Estimating the prevalence of adolescent gambling disorders: A quantitative synthesis and guide toward standard gambling nomenclature

Internet Poker: Examining Motivations, Behaviors, Outcomes, and Player Traits using Structural Equations Analysis

Hypotheses explaining outcomes from internet poker were tested by using structural equations modeling: Personal characteristics and traits were proposed to influence motivation, leading to gaming behavior and then to outcomes. One hundred ninety-four participants from an internet poker forum completed online assessment. Three separate outcomes were supported: social-emotional gains, monetary winnings/losses, and negative experiences. One third of the participants reported some negative outcomes and 12% said these were significant; two thirds indicated no negative outcomes. Problems were most linked to the trait of Neuroticism, younger age, and more hours played, but unrelated to amounts won or lost. Gaming for social-emotional benefits mediated fewer negative outcomes. Financial gain motivation was a key mediator for gaming behavior. Findings were consistent with research showing negative emotionality and youth to be associated with poor gambling outcomes. The model suggests concrete actions that can be taken to minimize problem gaming while maximizing healthier involvement with online poker.

Gambling-related cognitive biases and pathological gambling among youths, young adults, and mature adults in Chinese societies

This study investigated the extent to which gambling-related cognitive biases would associate with various levels of gambling pathology among 2,835 youths, 934 young adults, and 162 mature adults in Chinese societies. Results showed that gambling cognitive biases, especially biases in perceived inability to stop gambling and positive gambling expectancy, were salient correlates of pathological gambling across the three age cohorts. Analyses of variances on total cognitive biases also showed a gambling pathology main effect and an age cohort × gambling pathology 2-way interaction effect. It was noted that the probable pathological gambling group had greater cognitive biases than the probable problem gambling group, which in turn had greater cognitive biases than the non-problem gambling group. In the non-problem gambling group, mature adults had greater cognitive biases than youths and young adults, but this pattern was reversed in the probable problem gambling group. In the probable pathological gambling group, youths had greater cognitive biases than young and mature adults. Specific categories of cognitive biases also varied according to gender and gambling pathology. While men as compared to women in the non-problem and probable problem gambling groups reported a greater bias in their perceived inability to stop gambling, no significant gender difference in this bias was found in the probable pathological gambling group. Men generally had greater perceived gambling expectancy bias than women.

Assessing the psychometric properties of the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) in US college students

Internet addiction is a growing concern; however, both a clear understanding of the mechanisms driving problematic behaviors and a gold standard instrument for assessing symptoms are lacking. The purpose of this study was to perform a psychometric analysis of the most widely used screening instrument, the Young Internet Addiction Test (IAT), using a sample of US college students. 215 (70% response rate) undergraduate college students were recruited from two US universities to complete an online version of the IAT. Using exploratory factor analysis, two factors were extracted, "dependent use" and "excessive use" which together explained 91% of the total variance. Participants who scored into the problematic user category of the IAT scored items on the dependent use scale an average of 0.8 ± 1.5 points higher and items on the excessive use scale an average of 1.4 ± 1.5 points higher than participants who scored in the average user category. Results suggest that Internet addiction symptoms may cluster into two separate components, dependent and excessive use. Further, the IAT appears to be a valid instrument for assessing Internet addiction in US college students.

The Structure of Young People's Leisure and Their Gambling Behaviour

In this study, the relationship between adolescent leisure and gambling was explored. Three different models of time usage were compared as potential predictors of gambling behaviour and problem gambling among 769 adolescents (15 to 18 years old) from five secondary schools in Melbourne. More leisure time, particularly unstructured leisure, predicted more frequent gambling behaviour for girls and boys. Specific activity factors provided the best time usage-based prediction of gambling behaviour. More time socialising and being involved in organised sport predicted more gambling for boys, possibly because of the access these activities provide to gambling venues. For boys, lower levels of so-called masculine pursuits (activities with other male peers) were associated with problem gambling, as were “cognitive pursuits” such as board games and collecting hobbies. For girls, more time in studious activity mitigated against gambling frequency. Lower levels of typically “feminine” adolescent pursuits predicted problem gambling. By far the major predictor of problem gambling for both sexes was gambling frequency. The role of leisure in problem gambling was discussed in terms of the role played by peer socialising, which may increase risk through access to gambling venues yet simultaneously increase protection through a sense of belongingness.

