Employees’ Motivation for Personal Initiative

As organizational contexts are increasingly dynamic, the extent to which employees take initiative to facilitate success has become more important. We examine how employee motivation to get ahead (status striving) and get along with others (communion striving) predicts their proactive work behaviors, in the form of personal initiative, over and above employee accomplishment striving. Data collected from 165 employees indicates status striving has a positive and communion striving has a negative relationship with employee personal initiative. More importantly, the interaction between status and communion striving shows increased employee initiative when both status and communion striving increase from low to high levels. Altogether, our results suggest that employees’ initiative is increased when they are motivated by both getting ahead of and getting along with others at work.

Hierarchical integration of agency and communion: a study of influential moral figures

The purpose of this research is to (a) identify which of recent history's influential figures did and which did not personify moral excellence, and (b) to examine the motives that drove these individuals along such divergent paths. In Study 1, 102 social scientists evaluated the moral qualities of influential figures from Time Magazine's lists. In Study 2, we selected the 15 top ranking of these figures to comprise a moral exemplar group and the bottom 15 to comprise a comparison group of similarly influential people. We measured the motivational aspects of their personality (agency and communion) by content-analyzing extant speeches and interviews. Moral exemplars exhibited the hierarchical integration of agency and communion by treating agentic motives as a means to an end of communal motives. Comparison subjects, by contrast, personified unmitigated agency by treating motives of agency as both a means to an end and an end unto itself. These results imply that both the strength and structure of a person's motives account for moral behavior.

Agentic and communal traits and health: adolescents with and without diabetes

The authors examined whether agentic and communal traits are associated with relationship and health outcomes among adolescents with and without diabetes. They interviewed 263 teens (average age 12; 132 Type 1 diabetes; 131 healthy) on an annual basis for 5 years. The authors measured agency, communion, unmitigated agency, and unmitigated communion as well as parent and peer relationship quality, psychological distress, and diabetes health. In concurrent and lagged multilevel models, unmitigated communion and unmitigated agency were associated with poor relationship outcomes and greater psychological distress for those with and without diabetes. In lagged analyses, unmitigated communion predicted deterioration in diabetes health. Communion and agency were associated with positive relationship and health outcomes, with the former being stronger than the latter. These results underscore the need to focus on unmitigated agency and unmitigated communion when studying the implications of personality for health during adolescence.

Women, Men, and the Bedroom

Many researchers have elucidated large, well-established, and reliable gender differences in sexuality, but relatively few have empirically examined conditions under which these differences can be eliminated. This article investigates some established sexuality gender differences in greater depth. We demonstrate how creative theoretical and empirical approaches may shed light on prevalent misconceptions concerning sex-related gender differences.

Unmitigated agency, social support, and psychological adjustment in men with cancer

Unmitigated agency (UA), a gender-linked characteristic, has been associated with poorer cancer adjustment. Support from one's social network typically predicts adjustment but may be poorly matched to UA. The influence of UA on the utility of social support on adjustment over time is examined. Men with cancer (N=55) were assessed initially and 6 months later on three indicators of adjustment. Multilevel modeling analyses varied by adjustment indicator. UA was associated with increased cancer-related psychosocial symptoms but not depressive symptoms or cancer-related thought intrusion. Social support predicted fewer depressive symptoms and less cancer-related thought intrusion. However, a cross-level interaction revealed that the utility of social support on cancer-related thought intrusion was weaker for men with greater levels of UA. Men with cancer likely respond differently to changes in social support depending on their endorsement of UA.

Personality factors and psychopathy, alexithymia and stress

The present study investigated the relations between the Five-Factor Model of personality, psychopathy, alexithymia and stress in 205 technology students. Students completed four tests: the NEO Personality Inventory Revised, the Levinson Self-report Psychopathy Scale, the Toronto Alexithymia Scale and the Recognize Sign of Stress. Multiple regression analyses revealed that Agreeableness and Conscientiousness were significant predictors of total scores of psychopathy, and Openness was a significant predictor of alexithymia. Path analyses indicated that apart from Openness, all personality traits were significant to the model, and stress acted as a mediator between Neuroticism and alexithymia.

Masculinity, medical mistrust, and preventive health services delays among community-dwelling African-American men

BACKGROUND

The contribution of masculinity to men's healthcare use has gained increased public health interest; however, few studies have examined this association among African-American men, who delay healthcare more often, define masculinity differently, and report higher levels of medical mistrust than non-Hispanic White men.

