Determination of major ginsenosides in Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng) using high-performance liquid chromatography

Biotransformation of ginsenoside Rd in the ginseng extraction residue by fermentation with lingzhi (Ganoderma lucidum)

Ginseng and lingzhi (Ganoderma lucidum) both are valuable traditional Chinese medicines and have been extensively utilised in functional foods and traditional medicines in many Asian countries. However, massive quantity of ginseng residue is produced after extraction of ginseng which still contains a lot of bioactive compounds such as ginsenosides. The goal of this study was to reuse the American ginseng extraction residue as the fermentation medium of G. lucidum to produce bioactive ginsenoside enriched biotransformation products. The changes of ginsenosides in the fermentation products were analysed during fermentation. Our results showed that after 30 days of fermentation, ginsenoside Rg1, Rd, and compound K (CK) significantly increased, especially Rd, while other ginsenosides (Re, Rb1 and Rc) decreased during fermentation. Ginsenoside Rd is the major ginsenoside in the final fermentation product. Furthermore, the biotransformation of ginsenosides was the major reaction in this fermentation process.

HPLC-based metabolic profiling and quality control of leaves of different Panax species

Leaves from Panax ginseng Meyer (Korean origin and Chinese origin of Korean ginseng) and P. quinquefolius (American ginseng) were harvested in Haenam province, Korea, and were analyzed to investigate patterns in major metabolites using HPLC-based metabolic profiling. Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was used to analyze the HPLC chromatogram data. There was a clear separation between Panax species and/or origins from different countries in the PLS-DA score plots. The ginsenoside compounds of Rg1, Re, Rg2, Rb2, Rb3, and Rd in Korean leaves were higher than in Chinese and American ginseng leaves, and the Rb1 level in P. quinquefolius leaves was higher than in P. ginseng (Korean origin or Chinese origin). HPLC chromatogram data coupled with multivariate statistical analysis can be used to profile the metabolite content and undertake quality control of Panax products.

Pharmacokinetics and dopamine/acetylcholine releasing effects of ginsenoside Re in hippocampus and mPFC of freely moving rats

AIM

To investigate the pharmacokinetics and dopamine/acetylcholine-releasing effects of ginsenoside Re (Re) in brain regions related to learning and memory, and to clarify the neurochemical mechanisms underlying its anti-dementia activity.

METHODS

Microdialysis was conducted on awake, freely moving adult male SD rats with dialysis probes implanted into the hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) or the third ventricle. The concentrations of Re, dopamine (DA) and acetylcholine (ACh) in dialysates were determined using LC-MS/MS.

RESULTS

Subcutaneous administration of a single dose of Re (12.5, 25 or 50 mg/kg) rapidly distributed to the cerebrospinal fluid and exhibited linear pharmacokinetics. The peak concentration (C(max)) occurred at 60 min for all doses. Re was not detectable after 240 min in the dialysates for the low dose of 12.5 mg/kg. At the same time, Re dose-dependently increased extracellular levels of DA and ACh in the hippocampus and mPFC, and more prominent effects were observed in the hippocampus.

CONCLUSION

The combined study of the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of Re demonstrate that increase of extracellular levels of DA and ACh, particularly in the hippocampus, may contribute, at least in part, to the anti-dementia activity of Re.

Silver (Ι)-assisted enantiomeric analysis of ginsenosides using electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

For identification of ginsenoside enantiomers, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) was used to generate silver complexes of the type [ginsenoside + Ag](+). Collision induced dissociation of the silver-ginsenoside complexes produced fragment ions by dehydration, allowing differentiation of ginsenoside enantiomers by the intensity of [M + Ag - H(2)O](+) ion. In the meanwhile, an approach based on the distinct profiles of enantiomer-selective fragment ion intensity varied with collision energy was introduced to refine the identification and quantitation of ginsenoside enantiomers. Five pairs of enantiomeric ginsenosides were distinguished and quantified on the basis of the distribution of fragment ion [M + Ag - H(2)O](+). This method was also extended to the identification of other type of ginsenoside isomers such as ginsenoside Rb2 and Rb3. For demonstrating the practicability of this novel approach, it was utilized to analyze the molar ratio of 20-(S) and 20-(R) type enantiomeric ginsenosides in enantiomer mixture in red ginseng extract. The generation of characteristic fragment ion [M + Ag - H(2)O](+) likely results from the reduction of potential energy barrier of dehydration because of the catalysis of silver ion. The mechanism of enantiomer identification of ginsenosides was discussed from the aspects of computational modeling and internal energy.

