum (synonym: Acremonium sclerotigenum), and exhibit diverse physiological activities. In particular, AF is a promising drug candidate against African trypanosomiasis and a potential anticancer lead compound. These compounds are supposedly biosynthesized through farnesylation of orsellinic acid, but the details have not been established. In this study, we present all of the reactions and responsible genes for AF and AC biosyntheses in A. egyptiacum, identified by heterologous expression, in vitro reconstruction, and gene deletion experiments with the aid of a genome-wide differential expression analysis. Both pathways share the common precursor, ilicicolin A epoxide, which is processed by the membrane-bound terpene cyclase (TPC) AscF in AC biosynthesis. AF biosynthesis branches from the precursor by hydroxylation at C-16 by the P450 monooxygenase AscH, followed by cyclization by a membrane-bound TPC AscI. All genes required for AC biosynthesis (ascABCDEFG) and a transcriptional factor (ascR) form a functional gene cluster, whereas those involved in the late steps of AF biosynthesis (ascHIJ) are present in another distantly located cluster. AF is therefore a rare example of fungal secondary metabolites requiring multilocus biosynthetic clusters, which are likely to be controlled by the single regulator, AscR. Finally, we achieved the selective production of AF in A. egyptiacum by genetically blocking the AC biosynthetic pathway; further manipulation of the strain will lead to the cost-effective mass production required for the clinical use of AF.

4-O-Carboxymethylascochlorin Inhibits Expression Levels of on Inflammation-Related Cytokines and Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 Through NF-κB/MAPK/TLR4 Signaling Pathway in LPS-Activated RAW264.7 Cells

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) are known to play important roles in inflammatory diseases such as arteriosclerosis and plaque instability. The purpose of this study was to perform the effect of 4-O-carboxymethylascochlorin (AS-6) on MMP-9 expression in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced murine macrophages and signaling pathway involved in its anti-inflammatory effect. Effect of AS-6 on MAPK/NF-κB/TLR4 signaling pathway in LPS-activated murine macrophages was examined using ELISA, Western blotting, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and fluorescence immunoassay. MMP-9 enzyme activity was examined by gelatin zymography. AS-6 significantly suppressed MMP-9 and MAPK/NF-κB expression levels in LPS-stimulated murine macrophages. Expression levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), COX2, MMP-9, JNK, ERK, p38 phosphorylation, and NF-κB stimulated by LPS were also decreased by AS-6. Moreover, AS-6 suppressed TLR4 expression and dysregulated LPS-induced activators of transcription signaling pathway. The results of this study showed that AS-6 can inhibit LPS-stimulated inflammatory response by suppressing TLR4/MAPK/NF-κB signals, suggesting that AS-6 can be used to induce the stability of atherosclerotic plaque and prevent inflammatory diseases in an in vitro model.

4-O-carboxymethylascochlorin protected against microglial-mediated neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y and BV2 cocultured cells from LPS-induced neuroinflammation and death by inhibiting MAPK, NF-κB, and Akt pathways

In our previous studies, structurally similar compounds of ascochlorin and ascofuranone exhibited anti-inflammatory activity. Neural inflammation plays a significant role in the commence and advancement of neurodegenerative diseases. It is not known whether 4-O-carboxymethylascochlorin (AS-6) regulates the initial stage of inflammatory responses at the cellular level in BV2 microglia cells. We here investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of AS-6 treatment in microglia cells with the microglial protection in neurons. We found that the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated production of nitric oxide, a main regulator of inflammation, is suppressed by AS-6 in BV2 microglial cells. In addition, AS-6 dose-dependently suppressed the increase in COX-2 protein and messenger RNA levels in LPS-stimulated BV2 cells. Moreover, AS-6 inhibited the expression and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines in BV2 microglial cells. At the intracellular level, AS-6 inhibited LPS-activated nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) in BV2 microglial cells. AS-6 negatively affected mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and Akt phosphorylation: Phosphorylated forms of ERK, JNK, p38, and Akt decreased. To check whether AS-6 protects against inflammatory inducer-mediated neurotoxicity, neuronal SH-SY5Y cells were coincubated with BV2 cells in conditioned medium. AS-6 exerted a neuroprotective effect by suppressing microglial activation by LPS or amyloid-β peptide. AS-6 is a promising suppressor of inflammatory responses in LPS-induced BV2 cells by attenuating NF-κB and MAPKs signaling. AS-6 protected against microglial-mediated neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y and BV2 cocultured cells from LPS-induced neuroinflammation and death via inhibiting MAPK, NF-κB, and Akt pathways.