Psychometric evaluation of the Problem Gambling Severity Index-Chinese version (PGSI-C)

The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Chinese 9-item Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) derived from the 31-item Canadian Problem Gambling Index (CPGI) originally developed by Ferris and Wynne (2001). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA; n = 386; Group A data) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; n = 387; Group B data) on the Chinese student and community data (Mean age = 25.36 years) showed that a unifactorial model fitted the data with good reliability score (Cronbach's alpha = 0.77). The concurrent validity of the PGSI-C was good in terms of the Chinese data matching the expected correlation between PGSI-C and other variables or scales such as SOGS, gambling frequency, gambling urge, gambling cognitions, depression, anxiety, and stress. The scale also reported good discriminant and predictive validity. In sum, the PGSI-C has good psychometric properties and can be used among Chinese communities to identify at-risk problem gamblers. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Beyond drugs and alcohol: Including gambling in a high-risk behavioural framework

Studies throughout North America have suggested that more adolescents are gambling today than in the past. Over the past decade, gambling has become a popular form of entertainment and part of mainstream society. With the increase in gambling availability has come a rise in not only the number of youth who participate in gambling, but also the number who exhibit serious gambling problems. There is growing concern that adolescents and young adults are the highest risk group for problem gambling. The National Research Council, in its critical review of pathological gambling, indicated that the prevalence of problem gambling among adolescents is consistently higher than among adults, despite differences in measurement. Yet, efforts to prevent and treat problems among this population have only recently emerged as an important adolescent health issue. The present article reviews the risk factors, mental health correlates and warning signs of adolescent gambling problems, with the aim of raising awareness among health professionals working with youth of the need to address this issue within their practices.

Correlates of gambling among eighth-grade boys and girls

BACKGROUND

This study examined the correlates of gambling behavior among eighth-grade students.

METHODS

Children (n = 15,865) enrolled in publicly funded schools in Oregon completed the 2008 Oregon Healthy Teens survey. Multivariate logistic regression analyses assessed the combined and independent associations between risk and protective factors with active gambling among male and female youth separately.

RESULTS

Approximately 17% of eighth-grade girls and 33% of eighth-grade boys had gambled during the past 3 months. Most health risk behaviors were positively associated with gambling. However, gambling was also positively associated with frequent physical activity participation and, among boys, eating 5 daily servings of fruits and vegetables. Logistic regression analyses identified significant differences among risk and protective factors between active gamblers and non-gamblers. Regardless of gender, relative to active gamblers, non-gamblers were more likely to hold strong personal health beliefs, be uninvolved in antisocial behavior, exhibit good safety behaviors, and not have experienced a mouth injury while playing sports during the past year. Female gamblers were more likely to be active tobacco users, to speak a language other than English at home, and engage in more than 2 hours a day of screen time than non-gamblers. Male gamblers were more likely to be physically active, Hispanic, use alcohol, and perceive lower levels of social control in their neighborhoods than non-gamblers.

CONCLUSIONS

Gambling may be a topic that is appropriate for inclusion in school programs targeting health risk reduction among eighth-grade students.

A typological study of gambling and substance use among adolescent students

Cluster analysis was used to define subpopulations of youth involved in drugs, alcohol, and gambling. Data from a 2001 cross-sectional survey of Ontario grade 7 to 13 students (N = 2,243; mean age 15 years; 51% males) were examined. The analysis suggested four clusters: Mainstreamers (66.0%), Party Goers (26.2%), Drug Takers (5.9%), and Heavy Gamblers (1.9%). This cluster structure was validated across a number of additional external variables that were not used in the original cluster analysis. The findings indicated that Drug Takers and Heavy Gamblers formed two distinct clusters. Probable pathological gamblers were found in all four clusters, but they were most concentrated in the heavy gambling cluster. The results suggest that troubled youths are not a single entity, but display heterogeneity in their configuration of risk behaviours.

Parents' Perceptions of Adolescent Gambling: A Canadian National Study

Previous unsubstantiated reports by children and adolescents suggest tacit parental acceptance of their gambling behaviour. A Canadian national survey of parents with teens between the ages of 13 and 18 revealed that in general parents view adolescent gambling as a relatively unimportant issue compared to other potentially risky behaviours. Parental attitudes toward youth gambling, their knowledge and awareness of youth gambling prevention programs, and their gambling behaviours with their children suggest that gambling has become normalized, with few parents being aware of the potential seriousness of youth gambling. The results are interpreted with the aim of improving harm minimization and prevention initiatives.