OBJECTIVE

To examine associations between traditional masculinity norms, medical mistrust, and preventive health services delays.

DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS

A cross-sectional analysis using data from 610 African-American men age 20 and older recruited primarily from barbershops in the North, South, Midwest, and West regions of the U.S. (2003-2009).

MEASUREMENTS

Independent variables were endorsement of traditional masculinity norms around self-reliance, salience of traditional masculinity norms, and medical mistrust. Dependent variables were self-reported delays in three preventive health services: routine check-ups, blood pressure screenings, and cholesterol screenings. We controlled for socio-demography, healthcare access, and health status.

RESULTS

After final adjustment, men with a greater endorsement of traditional masculinity norms around self-reliance (OR: 0.77; 95% CI: 0.60-0.98) were significantly less likely to delay blood pressure screening. This relationship became non-significant when a longer BP screening delay interval was used. Higher levels of traditional masculinity identity salience were associated with a decreased likelihood of delaying cholesterol screening (OR: 0.62; 95% CI: 0.45-0.86). African-American men with higher medical mistrust were significantly more likely to delay routine check-ups (OR: 2.64; 95% CI: 1.34-5.20), blood pressure (OR: 3.03; 95% CI: 1.45-6.32), and cholesterol screenings (OR: 2.09; 95% CI: 1.03-4.23).

CONCLUSIONS

Contrary to previous research, higher traditional masculinity is associated with decreased delays in African-American men's blood pressure and cholesterol screening. Routine check-up delays are more attributable to medical mistrust. Building on African-American men's potential to frame preventive services utilization as a demonstration, as opposed to, denial of masculinity and implementing policies to reduce biases in healthcare delivery that increase mistrust, may be viable strategies to eliminate disparities in African-American male healthcare utilization.

An integrated model of gay men's depressive symptoms

A model of depressive symptoms in gay men is tested that links gender-related personality traits (agency and unmitigated communion) to peer harassment, self-discrepancies in agency, and cold-submissive interpersonal behavior, all of which were reported in previous research to contribute to depression. A sample of 510 gay men was recruited through the Internet. The integrated model was tested using half of the sample and validated with the other half. Significant zero order correlations between the gender-related personality traits and depressive symptoms were mediated by unassured-submissive behavior and self-discrepancies in agency. Recalled peer harassment was linked directly with depressive symptoms and indirectly through unassured-submissive interpersonal behavior.

Gender-related traits, quality of life, and psychological adjustment among women with irritable bowel syndrome

OBJECTIVE

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a functional illness associated with significant impairment in quality of life. Compared to men, women are more likely to meet criteria for IBS, to seek treatment, and experience greater detriments in quality of life. In addition to physiological factors, psychosocial factors may contribute to such gender differences. We examined whether traits associated with masculine (agentic) and feminine (communal) gender roles were linked with adjustment to IBS.

METHODS

Women with IBS (N = 144) completed online self-report measures of gender-related traits (agency, communion, unmitigated agency, unmitigated communion, lack of agency, lack of communion), IBS-specific quality of life (IBS-QOL), and psychological adjustment (negative and positive affect).

RESULTS

Agency was positively associated with all dimensions of IBS-QOL and psychological adjustment. Select dimensions of IBS-QOL were lower among women higher in unmitigated agency (social reactions, body image) or unmitigated communion (interference with activity), and both traits were associated with increased negative affect. Lack of agency was associated with increased IBS-QOL (food avoidance) and decreased positive affect. Communion and lack of communion were not associated with either IBS-QOL or psychological adjustment.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings may help elucidate psychosocial factors contributing to quality of life among women with IBS.

Agentic and communal personality traits: relations to disordered eating behavior, body shape concern, and depressive symptoms

This study was designed to examine links between agentic and communal personality traits and disordered eating behavior and related problems (i.e., body shape concern and depressive symptoms) in a sample of 298 undergraduates. As predicted, unmitigated agency was positively associated with uncontrolled eating, and unmitigated communion was positively related to emotional eating and fasting for at least 24 h in order to control weight. When controlling for depressive symptomatology, unmitigated communion was no longer associated with emotional eating. Whereas unmitigated agentic and communal characteristics were positively associated with problematic eating patterns, agency was negatively associated with fasting and body shape concern. Findings suggest that further examination of the potential influence of gender-linked personality traits on disordered eating behavior is warranted.