Upregulation of AMPK by 4-O-methylascochlorin promotes autophagy via the HIF-1α expression

4‐O‐methylascochlorin (MAC) is a derivative of ascochlorin, a prenyl‐phenol compound antibiotic isolated from the fungus Ascochyta viciae. MAC induces caspase/poly (ADP‐ribose) polymerase‐mediated apoptosis in leukemia cells. However, the effects of MAC on autophagy in cancer cells and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we show that MAC induces autophagy in lung cancer cells. MAC significantly induced the expression of autophagy marker proteins including LC3‐II, Beclin1, and ATG7. MAC promoted AMP‐activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation and inhibited the phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and its downstream signalling proteins P70S6K and 4EBP1. The AMPK activator AICAR upregulated LC3‐II expression through the AMPK/mTOR pathway similar to the effects of MAC. MAC‐induced LC3‐II protein expression was slightly reduced in AMPK siRNA transfected cells. MAC upregulated hypoxia‐inducible factor‐1α (HIF‐1α) and BNIP3, which are HIF‐1α‐dependent autophagic proteins. Treatment with CoCl₂, which mimics hypoxia, induced autophagy similar to the effect of MAC. The HIF‐1α inhibitor YC‐1 and HIF‐1α siRNA inhibited the MAC‐induced upregulation of LC3‐II and BNIP3. These results suggest that MAC induces autophagy via the AMPK/mTOR signalling pathway and by upregulating HIF‐1α and BNIP3 protein expression in lung cancer cells.

Antrolone, a Novel Benzoid Derived from Antrodia cinnamomea, Inhibits the LPS-Induced Inflammatory Response in RAW264.7 Macrophage Cells by Balancing the NF-κB and Nrf2 Pathways

Antrodia cinnamomea, a medicinal mushroom, has previously demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity, although the specific compound responsible for the effect remains unclear. The present study was designed to investigate the anti-inflammatory property of antrolone, a novel benzoid derived from A. cinnamomea mycelium, and to clarify the underlying mechanisms of action. To this end, murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells were treated with antrolone (0.1–30[Formula: see text][Formula: see text]M) 30[Formula: see text]min prior to stimulation with lipopolysaccharides (LPS, 0.1[Formula: see text][Formula: see text]g/ml) for 24[Formula: see text]h. Cell viability, nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production, levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and the signaling pathways involved in the inflammatory cascades were then investigated. Our results show that antrolone significantly decreased LPS-induced NO, PGE2, pro-inflammatory cytokine, and keratinocyte chemoattractant CXCL1 (KC) production and reduced levels of the proteins inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). These effects were independent of the effect of antrolone on macrophage cytotoxicity. Moreover, antrolone significantly inhibited the activation of the NF[Formula: see text]B, MAPK, and AKT pathways, while it increased nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) levels. Our findings suggest that antrolone exhibits potent anti-inflammatory activity and may, therefore, be a lead compound for the development of an anti-inflammatory drug.

