Immunopathology of mastitis: insights into disease recognition and resolution

Metagenomic deep sequencing reveals association of microbiome signature with functional biases in bovine mastitis

Milk microbiomes significantly influence the pathophysiology of bovine mastitis. To assess the association between microbiome diversity and bovine mastitis, we compared the microbiome of clinical mastitis (CM, n = 14) and healthy (H, n = 7) milk samples through deep whole metagenome sequencing (WMS). A total of 483.38 million reads generated from both metagenomes were analyzed through PathoScope (PS) and MG-RAST (MR), and mapped to 380 bacterial, 56 archaeal, and 39 viral genomes. We observed distinct shifts and differences in abundance between the microbiome of CM and H milk in phyla Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes and Actinobacteria with an inclusion of 68.04% previously unreported and/or opportunistic strains in CM milk. PS identified 363 and 146 bacterial strains in CM and H milk samples respectively, and MR detected 356 and 251 bacterial genera respectively. Of the identified taxa, 29.51% of strains and 63.80% of genera were shared between both metagenomes. Additionally, 14 archaeal and 14 viral genera were found to be solely associated with CM. Functional annotation of metagenomic sequences identified several metabolic pathways related to bacterial colonization, proliferation, chemotaxis and invasion, immune-diseases, oxidative stress, regulation and cell signaling, phage and prophases, antibiotic and heavy metal resistance that might be associated with CM. Our WMS study provides conclusive data on milk microbiome diversity associated with bovine CM and its role in udder health.

Lipid-Rich Extract from Mexican Avocado Seed (Persea americana var. drymifolia) Reduces Staphylococcus aureus Internalization and Regulates Innate Immune Response in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells

Bovine mammary epithelial cells (bMECs) are capable of initiating an innate immune response (IIR) to invading bacteria. Staphylococcus aureus is not classically an intracellular pathogen, although it has been shown to be internalized into bMECs. S. aureus internalizes into nonprofessional phagocytes, which allows the evasion of the IIR and turns antimicrobial therapy unsuccessful. An alternative treatment to control this pathogen is the modulation of the innate immune response of the host. The Mexican avocado (Persea americana var. drymifolia) is a source of molecules with anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties. Hence, we analyze the effect of a lipid-rich extract from avocado seed (LEAS) on S. aureus internalization into bMECs and their innate immunity response. The effects of LEAS (1-500 ng/ml) on the S. aureus growth and bMEC viability were assessed by turbidimetry and MTT assays, respectively. LEAS did not show neither antimicrobial nor cytotoxic effects. S. aureus internalization into bMECs was analyzed by gentamicin protection assays. Interestingly, LEAS (1-200 ng/ml) decreased bacterial internalization (60-80%) into bMECs. This effect correlated with NO production and the induction of the gene expression of IL-10, while the expression of the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α was reduced. These effects could be related to the inhibition of MAPK p38 (∼60%) activation by LEAS. In conclusion, our results showed that LEAS inhibits the S. aureus internalization into bMECs and modulates the IIR, which indicates that avocado is a source of metabolites for control of mastitis pathogens.

Meloxicam affects the inflammatory responses of bovine mammary epithelial cells

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are used as supportive therapy with antimicrobial treatments for mastitis in cows to alleviate pain of the inflamed mammary gland. They act mainly by inhibition of cyclooxygenases. Meloxicam (MEL) is a drug designed for cyclooxygenase-2 selectivity, which is upregulated upon inflammation, acting as a key enzyme for the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins. Although some studies in dairy cows showed positive results in recovery from mastitis when MEL was added to the treatments, direct effects of MEL on the immune system of mastitic cows are unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate effects of MEL on the immune response of bovine mammary epithelial cells (MEC) with or without simultaneous immune stimulation by pathogen-associated molecular patterns of common mastitis pathogens. Mammary epithelial cells from 4 cows were isolated and cultured. To evaluate dose effects of MEL, MEC were challenged with or without 0.2 µg/mL lipopolysaccharide (LPS; serotype O26:B6 from Escherichia coli) with addition of increasing concentrations of MEL (0, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, or 2.0 mg/mL). The addition of MEL prevented the increase of mRNA expression of key inflammatory factors in LPS-challenged MEC in a dose-dependent manner. To investigate the effects of MEL on pathogen-specific immune responses of MEC, treatments included challenges with LPS from E. coli and lipoteichoic acid from Staphylococcus aureus with or without 1.5 mg/mL MEL for 3, 6, and 24 h. Meloxicam prevented the increase of mRNA abundance of key inflammatory mediators in response to LPS and lipoteichoic acid, such as tumor necrosis factor, serum amyloid A, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and the chemokines IL-8 and CXC chemokine ligands 3 and 5. The prostaglandin E₂ synthesis in challenged and nonchallenged cells was reduced by MEL within 24 h. Furthermore, MEL reduced the viability and consequently the total RNA yield of the cells. However, mRNA abundance of apoptosis-related enzymes was not affected by any treatment. Meloxicam had clear dose-dependent effects on the immune response of MEC to pathogen-associated molecular patterns of common mastitis pathogens by preventing increased expression of important factors involved in inflammation. This nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug also has detrimental effects on cell viability. How these effects would influence the elimination of pathogens from an infected mammary gland during mastitis therapy with meloxicam needs to be further investigated.