Longitudinal links between impulsivity, gambling problems and depressive symptoms: a transactional model from adolescence to early adulthood

BACKGROUND

Research shows high co-morbidity between gambling problems and depressive symptoms, but the directionality of this link is unclear. Moreover, the co-occurrence of gambling problems and depressive symptoms could be spurious and explained by common underlying risk factors such as impulsivity and socio-family risk. The goals of the present study were to examine 1) whether common antecedent factors explain the concurrent links between depressive symptoms and gambling problems, and 2) whether possible transactional links between depressive symptoms and gambling problems exist from late adolescence to early adulthood.

METHODS

A total of 1004 males from low SES areas participated in the study.

RESULTS

Analyses revealed a positive predictive link between impulsivity at age 14 and depressive symptoms and gambling problems at age 17. In turn, gambling problems at age 17 predicted an increase in depressive symptoms from age 17 to age 23, and depressive symptoms at age 17 predicted an increase in gambling problems from age 17 to age 23.

CONCLUSIONS

Common antecedent factors may explain the initial emergence of an association between depressive symptoms and gambling problems in adolescence. However, once emerged, their escalation seems to be better explained by a mutual direct influence between the two sets of disorders.

Prevalence of adolescent problem gambling, related harms and help-seeking behaviours among an Australian population

Epidemiological studies have consistently reported prevalence rates ranging between 0.9 and 23.5% for problem gambling among young people. With such a large range reported in the literature, it is clear that more research in this area would be of value. The current study investigated the prevalence rate of adolescent gambling and problem gambling and explored types of harm-related and help-seeking behaviours associated with gambling specific to this population in an Australian setting. A self-administered battery of questionnaires was distributed to 252 students aged 12-18 years, attending four private schools in the Eastern suburbs of Sydney, Australia. The battery included a self-administered socio-gambling demographic questionnaire, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Fourth Edition Multiple Response Juvenile (DSM-IV-MR-J) diagnostic instrument to assess problem gambling status, the Gambling Attitudes Scale, and questionnaires using a Likert scale to measure gambling-related harms and help-seeking behaviours. The prevalence rate among this group was found to be 6.7%. The study found further support for previous findings suggesting that a significant proportion of young people meet criteria for problem gambling, that males are at-risk and that few adolescents are able to recognise when gambling is problematic or access mental health professionals for assistance.

Adolescent gambling: a review of an emerging field of research

PURPOSE

The purpose of this review was to summarize the research on adolescent gambling with implications for research and prevention or intervention.

METHOD

The methodology involved a comprehensive and systematic search of "adolescent or youth gambling" in three diverse electronic databases (MedlineAdvanced, PsycINFO, and Sociological Abstracts) and three peer-reviewed journals (International Journal of Gambling Studies, International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, and Journal of Gambling Issues).

RESULTS

The search resulted in 137 articles (1985-2010) focusing on gambling among youth aged between 9 and 21 years: 103 quantitative, 8 qualitative, and 26 non-empirical. The study of adolescent gambling can be summarized as follows: (a) it is conducted by a relatively small group of researchers in Britain, Canada, and the United States; (b) it is primarily prevalence-focused, quantitative, descriptive, school-based, and atheoretical; (c) it has most often been published in the Journal of Gambling Studies; (d) it is most often examined in relation to alcohol use; (e) it has relatively few valid and reliable screening instruments that are developmentally appropriate for adolescents, and (f) it lacks racially diverse samples.

CONCLUSION

Four recommendations are presented for both research and prevention or intervention which are as follows: (1) to provide greater attention to the development and validation of survey instruments or diagnostic criteria to assess adolescent problem gambling; (2) to begin to develop and test more gambling prevention or intervention strategies; (3) to not only examine the co-morbidity of gambling and alcohol abuse, but also include other behaviors such as sexual activity; and (4) to pay greater attention to racial and ethnic differences in the study of adolescent gambling.

Pathological gambling and compulsive buying: do they fall within an obsessive-compulsive spectrum?

Both compulsive buying (CB) and pathological gambling (PG) have been proposed as members of a spectrum of disorders related to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The spectrum hypothesis originated in the early 1990s and has gained considerable support, despite the lack of empirical evidence. Interest in this hypothesis has become critical because some investigators have recommended the creation of a new category that includes these disorders in DSM-5, now under development. In this article, the authors describe the origin of the obsessive-compulsive (OC) spectrum and its theoretical underpinnings, review both CB and PG, and discuss the data both in support of and against an OC spectrum. Both disorders are described in terms of their history, definition, classification, phenomenology family history, pathophysiology, and clinical management. The authors conclude that: (i) CB and PG are probably not related to OCD, and there is insufficient evidence to place them within an OC spectrum in DSM-V; (ii) PG should stay with the impulse-control disorders (ICDs); and (iii) a new diagnosis of CB should be created and be classified as an ICD.