Melatonin inhibits endoplasmic reticulum stress-associated TXNIP/NLRP3 inflammasome activation in lipopolysaccharide-induced endometritis in mice

Endometritis, an inflammatory response of the uterus tissue, is characterized by the production of inflammatory cytokines and migration of neutrophil (PMN) into the uterus tissue. Melatonin has been demonstrated to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effects of melatonin on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endometritis in mice. An endometritis model was induced by LPS and melatonin was given 1 h before LPS treatment. The results showed that melatonin inhibited LPS-induced pathologic changes, Myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, and levels of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β). Melatonin also inhibited LPS-induced thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP)/NOD-like receptor family, pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Furthermore, melatonin was found to increase AMPK activity. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that melatonin inhibited ER stress-associated TXNIP/NLRP3 inflammasome activation with a regulation of adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK) in LPS-induced endometritis. Melatonin may serve as a promising nutritional supplement for the treatment of endometritis.

Curcumin reduces Ly6Chi monocyte infiltration to protect against liver fibrosis by inhibiting Kupffer cells activation to reduce chemokines secretion

Curcumin has been reported to have anti-fibrotic effect. However, the anti-fibrotic mechanism of curcumin for liver fibrosis remains obscure. In the presenting study, we aimed to investigate whether curcumin reduce chemokines secretion by inhibiting kupffer cells (KCs) activation to decrease Ly6C^hi monocyte infiltration in the treatment of liver fibrosis. Liver fibrosis was induced by intraperitoneal carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-injection in mice. Mice in curcumin group received curcumin treatment by gavage. Pretreatment with curcumin significantly protected mice from liver inflammation and fibrosis. Compared to CCl₄ group, mice in the curcumin group showed significantly less intrahepatic infiltration of Ly6C^hi monocytes, but no difference of other leucocyte subtypes. Moreover, curcumin significantly reduced Ly6C^hi monocytes associated pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrogenic cytokines, which was in line with the decreased numbers of intrahepatic Ly6C^hi monocytes. Further study found that curcumin is able to decrease KCs activation and monocyte chemokines, which explains why curcumin can reduce Ly6C^hi monocytes infiltration during liver fibrosis. In vitro, we discovered that curcumin prevents the polarization of macrophages toward M1 and reduces monocyte chemokines secretion, which is involved with ERK1/2 and p38 pathways. Taken together, for the first time, we verified that curcumin can reduce chemokines secretion by inhibiting KCs activation to decrease Ly6C^hi monocyte infiltration in the treatment of liver fibrosis. These results suggested that curcumin may be considered a promising candidate in the prevention and treatment of liver fibrosis.

GM1 Induced the inflammatory response related to the Raf-1/MEK1/2/ERK1/2 pathway in co-culture of pig mesenchymal stem cells with RAW264.7

Pig-human xenotransplantation can trigger cell-mediated immune responses. We explored the role of gangliosides in inflammation related to immune rejection in xenotransplantation. Co-culture of xenogeneic cells (pig-MSCs and RAW264.7) was used to emulate xenotransplantation conditions. MTT assay results indicated that cell viability was significantly decreased in pADMSCs co-cultured with RAW264.7 cells. GM1 and GM3 were highly expressed in pADMSCs co-cultured with RAW264.7 cells. pADMSCs co-cultured with RAW264.7 cells strongly expressed pro-inflammatory proteins such as COX-2, iNOS, p50, p65, pIκBα, and TNF-α. GM1-knockdown pADMSCs co-cultured with RAW 264.7 cells did not show significantly altered cell viability, but pro-inflammatory proteins were markedly inhibited. Co-culture of pADMSCs with RAW264.7 cells induced significant phosphorylation (p) of JNK1/2 and pERK1/2. However, pERK1/2 and pJNK1/2 were decreased and MEK1/2 and Raf1 were suppressed in GM1-knockdown pADMSCs co-cultured with RAW264.7 cells. Thus, the Raf-1/MEK1/2/ERK1/2 and JNK1/2 pathways were significantly upregulated in response to increases of GM1 in co-cultured xenogeneic cells. However, the inflammatory response was suppressed in co-culture of GM1-knockdown pADMSCs with RAW264.7 cells via down-regulation of the Raf-1/MEK1/2/ERK1/2 and JNK1/2 pathways. Therefore, the ganglioside GM1 appears to play a major role in the inflammatory response in xenotransplantation via the Raf-1/MEK1/2/ERK1/2 and JNK1/2 pathways.