Classification of cultivation locations of Panax quinquefolius L samples using high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and chemometric analysis

Panax quinquefolius L ( P. quinquefolius L) samples grown in the United States and China were analyzed with high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). Prior to classification, the two-way data sets were subjected to pretreatment including baseline correction and retention time (RT) alignment. Principal component analysis (PCA) and projected difference resolution (PDR) metrics were used to evaluate the data quality and the pretreatment effects. A fuzzy rule-building expert system (FuRES) classifier was used to classify the P. quinquefolius L samples grown in the United States and China with the optimized partial least-squares (o-PLS) classifier as the positively biased control method. A classification rate as high as 98 ± 3% with FuRES was obtained after baseline correction and RT alignment, which is equivalent to the result obtained by using the positively biased o-PLS control method (98 ± 3%). RT alignment improved the classification rates for both FuRES and o-PLS classifiers (18% improvement for the FuRES classification rate and 10% improvement for the o-PLS classification rate with baseline correction). From the rule obtained to classify the P. quinquefolius L samples grown in the United States and China, peaks were identified that can be prospective biomarkers for differentiating samples from different growth regions. HPLC-MS with chemometric analysis has the potential to be used as an authentication method for P. quinquefolius L grown in China and the United States.

Ginsenosides as Anticancer Agents: In vitro and in vivo Activities, Structure-Activity Relationships, and Molecular Mechanisms of Action

Conventional chemotherapeutic agents are often toxic not only to tumor cells but also to normal cells, limiting their therapeutic use in the clinic. Novel natural product anticancer compounds present an attractive alternative to synthetic compounds, based on their favorable safety and efficacy profiles. Several pre-clinical and clinical studies have demonstrated the anticancer potential of Panax ginseng, a widely used traditional Chinese medicine. The anti-tumor efficacy of ginseng is attributed mainly to the presence of saponins, known as ginsenosides. In this review, we focus on how ginsenosides exert their anticancer effects by modulation of diverse signaling pathways, including regulation of cell proliferation mediators (CDKs and cyclins), growth factors (c-myc, EGFR, and vascular endothelial growth factor), tumor suppressors (p53 and p21), oncogenes (MDM2), cell death mediators (Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, XIAP, caspases, and death receptors), inflammatory response molecules (NF-κB and COX-2), and protein kinases (JNK, Akt, and AMP-activated protein kinase). We also discuss the structure–activity relationship of various ginsenosides and their potentials in the treatment of various human cancers. In summary, recent advances in the discovery and evaluation of ginsenosides as cancer therapeutic agents support further pre-clinical and clinical development of these agents for the treatment of primary and metastatic tumors.

Ginsenoside F2 induces apoptosis accompanied by protective autophagy in breast cancer stem cells

Ginsenoside F2 (F2) was assessed for its antiproliferative activity against breast cancer stem cells (CSCs). F2 induced apoptosis in breast CSCs by activating the intrinsic apoptotic pathway and mitochondrial dysfunction. Concomitantly, F2 induced the formation of acidic vesicular organelles, recruitment of GFP-LC3-II to autophagosomes, and elevation of Atg-7 levels, suggesting that F2 initiates an autophagic progression in breast CSCs. Treatment with an inhibitor of autophagy enhanced F2-induced cell death. Our findings provide new insights into the anti-cancer activity of F2 and may contribute to the rational use and pharmacological study of F2.

Ginsenoside Re: Its chemistry, metabolism and pharmacokinetics

Ginsenosides, the bioactive components of ginseng, can be divided into two major groups, namely 20(S)-protopanaxatriol (e.g. Re, Rg₁, Rg₂, and Rb₃) and 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (e.g. Rb₁, Rb₂, Rc, and Rd). Biological and environmental factors may affect the content of ginsenosides in different parts of ginseng plant. Evidence from pharmacokinetic and metabolic studies of Re demonstrated that (1) the absorption of Re is fast in gastrointestinal tract; (2) Re may be metabolized mainly to Rh₁ and F₁ by intestinal microflora before absorption into blood; and (3) Re is quickly cleared from the body.

Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) root fractions: differential effects on postprandial glycemia in healthy individuals

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Variations in ginsenoside profile may predict the postprandial glucose (PPG)-lowering efficacy of ginseng. Previously we reported differential PPG-lowering effects with two Korean red ginseng (KRG) root. FRACTIONS: body and rootlets, of variable ginsenoside profiles. Whether this effect is reproducible with a different KRG source is unclear. We therefore tested two root fractions from a KRG source with elevated ginsenoside levels to assess its effect on PPG.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

After a 12-h overnight fast, 13 healthy individuals (6M:7F; age=28 ± 10 y; BMI=24.1 ± 3 kg/m2; FBG=4.77 ± 0.04 mmol/L) randomly received either 3g of KRG-body, rootlets or placebo, on three separate visits. Treatments were consumed 60 min prior to a standard test meal with capillary blood samples at -60, 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120 min.

RESULTS

The KRGrootlets had>6 fold total ginsensosides than the KRG-body but did not significantly affect PPG. Despite a reduced ginsenoside profile, KRG-body lowered PPG levels at 45, 60, 90 and 120 min during the test (p<0.05), rendering an overall reduction of 27% in incremental area under the glucose curve compared to the control (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Comparing the results with a previously studied batch of KRG suggests a potential therapeutic dose range for ginsenosides. This observation should be clinically verified with acute screening and ginsenoside composition analysis.

Ginsenosides from American ginseng: chemical and pharmacological diversity

Ginseng occupies a prominent position in the list of best-selling natural products in the world. Compared to the long history of use and widespread research on Asian ginseng, the study of American ginseng is relatively limited. In the past decade, some promising advances have been achieved in understanding the chemistry, pharmacology and structure-function relationship of American ginseng. To date, there is no systematic review of American ginseng. In this review, the different structures of the ginsenosides in American ginseng are described, including naturally occurring compounds and those resulting from steaming or biotransformation. Preclinical and clinical studies published in the past decade are also discussed. Highlighted are the chemical and pharmacological diversity and potential structural-activity relationship of ginsenosides. The goal is that this article is a useful reference to chemists and biologists researching American ginseng, and will open the door to agents in drug discovery.

Development of a rapid and convenient method to separate eight ginsenosides from Panax ginseng by high-speed counter-current chromatography coupled with evaporative light scattering detection

Ginsenosides exhibit diverse biological activities and are major well-known components isolated from the radix of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. In the present work, a rapid and facile method for the separation and purification of eight ginsenosides from P. ginseng by high-speed counter-current chromatography coupled with evaporative light scattering detector (HSCCC-ELSD) was successfully developed. The crude samples for HSCCC separation were first purified from ginseng extract using a macroporous resin; the extract was loaded onto a Diaion-HP20 column and fractionated by methanol and water gradient elution. The ginsenosides-protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxatriol (PPT) fractions were subsequently eluted with 65 and 80% methanol and water gradient elution, respectively. Furthermore, these two fractions were separated by HSCCC-ELSD. The two-phase solvent system used for separation was composed of chloroform/methanol/water/isopropanol at a volume ratio of 4:3:2:1. Each fraction obtained was collected and dried, yielding the following eight ginsenosides: Rg(1), Re, Rf, Rh(1), Rb(1), Rc Rb(2) and Rd. The purity of these ginsenosides was greater than 97% as assessed by HPLC-ELSD, and their structures were characterized by electrospray-ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. This is the first report regarding the separation of the ginsenosides Rh(1), Rb(2) and Rc from P. ginseng by HSCCC.

Isolation and analysis of ginseng: advances and challenges

Ginseng occupies a prominent position in the list of best-selling natural products in the world. Because of its complex constituents, multidisciplinary techniques are needed to validate the analytical methods that support ginseng's use worldwide. In the past decade, rapid development of technology has advanced many aspects of ginseng research. The aim of this review is to illustrate the recent advances in the isolation and analysis of ginseng, and to highlight new applications and challenges. Emphasis is placed on recent trends and emerging techniques.

A method of extracting ginsenosides from Panax ginseng by pulsed electric field

The objective of this study was to develop and optimize a pulsed electric field (PEF) extraction method. Various experimental conditions, including electric field intensity and frequency, were evaluated against extraction methods. The content of six major ginsenosides (Rg(1), Re, Rb(1), Rc, Rb(2), and Rd) were quantified by HPLC. The results indicated that the highest yield of the ginsenoside is 12.69 mg/g by PEF using the conditions of 20 kV/cm electric field intensity, 6000 Hz frequency, 70% ethanol-water solution, and 150 L/h velocity. The yield of the ginsenoside of PEF extraction method is higher than the other five methods, such as microwave-assisted extraction, heat reflux extraction, ultrasonic-assisted extraction, accelerated solvent extraction, and ultrahigh pressure extraction, The whole extraction process of PEF takes less than 1 s, which is much less than the heat reflux extraction method for 6 h and even newly used technique ultrahigh pressure extraction method of 2 min. The high efficiency, shorter extraction times, and lower energy cost of PEF extraction method can be applied in the industrial production of saponins from Panax ginseng. The PEF extraction method is a promising and constructive method to extract ginsenosides.