How do gamblers start gambling: identifying behavioural markers for high-risk internet gambling

BACKGROUND

The goal of this study is to identify betting patterns displayed during the first month of actual Internet gambling on a betting site that can serve as behavioural markers to predict the development of gambling-related problems.

METHODS

Using longitudinal data, k-means clustering analysis identified a small subgroup of high-risk gamblers.

RESULTS

Seventy-three percent of the members of this subgroup eventually closed their account due to gambling-related problems. The characteristics of this high-risk subgroup were as follows: (i) frequent and (ii) intensive betting combined with (iii) high variability across wager amount and (iv) an increasing wager size during the first month of betting.

CONCLUSION

This analysis provides important information that can help to identify potentially problematic gamblers during the early stages of gambling-related problems. Public health workers can use these results to develop early interventions that target high-risk Internet gamblers for prevention efforts. However, one study limitation is that the results distinguish only a small proportion of the total sample; therefore, additional research will be necessary to identify markers that can classify larger segments of high-risk gamblers.

The convergence of gambling and digital media: implications for gambling in young people

Adolescents' use of the Internet and other digital media for the purpose of gambling represents a serious concern in modern society. This paper overviews some of the available monetary and non-monetary forms of gambling within new digital and online media and monetary forms of games with gambling-like experiences. With reference to current psychological knowledge on the risk factors that promote adolescent gambling, it is suggested that new gambling technologies may: (a) make gambling more accessible and attractive to young people, (b) may promote factually incorrect information about gambling, (c) provide an easy escape from real world problems such as depression and social isolation, (d) create a gambling environment that easily facilitates peer pressures to gamble, (e) ease parental transmission of gambling attitudes and beliefs, and (f) make gambling more ubiquitous and socially acceptable. The unique risks of Internet gambling for young people are critically discussed, as well as the lack of restricted classification for video games and other media that feature interactive, non-monetary forms of gambling.

Knowledge and beliefs about gambling in Australian secondary school students and their implications for education strategies

This study investigated the nature of gambling-related knowledge and beliefs in a survey study of 2,669 students aged 13-17 years in South Australia. Students were classified as pathological gamblers, at risk, or not at risk based upon the DSM-IV-J, and their responses to questions relating to objective odds, probabilities, and common misperceptions were compared. The study confirmed previous studies which have shown that pathological gamblers are more susceptible to erroneous beliefs concerning randomness and chance, but do not differ in terms of their knowledge of objective odds. These findings were discussed in terms of Ladouceur's notion of "cognitive switching" and the distinction drawn between "hot" and "cold" cognitions in clinical outcome studies. The implications for school-based education programs are examined with attention given to the potential value of role-playing and simulations in encouraging student reflection and self-awareness.

Is video-game playing a risk factor for pathological gambling in Australian adolescents?

Very little research has been conducted to examine the relationship between video-game playing and gambling in adolescence. In this study, 2,669 adolescents aged 13-17 years were surveyed to obtained details of their involvement in gambling and video-game playing as well as a measure of pathological gambling (the DSM-IV-J). The results showed that, the frequency of video game playing was significantly related to pathological gambling, but that the effect size was very small and largely accounted for by the greater popularity of both activities amongst boys. There was some evidence for stronger associations between technologically similar activities, namely arcade video games and an interest in gaming machines, but other factors discussed in the paper may also account for this association. In summary, the findings suggested that playing video-games is unlikely to be a significant risk factor for pathological gambling during adolescence.

The relationship between recreational gambling and substance abuse/dependence: data from a nationally representative sample

BACKGROUND

Although recreational gambling is prevalent and co-occurs with substance abuse/dependence, few studies have investigated the relationship between the two.

METHODS

Logistic regression analyses were performed on data from a nationally representative sample from the Gambling Impact and Behavior Study.

RESULTS

Substance-abusing recreational gamblers, as compared to non-substance-abusing ones, differed in gambling motivations, began gambling at earlier ages, reported heavier gambling, and preferred and performed strategic forms of gambling.

CONCLUSIONS

As compared with non-substance-abusing gamblers, substance-abusing gamblers demonstrated different gambling profiles including heavier gambling. These findings suggest the need for additional research on whether and how substance use might promote gambling and vice versa.