MAPK and NF-κB signalling pathways regulate the expression of miRNA, let-7f in human endocervical epithelial cells

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) mediate post-transcriptional gene suppression and are a critical component of the complex regulatory networks in epithelial immune responses. Transcription of miRNA genes in epithelial cells can be elaborately controlled through Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and associated nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, leading to nuclear transcription factor associated-transactivation and transrepression of miRNAs. MiRNA, let-7f is involved in the regulation of innate immune responses post TLR3 stimulation in human endocervical cells (End1/E6E7) and decreased let-7f is associated with poor immune activation. Thus, expression of let-7f is under strict control. However, the mechanism by which let-7f is regulated in these cells is not known. Therefore, in the present study, we have investigated the role of MAPK and NF-κB in the transcription of let-7f. We report that signalling of TLR3, results in activation of multiple signalling pathways including MAPK/ERK, JNK, p38, and NF-κB. Of these MAPK/ p38 and JNK directly influence the expression of let-7f in End1/E6E7 cells. Inhibition of ERK and NF-κB up regulates the expression of let-7f and its transcription factor, C/EBPβ. In conclusion, we have identified a system through which TLR3 mediated immune response is regulated by C/EBPβ and let-7f through the temporal activation of MAPK and NF-κB in human endocervical cells.

Anti-inflammatory activities of essential oil isolated from the calyx of Hibiscus sabdariffa L

Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn., belonging to the family of Malvaceae, is considered to be a plant with health care applications in China. The main purpose of this study was to analyze the composition of its essential oil and assess its potential therapeutic effect on anti-inflammatory activity. A water steam distillation method was used to extract the essential oil from H. Sabdariffa. The essential oil components were determined by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis and a total of 18 volatile constituents were identified, the majority of which were fatty acids and ester compounds. Biological activity showed that the essential oil extracted from H. Sabdariffa exhibited excellent anti-inflammatory activity in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. The nitric oxide (NO) inhibition rate reached 67.46% when the concentration of the essential oil was 200 μg mL^-1. Further analysis showed that the anti-inflammatory activity of the essential oil extracted from H. Sabdariffa might be exerted through inhibiting the activation of NF-κB and MAPK (JNK and ERK1/2) signaling pathways to decrease NO and pro-inflammatory cytokine (IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α, COX-2, and iNOS) production. Thus, the essential oil extracted from H. Sabdariffa is a good source of a natural product with a beneficial effect against inflammation, and it may be applied as a food supplement and/or functional ingredient.

HMGB1 silencing in macrophages prevented their functional skewing and ameliorated EAM development: Nuclear HMGB1 may be a checkpoint molecule of macrophage reprogramming

High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), an important inflammatory factor, plays significant roles in CD4⁺T cell differentiation, cancer and autoimmune disease development. Our previous data have demonstrated that HMGB1 contributes to macrophage reprogramming and is involved in experimental autoimmune myocarditis (EAM) development. In contrast to the well-explored function of HMGB1, little is known about the nuclear function. Whether HMGB1 can serve as an architectural factor and control functional skewing of macrophages remains unclear. Therefore, the present work was performed to address the above speculation. The adenovirus-mediated shRNA (Ad-shRNA) was employed to knock down HMGB1 in RAW264.7 and monocytes/macrophages of EAM mice. Our data showed that in vitro HMGB1 silencing limited functional skewing of macrophages and down-regulated inflammatory factors secretion, which can't be reversed by the exogenous HMGB1. In M1 polarization system, the phosphorylations of NF-κB, p38 and Erk1/2 were inhibited following HMGB1 silencing. In vivo, HMGB1 silencing could effectively ameliorate EAM development. Our data suggest that HMGB1 may be a checkpoint nuclear factor of macrophage reprogramming. Our findings also provide an exciting therapeutic method for inflammatory disorders.