American ginseng: potential structure-function relationship in cancer chemoprevention

Ginseng has a prominent position on the list of best-selling herbal products in the world, and its main active constituents are thought to be ginsenosides. Compared with the long history of use and widespread research on Asian ginseng, studies of American ginseng are relatively limited, especially regarding cancer chemoprevention. In recent studies of American ginseng, steaming or heating altered the ginsenoside profile and thereby increased anticancer effects. Yet the ginsenoside structures and their activities have not been systematically elucidated. In this commentary, we introduce the different ginsenosides in American ginseng, both the naturally occurring compounds and those resulting from steaming or biotransformation. We briefly review American ginseng's reported anticancer effects and their mechanisms of action, and explore the possible structural-function relationship with a focus on sugar molecules, hydroxyl groups and stereoselectivity in ginsenosides. Understanding these relationships may produce insights into chemical and pharmacological approaches for enhancing the chemopreventive effects of ginsenoside and for developing novel anticancer agents.

Biomass and content of ginsenosides and polyacetylenes in American ginseng roots can be increased without affecting the profile of bioactive compounds

Fifty selected roots from a 7-year-old American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) plant population grown in Denmark, with root weights varying from 191 to 490 g fresh weight (FW), were investigated for bioactive ginsenosides and polyacetylenes (PAs) in order to determine the correlation between the content of ginsenosides and PAs and root FW. PAs (falcarinol, panaxydol) and ginsenosides (Rb(1), Rb(2), Rb(3), Rc, Rd, Re, Rg(1)) were extracted from roots by sequential extraction with ethyl acetate and 80% methanol, respectively, and quantified in extracts by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using photodiode array detection. Total concentrations of PAs and ginsenosides varied between 150 and 780 mg/kg FW and 5,920 and 15,660 mg/kg FW, respectively. No correlation existed between the content of ginsenosides and PAs and root FW or between the total concentration of ginsenosides and PAs. Strong significant correlation was found between total content of ginsenosides and ginsenoside Rb(1) (r = 0.8190, P < 0.0001) and between total content of PAs and falcarinol (r = 0.9904, P < 0.0001). Based on the results of this study, it was concluded that it is possible to select large American ginseng roots for increased biomass production and concentration of bioactive ginsenosides and PAs without affecting the profile of bioactive compounds. Ginsenoside Rb(1) and falcarinol were found to be important selection parameters for identifying superior genotypes with the highest content of bioactive compounds.

Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 and Wisconsin Ginseng delay sarcopenia in Caenorhabditis elegans

Previously we reported that the standardized Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 extended life span and increased stress resistance in Caenorhabditis elegans. In this study, pharmacological modulation of age-dependent muscle degeneration, or sarcopenia, was determined. Transgenic C. elegans strain (PD4251) expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP)-MYO-3, localized in body wall muscles and vulval muscle nuclei, were fed with EGb 761 or Wisconsin Ginseng, and muscle integrity was analyzed by quantification of GFP fluorescence. Both EGb 761 and Wisconsin Ginseng significantly delayed sarcopenia. Ginseng was more effective in worms of more advanced age, which is consistent with the ultrastructural changes observed by transmission electron microscopy. Furthermore, both agents ameliorated age-associated decline of locomotive behaviors including locomotion, body bend, and pharyngeal pumping. These results suggest that pharmacological extension of life span is a consequence of maintaining functional capacity of the tissue, and that C. elegans is a valid model system for testing therapeutic intervention for delaying the progress of sarcopenia.

A reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography method with pulsed amperometric detection for the determination of glycosides

We have developed a reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography pulsed amperometric detection (RP-HPLC-PAD) method for the determination of glycosides. It is sensitive, repeatable, and selective without the pretreatment step. Ginsenosides were separated completely in 50 min using an water-acetonitrile gradient as the eluent and detected by PAD under NaOH alkaline conditions. The ginsenoside detection limit (S/N=3) was 0.02-0.07 ng and the quantification limit (S/N=10) was 0.1-0.2 ng. The coefficient of linear regression was 0.9984-0.9998 for concentrations between 1 and 50 microg/mL. The intra- and inter-day precision (RSD) was less than 6.35% in Ginseng Radix and Shy-jiun-tzyy-tang extracts. The average recoveries from Ginseng Radix and Shy-jiun-tzyy-tang extracts were 98.19-105.45% and 96.89-102.22%, respectively.

Analysis of ginsenosides in Panax ginseng in high pressure microwave-assisted extraction

High pressure microwave assisted extraction (HPMAE) was applied to extract the ginsenosides from Panax ginseng root. The influences of extraction solvent, extraction pressure and extraction time were individually investigated. HPMAE has been compared with other extraction methods, including Soxhlet extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction and heat reflux extraction. The determination of ginsenosides was performed by HPLC-ESI-MS. The results indicated that the HPMAE not only took a shorter time but also afforded higher extraction yields of ginsenosides, especially ginsenoside Rb1, Rc, Rb2 and Rd. Furthermore, the neutral ginsenosides and malonyl ginsenosides in Panax ginseng root extracts by HPMAE were investigated. The malonyl ginsenoside m-Rb1, m-Rc, m-Rb2 and m-Rd degraded in HPMAE at 400kPa (109-112°C) in 70%(v/v) ethanol-water and at 600kPa (112-115°C) in methanol, and transformed into corresponding neutral ginsenoside Rb1, Rc, Rb2 and Rd. Using water as extraction solution, the neutral ginsenosides degraded under HPMAE at 400kPa (135-140°C), and transformed into less polarity rare ginsenosides.

Five batches representative of Ontario-grown American ginseng root produce comparable reductions of postprandial glycemia in healthy individualsThis article is one of a selection of papers published in this special issue (part 1 of 2) on the Safety and Efficacy of Natural Health Products

Evidence indicates that the glycemia-lowering effect of American ginseng root may be batch dependent. We therefore evaluated the effect of 5 root batches, representative of Ontario-grown American ginseng, on postprandial glucose and insulin indices. Twelve healthy subjects (5 male, 7 female), mean ± SE age 26.5 ± 2 years, body mass index 23.96 ± 3.41 kg/m2, fasting blood glucose 4.77 ± 0.04 mmol/L, were assigned to consume 9 g of American ginseng from 5 farms (A–E), administered in randomized sequence on 5 separate visits, and a water-control during the 6th and last visit. Treatments were consumed 40 min before a 2-hour 75-gram oral glucose tolerance test. Plasma glucose and insulin were measured at baseline, before, and during the test. Compared with control, batches A and C reduced glucose incremental area under the curve (IAUC) by 35.2% (156 vs. 240 mmol·min/L) and 32.6% (162 vs. 240 mmol·min/L), respectively. Batches A, C, and E reduced incremental peak glucose by 1.3, 1.2, and 1.1 mmol/L, respectively. Batch C reduced the insulin IAUC by 27.7% (15.8 vs. 21.8 nmol·min/L). Effects on glucose and insulin parameters were not different across ginseng treatments. The mean of the 5 ginseng treatments reduced peak postprandial glucose by 1.0 mmol/L, glucose IAUC by 27.7% (173 vs. 240 mmol·min/L), and insulin IAUC by 23.8% (16.6 vs. 21.8 nmol·min/L) relative to control. (All results statistically significant at p < 0.05.) American ginseng decreased postprandial glycemia and insulinemia; however, 40% of the batches did not reduce glycemia with the anticipated magnitude, irrespective of their saponin composition.

Ginsenoside Rb1 inhibits tube-like structure formation of endothelial cells by regulating pigment epithelium-derived factor through the oestrogen beta receptor

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Angiogenesis is a crucial step in tumour growth and metastasis. Ginsenoside-Rb1 (Rb1), the major active constituent of ginseng, potently inhibits angiogenesis in vivo and in vitro. However, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. We hypothesized that the potent anti-angiogenic protein, pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), is involved in regulating the anti-angiogenic effects of Rb1.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES

Rb1-induced PEDF was determined by real-time PCR and western blot analysis. The anti-angiogenic effects of Rb1 were demonstrated using endothelial cell tube formation assay. Competitive ligand-binding and reporter gene assays were employed to indicate the interaction between Rb1 and the oestrogen receptor (ER).