Are Television Commercials Still Achievement Scripts for Women?

Content analyses of television advertising document the ubiquity of traditional images of women, yet few studies have explored their impact. One noteworthy exception is the experiment by Geis, Brown, Jennings, and Porter (1984) . These researchers found that the achievement aspirations of controls and women exposed to traditional images were lower than those of both women who viewed nontraditional replicas and men, leading to the conclusion that women's aspirations were muted by sexist advertising. An updated extension and modification of their study with 185 college women and 96 men did not find an interaction between gender and ad exposure, suggesting some changes over time in women's aspirations, as well as in the content and impact of commercials. Although women's achievement scripts now appear more similar to men's, as well as more resistant to sexist exposure, there are signs in the present data and related research that women's aspirations are not fully impervious to sexism in the media.

Predictors of metabolic control among adolescents with diabetes: a 4-year longitudinal study

OBJECTIVE

To employ a risk and resistance framework to examine changes in metabolic control over early to middle adolescence.

METHODS

We interviewed 70 girls and 62 boys (mean age 12 years) annually for 4 years. Risk and resistance factors, including demographics, disease-related variables, self-care behavior, and psychosocial variables were assessed. Hemoglobin A1c was obtained from medical records.

RESULTS

Multilevel modeling showed metabolic control deteriorated with age. Self-care behavior interacted with age to predict the decline, such that self-care was more strongly related to poor metabolic control for older adolescents. Eating disturbances, depression, and peer relations were related to poor metabolic control, whereas good family relations were related to better metabolic control for girls.

CONCLUSIONS

Independent risk factors for poor metabolic control included poor self-care, disturbed eating behavior, depression, and peer relations; parental support was an independent resistance factor for girls. Future research should examine mechanisms by which these relations emerge.

The effects of unmitigated communion and life events among women with fibromyalgia syndrome

This study examined the effects of the personality trait of unmitigated communion (UC) within the context of positive and negative relationship events. Ninety-one women diagnosed with fibromyalgia syndrome completed initial measures of UC as well as weekly measures of positive and negative relationship events and positive and negative affect. Positive events were related to positive affect while negative events were related to negative affect. Negative and positive affect were also predicted from the interaction of UC and negative events. These results suggest the interrelationships among UC and relationship events can combine in meaningful ways to predict psychological well-being.

Unmitigated communion and health among adolescents with and without diabetes: the mediating role of eating disturbances

The authors examined the implications of unmitigated communion--a focus on others to the exclusion of the self--for psychological and physical health among adolescents with (n = 132) and without (n = 131) diabetes times/during a 1-year period. Unmitigated communion predicted greater psychological distress and lower levels of competence cross-sectionally and longitudinally, controlling for sex, pubertal status, and communion. Health status moderated some longitudinal relations, such that relations held only for adolescents with diabetes. In addition, unmitigated communion was associated with poor metabolic control and predicted a deterioration in metabolic control over the year for adolescents with diabetes. Unmitigated communion also was associated with disturbed eating behavior cross-sectionally and longitudinally, and disturbed eating behavior explained some of the relations of unmitigated communion to psychological but not physical health outcomes.

Übersetzung und Validierung der Skala zur Erfassung übermäßiger Communion von Helgeson und Fritz

Zusammenfassung. Übermäßige Communion (UC) ist durch Überinvolvierung in die Probleme anderer Menschen und Vernachlässigung eigener Bedürfnisse zu Gunsten der Bedürfnisse anderer gekennzeichnet. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die UC-Skala von Helgeson und Fritz (1998) ins Deutsche übertragen und in drei Studien validiert. Die deutsche UC-Skala war zur Originalskala konvergent und vergleichbar konsistent, jedoch faktoriell komplexer. In der interpersonalen Konstruktanalyse wurde die vorherrschende thematische Qualität der UC-Skala im interpersonalen Eigenschafts- und Problem-Circumplex als submissiv-freundlich ausgewiesen. Überinvolvierung in die Probleme anderer und Vernachlässigung eigener Bedürfnisse ließen sich auf Item-Ebene im interpersonalen Eigenschafts-Circumplex differenzieren. Das Fünf-Faktoren-Modell klärte 22% der UC-Skalenvarianz auf und hing differenziell mit Überinvolvierung und Vernachlässigung eigener Bedürfnisse zusammen.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE AGENCY AND COMMUNION SCALE