Cortisol inhibits NF-κB and MAPK pathways in LPS activated bovine endometrial epithelial cells

The bovine uterus is subject to infection after calving, which may lead to endometritis. Elevated cortisol levels have been observed in postpartum cattle. However, the role of cortisol in the inflammatory response of the uterus has not been reported. The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of cortisol on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced primary bovine endometrial epithelial cells (BEECs). BEECs were treated with various concentrations of cortisol (5, 15 and 30 ng/mL) in the presence of LPS. The mRNA expression of TLR4 and proinflammatory cytokines was measured with qPCR. The activation of NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways was detected with Western blotting and immunofluorescence. Cortisol induced the down-regulation of the mRNA expression of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible NO synthase (iNOS). Cortisol inhibited the activity of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) via blocking the phosphorylation and degradation of IκB. Cortisol suppressed the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), including extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2), p38MAPK and c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase (JNK). These results demonstrated that cortisol may exert its anti-inflammatory actions by regulating NF-κB activation and MAPK phosphorylation.

Free-fatty acid receptor-4 (FFA4) modulates ROS generation and COX-2 expression via the C-terminal β-arrestin phosphosensor in Raw 264.7 macrophages

Agonism of the G protein-coupled free-fatty acid receptor-4 (FFA4) has been shown to promote numerous anti-inflammatory effects in macrophages that arise due to interaction with β-arrestin partner proteins. Humans express functionally distinct short and long FFA4 splice variants, such that FFA4-S signals through Gαq/11 and β-arrestin, while FFA4-L is intrinsically biased solely towards β-arrestin signaling. Recently, we and others have shown that phosphorylation of the FFA4 C-terminal tail is responsible for β-arrestin interactability and signaling. Given the significance of β-arrestin in the anti-inflammatory function of FFA4, the goal of this study was to examine the role of the C-terminal β-arrestin phosphosensor in FFA4 signaling induced by PMA and LPS in murine Raw 264.7 macrophages. Our data reveal for the first time that both FFA4 isoforms modulate PMA-induced ROS generation, and that abolishment of the FFA4-S, but not FFA4-L C-terminal phosphosensor, is detrimental to this effect. Furthermore, we show that while both isoforms reduce PMA-induced expression of COX-2, removal of the FFA4-S phosphosensor significantly decreases this response, suggesting that these effects of FFA4-S are β-arrestin mediated. On the contrary, FFA4-S, as well as the truncated C-terminal congener lacking the β-arrestin phosphosensor were both able to reduce LPS-induced NF-κB activity and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. However, FFA4-L and its corresponding mutant were incapable of modulating either, suggesting that these responses are mediated by G protein coupling. Taken together, our data reveal important structure-function and signaling differences between the two FFA4 isoforms, and for the first time link FFA4 to modulation of ROS in macrophages.

Ellagic acid inhibits the proliferation of human pancreatic carcinoma PANC-1 cells in vitro and in vivo

Ellagic aicd (EA), a dietary polyphenolic compound found in plants and fruits, possesses various pharmacological activities. This study investigated the effect of EA on human pancreatic carcinoma PANC-1 cells both in vitro and in vivo; and defined the associated molecular mechanisms. In vitro, the cell growth and repairing ability were assessed by CCK-8 assay and wound healing assay. The cell migration and invasion activity was evaluated by Tanswell assay. In vivo, PANC-1 cell tumor-bearing mice were treated with different concentrations of EA. We found that EA significantly inhibited cell growth, cell repairing activity, and cell migration and invasion in a dose-dependent manner. Treatment of PANC-1 xenografted mice with EA resulted in significant inhibition in tumor growth and prolong mice survival rate. Furthermore, flow cytometric analysis showed that EA increased the percentage of cells in the G1 phase of cell cycle. Western blot analysis revealed that EA inhibited the expression of COX-2 and NF-κB. In addition, EA reversed epithelial to mesenchymal transition by up-regulating E-cadherin and down-regulating Vimentin. In summary, the present study demonstrated that EA inhibited cell growth, cell repairing activity, cell migration and invasion in a dose-dependent manner. EA also effectively inhibit human pancreatic cancer growth in mice. The anti-tumor effect of EA might be related to cell cycle arrest, down-regulating the expression of COX-2 and NF-κB, reversing epithelial to mesenchymal transition by up-regulating E-cadherin and down-regulating Vimentin. Our findings suggest that the use of EA would be beneficial for the management of pancreatic cancer.