KEY RESULTS

Rb1 significantly increased the transcription, protein expression and secretion of PEDF. Targeted inhibition of PEDF completely prevented Rb1-induced inhibition of endothelial tube formation, suggesting that the anti-angiogenic effect of Rb1 was PEDF specific. Interestingly, the activation of PEDF occurred via a genomic pathway of ERbeta. Competitive ligand-binding assays indicated that Rb1 is a specific agonist of ERbeta, but not ERalpha. Rb1 effectively recruited transcriptional activators and activated an oestrogen-responsive reporter gene. Furthermore, Rb1-mediated PEDF activation and the subsequent inhibition of tube formation were blocked by the ER antagonist ICI 182,780 or transfection of ERbeta siRNA, indicating ERbeta dependence.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Here we show for the first time that the Rb1 suppressed the formation of endothelial tube-like structures through modulation of PEDF via ERbeta. These findings demonstrate a novel mechanism of the action of this ginsenoside that may have value in anti-cancer and anti-angiogenesis therapy.

Protective effect of steamed American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) on V79-4 cells induced by oxidative stress

Heat-processed Asian ginseng roots (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer), also known as "red ginseng" in Asia, are reported to have more bioactivity than the no-processed white ginseng roots. Therefore, American fresh ginseng roots (Panax quinquefolius L.) were processed to the red ginseng and examined changes in bioactivity during heating process. The fresh America ginseng roots were steamed at 100 degrees C for 30, 60, 90 and 120 min, and their bioactivities were examined by analyzing the content of ginsenosides and total phenolics, and measuring DPPH and superoxide radical scavenging acivity and their protective effects on V79-4 cells viability and lipid peroxidation. The heating treatment proportionally increased total ginsenosides (4.97%, w/w) content compared with white ginseng (3.27%) and total phenolics from 444.5 mg GAE/100 g to 489.6-574.2 mg GAE/100 g. The antioxidant activity also increased from 285 mg/100 g (vitamin C equivalent) to 353-487 mg/100 g. Heated ginseng showed high levels of DPPH radical scavenging activity (59.5-88.5%) and the high level of superoxide radical scavenging activity (44.2-90.9%). The heated ginseng protected cell viability against H2O2-induced oxidative damage, and enhanced the activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase by dose dependently in V79-4 cells.

Simultaneous determination of ginsenosides in Panax ginseng with different growth ages using high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

The contents of ginsenosides in Panax ginseng not only vary in different parts of the root, but also exhibit yearly variation. In this study, an HPLC-MS method was established in order to simultaneously analyse ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1 and Rg2. The concentration of ginsenosides in the tap root and root fibre were compared and the yearly variations of nine ginsenosides elucidated. The results indicate that the total content of ginsenosides in the main root and the root fibre both attain a maximum level in the fourth year of growth, although the amount in the former is much higher than in the latter. The variation in the content of ginsenosides during a 2-6 year period suggests that cultivated P. Ginseng can be harvested after the fourth year. The current results will provide useful information for the quality control and good agricultural practice farming of ginseng.

Ginsenoside content and variation among and within American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) populations

The contents of five ginsenosides (Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rc and Rd) were measured in American ginseng roots collected from 10 populations grown in Maryland. Ginsenoside contents and compositions varied significantly among populations and protopanaxatriol (Rg1 and Re) ginsenosides were inversely correlated within root samples and among populations. The most abundant ginsenoside within a root and by population was either Rg1 or Re, followed by Rb1. Ginseng populations surveyed grouped into two chemotypes based on the relative compositions of Rg1 and Re. Four populations, including the control population in which plants were grown from TN and WI seed sources, contained roots with the recognized chemotype for American ginseng of low Rg1 composition relative to Re. The remaining 6 populations possessed roots with a distinctive chemotype of high relative Rg1 to Re compositions. Chemotype did not vary by production type (wild versus cultivated) and roots within a population rarely exhibited chemotypes different from the overall population chemotype. These results provide support for recent evidence that relative Rg1 to Re ginsenoside contents in American ginseng roots vary by region and that these differences are likely influenced more by genotype than environmental factors. Because the physiological and medicinal effects of different ginsenosides differ and can even be oppositional, our findings indicate the need for fingerprinting ginseng samples for regulation and recommended usage. Also, the High Rg1/Low Re chemotype discovered in MD could potentially be used therapeutically for coronary health based on recent evidence of the positive effects of Rg1 on vascular growth.