Prevalence of pathological gambling in Switzerland after the opening of casinos and the introduction of new preventive legislation

OBJECTIVE

This survey aimed to evaluate the prevalence of pathological gambling (PG) in the Swiss population in 2005 and the link between PG and alcohol abuse. This replication study made it possible to compare the prevalence rates of PG measured before and after the introduction of casinos and new preventive legislation.

METHOD

A total of 2803 telephone interviews were completed using standardized assessment instruments for identifying gamblers (South Oaks Gambling Screen) and alcohol abuse (CAGE).

RESULTS

The past-year prevalence rates were 0.8% for problem and 0.5% for PG. No relationship was found between alcohol abuse and gambling behaviour. The past-year prevalence of disordered gambling did not change between 1998 and 2005.

CONCLUSION

Despite widespread openings of casinos in Switzerland since 2002, the prevalence estimates of past-year disordered gambling have remained stable. The discussion focuses on different factors (social measures, legal obligations and social adaptational capacities) that may account for the stabilization of prevalence estimates.

Recovery in pathological gambling: an imprecise concept

Pathological gambling is classified as a disorder of impulse control, though many of its diagnostic criteria parallel those found in substance use disorders. A number of unitary and complex biopsychosocial conceptual models have been postulated to account for the multifactorial nature of gambling pathology. These models have implications for varied treatment approaches in the management of pathological gambling. Recovery is a diffused concept that has been variously and inconsistently determined by the remission or absence of clinical symptoms, the absence of diagnostic criteria, or the achievement of personal development, independence, and function. The lack of conceptual clarity and definitional precision make it difficult to ascertain the actual efficacy of interventions or their relative effectiveness when compared to similar treatments in different population settings or to different treatment approaches. Future investigations should clearly conceptualize the concept of recovery to evaluate the nature and extent of improvement along a spectrum that includes measurement of (a) decreases in frequency of and the time spent gambling, (b) abstinence or controlled gambling that meets financial obligations, (c) absence of symptoms of impaired control and cross-addicted behaviors, and (d) absence of negative consequences and improved quality of life over time.

Stability and progression of disordered gambling: lessons from longitudinal studies

OBJECTIVE

Few studies have explicitly examined the stability (that is, the tendency for individuals to stay at one diagnostic level as opposed to moving to another improved or worsened level) or progression of disordered gambling; however, conventional wisdom holds that disordered gambling is intractable and escalating. The objective of this study was to examine these assumptions.

METHOD

We reviewed 5 recent prospective studies of gambling behaviour among nontreatment samples for evidence related to the stability and progression of disordered gambling.

RESULTS

Our review found no evidence to support the assumption that individuals cannot recover from disordered gambling (that is, the persistence assumption), no evidence to support the assumption that individuals who have more severe gambling problems are less likely to improve than individuals who have less severe gambling problems (that is, the selective-stability assumption), and no evidence to support the assumption that individuals who have some gambling problems are more likely to worsen than individuals who do not have gambling problems (that is, the progression assumption).

CONCLUSION

Contrary to professional and conventional wisdom suggesting that gambling problems are always progressive and enduring, this review demonstrates instability and multidirectional courses in disordered gambling.

Prevalence estimates of gambling participation and problem gambling among 16-18-year-old students in Iceland: a comparison of the SOGS-RA and DSM-IV-MR-J

The aim of this study was to estimate gambling participation and problem gambling among Icelandic adolescents. Participants were 750 16-18-year-old students, 371 girls and 379 boys. The rate of problem gambling was estimated with the SOGS-RA and DSM-IV-MR-J. Results indicated that 96% of adolescents had gambled in their lifetime, 79% at least once in the preceding year and about 10% gamble at least once a week. A psychometric evaluation of the two screening scales revealed satisfactory reliabilities and factor structures for both scales. The DSM-IV-MR-J identified 2% of the participants as problem gamblers while SOGS-RA identified 2.7%, and problem gambling was more common among boys than girls. It was concluded that problem gambling among adolescents is an area of concern for the Icelandic community that needs to be further investigated.