Ascochlorin Suppresses MMP-2-Mediated Migration and Invasion by Targeting FAK and JAK-STAT Signaling Cascades

Human glioblastomas express higher levels of matrix metalloprotease-2 (MMP-2) than low-grade brain tumors and normal brain tissues. Ascochlorin (ASC) has anti-metastatic, anti-angiogenic, and synergistic effect in various types of cancer cells. However, it remains unknown whether ASC can affect cell migration and invasion in malignant human glioma cells. In this study, we found that ASC indeed inhibits cell migration and invasion in U373MG and A172. ASC significantly suppresses the MMP-2 gelatinolytic activity and expression in U373MG and A172. To determine the molecular mechanism by which ASC suppressed cell migration and invasion, we investigated whether ASC could modulate metastasis via focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signaling, a potential drug target. ASC strongly inhibits the phosphorylation of FAK, and treatment with a FAK inhibitor significantly suppresses cancer cell migration in the presence of ASC. In addition, ASC significantly decreased phosphorylation of JAK2/STAT3, cancer cell migration and nuclear translocation of STAT3. Taken together, these results suggest that ASC inhibits cell migration and invasion by blocking FAK and JAK/STAT signaling, resulting in reduced MMP-2 activity. J. Cell. Biochem. 119: 300-313, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Morus alba L. Stem Extract in LPS-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Cells

Morus alba L., also known as white mulberry or Mhon, has long been used in traditional medicines. This study was aimed to investigate anti-inflammatory activities of mulberry stem ethanolic extract (MSE) in lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cell line. The MSE was first prepared and then investigated for cell viability using the MTT assay. The anti-inflammatory activities were investigated through the inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase- (COX-) 2 mRNA expression, and iNOS protein expression using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay and immunoblotting analysis, respectively. The inhibition of nitric oxide production of the MSE was also investigated using the Griess reaction assay. The MSE concentration ranging from 10 to 40 µg/ml yielded cell viability higher than 80%. The MSE at concentrations of 20 and 40 µg/ml demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity through the inhibition of nitric oxide production via suppression of both the iNOS mRNA and protein. It was also found to inhibit the expression of COX-2 mRNA in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells. This study is the first to report the anti-inflammatory potential of the extract prepared from the stem of mulberry.

Ascofuranone inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory response via NF-kappaB and AP-1, p-ERK, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β in RAW 264.7 macrophages