Based on the concepts of agency and communion set forth by Bakan (1966), this study includes two substudies to develop the agency and communion scale. Study 1 develops the scale through two groups of samples: one group was composed of 116 university college students and the other consisted of 118 technical college students. For further validation, in study 2 the agency and communion scale, self-esteem scale and interpersonal quality scale were completed by 190 students. The agency and communion scale covering 16 items was developed at last and this scale had reliable cross-sample analysis and good construct validity. This scale can be used to assess the basic components of the personality. The basic components of the personality will need further exploration and advanced studies in the future.

Distinctions Among Agency, Communion, and Unmitigated Agency and Communion According to the Interpersonal Circumplex, Five-Factor Model, and Social-Emotional Correlates

In this study, we examined common measures of agency (AG), communion (CM), and unmitigated agency (UA) and unmitigated communion (UC) using the interpersonal circumplex and Five-factor models (FFM) as conceptual frameworks. AG aligned with interpersonal dominance in circumplex space and related positively to conscientiousness and inversely to neuroticism. CM corresponded with interpersonal affiliation and related positively to conscientiousness. UA was consistent with hostile-dominance and related to lower conscientiousness and higher neuroticism. UC related to friendly submission but was not strongly represented in the circumplex and did not relate to the FFM. Each construct showed distinct social-emotional correlates. These findings support the convergent and divergent properties of the constructs but suggest that additional attention to the conceptual definition and measurement of UC is warranted.

Effects of trait dominance on psychological and cardiovascular responses to social influence attempts: the role of gender and partner dominance

This study investigated the influence of trait dominance on cardiovascular reactivity to and recovery from a dyadic interaction task requiring active social influence attempts. Thirty-six male and 36 female normotensive high-school students characterized as either high or low in trait dominance engaged in a mixed-gender discussion with a high or low dominant partner. Trait dominance substantially influenced cardiovascular reactivity to the interpersonal stressor. High dominant participants displayed higher increases in systolic blood pressure (SBP) and pulse pressure (PP), but lower diastolic elevations than low dominant participants. The difference in diastolic reactivity was particularly pronounced in females. Recovery from stress was influenced by level of partner dominance. Participants interacting with a dominant partner showed delayed diastolic recovery. The observed cardiovascular effects seem to reflect greater task engagement and efficient coping in dominant subjects. Group differences in cognitive task appraisals and affective experiences are consistent with this interpretation. Differences in psychological responding were not found to mediate the relation between trait dominance and cardiovascular responses, however.

The health effects of childhood abuse: four pathways by which abuse can influence health

OBJECTIVES

This article describes four possible pathways by which childhood abuse relates to health problems in adults.

METHOD

Literature on the long-term effects of childhood abuse is organized in a health psychology framework describing behavioral, social, cognitive, and emotional pathways. Key studies from the health psychology and behavioral medicine literature are included to demonstrate how these pathways relate to health.

RESULTS

Childhood abuse puts people at risk of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, participating in harmful activities, having difficulties in relationships, and having negative beliefs and attitudes towards others. Each of these increases the likelihood of health problems, and they are highly related to each other.

CONCLUSIONS

Childhood abuse is related to health via a complex matrix of behavioral, emotional, social, and cognitive factors. Health outcomes for adult survivors are unlikely to improve until each of these factors is addressed.

Gender-linked personality traits predict mental health and functional status following a first coronary event

Three gender-linked traits were examined with respect to adjustment to a coronary event: agency, a focus on the self; communion, a focus on others; and unmitigated communion, an extreme focus on others to the exclusion of the self. Participants (n = 65) were interviewed 1 week and 4 months after a 1st coronary event. Hypotheses were that agency should predict improved health, communion should be unrelated to health, and unmitigated communion should predict worse health over time. Outcomes included depression, anxiety, and well-being (as measured by the Profile of Mood States; D. McNair, M. Lorr, & L. Droppleman, 1971); mental and physical functioning (SF-36; J. E. Ware, K. K. Snow, M. Kosinski, & B. Gandek, 1993); and cardiac symptoms. Results confirmed hypotheses. In addition, unmitigated communion was linked with poor health behavior and negative social interactions, which partly explained the link of unmitigated communion with depression and cardiac symptoms.