Pre/early adolescent onset of gambling and psychosocial problems in treatment-seeking pathological gamblers

This study examined the association between pre- or early-adolescent onset of gambling and severity of gambling and psychosocial problems in treatment-seeking adult pathological gamblers. A total of 236 pathological gamblers entering outpatient treatment completed the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) and the Addiction Severity Index (ASI). Using a quartile split procedure, gamblers who began gambling during their pre- or early-adolescent years (mean age of 10.5 years; 1st quartile) were compared to gamblers who began gambling later in life (mean age of 23.0 years; 2nd to 4th quartiles). Compared to later onset gamblers, pre/early adolescent onset gamblers reported increased severity of psychiatric, family/social, and substance abuse problems on the ASI. They were more likely to report cognitive problems (trouble understanding, concentrating, or remembering), suicidal ideation, and a history of inpatient psychiatric treatment, and were less likely to be satisfied with their current living situation. Pre/early adolescent onset gamblers also reported earlier age of initiation of drinking, and were more likely to have received treatment for an alcohol use disorder, and to have used cannabis and cocaine in their lifetimes. Taken together, these data suggest that pre/early adolescent-onset of gambling may be a risk factor for later-life psychiatric, family/social, and substance abuse problems in treatment-seeking pathological gamblers.

Epidemiology of youth gambling problems in Canada: a national prevalence study

OBJECTIVES

To describe the epidemiology of gambling problems among youth aged 15 to 24 years in Canada and to examine whether these gambling prevalence patterns differ by sex and (or) by geographic region.

METHOD

We used data from The Canadian Community Health Survey: Mental Health and Well-Being. Gambling problems were determined according to the Canadian Problem Gambling Index. All prevalence estimates used appropriate sampling weights and bootstrap variance estimation procedures developed by Statistics Canada. Multivariate logistic regression modelling was also employed to supplement the above prevalence comparisons by age, sex, and region.

RESULTS

Among Canadian youth aged 15 to 24 years (n=5666), 61.35% gambled in the past 12 months and the national prevalence of moderate-risk or problem gambling was 2.22% (3.30% in male respondents and 1.10% in female respondents). Male respondents had significantly higher prevalence of gambling problems than female respondents. Regional prevalence estimates of youth moderate-risk or problem gambling were 1.37% in British Columbia, 2.17% in the Prairie provinces, 2.75% in Ontario, 2.12% in Quebec, and 1.71% in the Atlantic provinces.

CONCLUSIONS

Youth, particularly young men, are at greater risk for gambling problems than adults. More prevention and research efforts are also needed to address the observed sex differences and interregional variability in the prevalence of gambling problems among youth. The national prevalence estimates from this study provide important baseline data against which future cohorts of Canadians can be monitored and measured.

A national study on gambling among US college student-athletes

OBJECTIVE

The authors examined the national prevalence of gambling problems and sports wagering among US college student-athletes.

PARTICIPANTS

A national sample of 20,739 student-athletes participated in the study.

METHODS

The authors used data from the first national survey of gambling among college athletes, conducted by the National Collegiate Athletic Association.

RESULTS

Men (62.4%) consistently had higher past-year prevalence of gambling than did women (42.8%). The authors identified 4.3% of men and 0.4% of women as problem or pathological gamblers. Among the most popular forms of gambling were playing cards, lotteries, and games of skill, with male-to-female prevalence ratio ranging 1.3-5.6 across various gambling activities. Athletes in golf and lacrosse were more likely to report sports wagering than were other athletes. Athletes in gender-specific sports wagered more prevalently than did athletes in unisex sports.

CONCLUSION

Gambling prevalence may be underestimated in this population because respondents' athletics eligibility is at stake. This study provides important baseline data for future cohorts of athletes.

Gambling and health risk behaviors among U.S. college student-athletes: findings from a national study

PURPOSE

To examine prevalence and associations of gambling problems and health risk behaviors among college athletes from the first national survey of gambling among U.S. college student-athletes.

METHODS

Conducted by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), this self-administered and anonymous survey collected information from a nationally representative sample of 20,739 student-athletes.

RESULTS

Males consistently had higher past-year prevalence of gambling than females (e.g., 62.4% of males reported some type of gambling vs. 42.8% of females). Based on DSM-IV Gambling Screen, this study identified 4.3% of males and 0.4% of females as problem/pathological gamblers. A general upward trend existed that as the level of gambling problems increased, so did the prevalence of substance use, gorging/vomiting, and unprotected sex. Cross-group comparisons by gambler type were all significant. Problem and pathological gamblers also experienced significantly more drug/alcohol-related problems than non-gamblers and social gamblers.

CONCLUSIONS

Direct associations found between gambling and multiple risk behaviors in college student-athletes support the persistence of the youth problem-behavior syndrome and suggest the need for multi-faceted initiatives to tackle these risk behaviors simultaneously.