The natural fungal compound ascofuranone (5-chloro-3-[(2E,6E)-7-[(2S)-5,5-dimethyl-4-oxo-tetrahydrofuran-2-yl]-3-methyl-octa-2,6-dienyl]-2,4-dihydroxy-6-methyl-benzaldehyde, MW 420.93) (AF) isolated from Ascochyta viciae has been known to promote cell cycle arrest and inhibit invasion of tumor cells. We have previously studied a structurally similar compound ascochlorin (ASC; MW 404.93) with regard to its anti-inflammatory activity in LPS- stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. In order to examine the relationship between the anti-inflammatory activities and the molecular differences between AF and ASC, the activity of AF is herein studied, because ASC has a unique trimethyl oxocyclohexyl structure, while AF has a unique dimethyl-oxo-tetrahydrofuran structure. AF dose-dependently inhibited the production of NO and iNOS and the COX-2 mRNA and protein levels in RAW 264.7 cells. In addition, AF suppressed mRNA expression levels of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, as assessed by RT-PCR. AF (30-50 μg/ml) treatment clearly inhibited the nuclear translocation of NF-κB, AP-1 (p-c-Jun) from the cytosolic space. Phosphorylation of IκB, which functions to maintain the activity of NF-κB, was decreased by AF treatment. Moreover, AF suppressed the binding of NF-κB (p65). Inhibition of IkBa phosphorylation and degradation inhibits nuclear translocation of p65. Immunofluorescence confocal microscopy analysis also revealed that translocation of NF-κB and AP-1 (p-c-Jun) was decreased upon AF treatment. AF specifically decreased the expression level of p-ERK, but not the expression level of p-p38 or p-JNK. Given these results, we suggest that AF suppresses the inflammatory response by targeting p-ERK. This indicates that AF is a negative regulator of LPS-stimulated nuclear translocation of NF-κB and AP-1 (p-c-Jun) in RAW 264.7 macrophages, and specifically it targets p-ERK. Therefore, AF and ASC exert their effects in different ways, most probably because their structural differences allow for specific recognition and inhibition of their target MAPKs. Our results further suggest that AF could be a natural bioactive compound useful for treating inflammation-mediated pathological diseases.

Total Synthesis of Grifolin, Grifolic Acid, LL-Z1272α, LL-Z1272β, and Ilicicolinic Acid A

A novel synthetic approach for the synthesis of bioactive phenolic natural products is reported. This strategy highlights the power of halogenative aromatization reactions recently developed in our group for preparing densely functionalized arenes in a controlled fashion. Five natural products related by an aromatic core and a farnesyl side chain are synthesized. In contrast to prior methods, this synthesis features high efficiency and generality that permits preparation of targets in gram-scale quantities.

Discovery of a new structural class of competitive hDHODH inhibitors with in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive effects

Human dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (hDHODH) is an inner mitochondrial membrane enzyme that involves in the fourth step of the biosynthesis of pyrimidine base. Inhibitors of hDHODH have been proven efficacy for the treatments of inflammation, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis and cancer. In the present study, ascochlorin (ASC) and its derivatives, natural compounds from fungal metabolites, were discovered as hDHODH inhibitors by high-throughput screening. Enzyme kinetics studies showed that ASC competitively binds to hDHODH at the site of coenzyme Q substrate. In ex vivo study, ASC significantly inhibited the ConA-stimulated T lymphocytes proliferation and interleukin-2, interferon-γ production. Furthermore, ASC showed significant in vivo anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects on the mice ears swelling, allogenic skin grafts and rat collagen-induced arthritis animal disease models. ASC significantly reduced ears edema level of mice, increased the survival time of allogenic skin implanted on the mice and attenuated arthritis severity of rat model. In conclusion, ASC was identified as a new structural class of hDHODH inhibitors with efficient anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive activity, and may be a promising candidate for the development of new therapy in the treatment of autoimmune diseases.

Anti-inflammatory effects of 6'-O-acetyl mangiferin from Iris rossii Baker via NF-κb signal blocking in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells

A series of acylated xanthone C-glucosides were identified from the methanolic extract of whole Iris rossii Baker. The major constituent was characterized as 6'-O-acetyl mangiferin (OAM), and complete structure elucidation was carried out using 2D NMR (COSY, HSQC, and HMBC) and LC-IT-TOF-MS analyses. The present study is the first to report the anti-inflammatory effects of 6'-O-acetyl mangiferin from Iris rossii Baker on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory response in RAW264.7 macrophage cells. OAM strongly suppressed protein expression of inducible nitric oxide (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), thereby inhibiting the production of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Furthermore, OAM inhibited the LPS-induced phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and p38, which led to the blockade of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and inhibitor kappa B (IκB)-α activation. These results suggest that the anti-inflammatory effects of OAM may be attributed to the downregulation of COX-2 and iNOS via the suppression of NF-κB and the MAPK signaling pathway in RAW264.7 macrophages.