Cowpea polyphenol extract regulates galectin gene expression in bovine blood

Galectins (GAL) are animal lectins that play important roles in the immune response through regulation of homeostasis and immune function. Bioactive polyphenols are able to bind and regulate galectins in inflammatory diseases. Cowpea is a nutritious and polyphenol-rich legume used as feed. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of cowpea polyphenol extract (CPE) on galectin gene transcription and translation in bovine peripheral blood. Blood from lactating cows (n = 10) were treated with CPE (10 μg/mL) or LPS (0.1 μg/mL), and control, to measure mRNA levels of bovine LGALS1, LGALS3, LGALS9, and some innate immune response genes. Secretion of GAL-1, GAL-3 and GAL-9 in plasma were measured using ELISAs. The mRNA expression of LGALS1, LGALS3 and LGALS9 decreased post CPE exposure. CPE decreased plasma GAL-1, but had no effect on GAL-3 and GAL-9. In addition, CPE decreased expression of TNFA, COX2 and upregulated TLR2, IL10 and IL4. LPS stimulation upregulated galectin genes expression and secretion. Overall, cowpea polyphenols modulated galectin expression, particularly GAL 1 in blood. The results provide a springboard for further studies on the use of polyphenol extracts from cowpea enriched feed supplements to target specific galectin genes for improved health and production in dairy cows.

In silico genome-wide miRNA-QTL-SNPs analyses identify a functional SNP associated with mastitis in Holsteins

Background

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in microRNAs (miRNAs) and their target binding sites affect miRNA function and are involved in biological processes and diseases, including bovine mastitis, a frequent inflammatory disease. Our previous study has shown that bta-miR-2899 is significantly upregulated in the mammary gland tissue of mastitis-infected cow than that of healthy cows.

Results

In the present study, we used a customized miRNAQTLsnp software and identified 5252 SNPs in 691 bovine pre-miRNAs, which are also located within the quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that are associated with mastitis and udder conformation-related traits. Using luciferase assay in the bovine mammary epithelial cells, we confirmed a candidate SNP (rs109462250, g. 42,198,087 G > A) in the seed region of bta-miR-2899 located in the somatic cell score (SCS)-related QTL (Chr.18: 33.9–43.9 Mbp), which affected the interaction of bta-miR-2899 and its putative target Spi-1 proto-oncogene (SPI1), a pivotal regulator in the innate and adaptive immune systems. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction results showed that the relative expression of SPI1 in the mammary gland of AA genotype cows was significantly higher than that of GG genotype cows. The SNP genotypes were associated with SCS in Holstein cows.

Conclusions

Altogether, miRNA-related SNPs, which influence the susceptibility to mastitis, are one of the plausible mechanisms underlying mastitis via modulating the interaction of miRNAs and immune-related genes. These miRNA-QTL-SNPs, such as the SNP (rs109462250) of bta-miR-2899 may have implication for the mastitis resistance breeding program in Holstein cattle.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12863-019-0749-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Mammary Gland Immunobiology and Resistance to Mastitis

The ability of dairy cattle to prevent infectious pathogens from causing mastitis is related to the efficiency of the mammary immune system. The primary roles of the bovine immune system are to prevent bacterial invasion of the mammary gland, eliminate existing infections, and restore mammary tissues to normal function. Mammary gland immunity uses a multifaceted network of physical, cellular, and soluble factors to protect the cow from the diverse array of mastitis-causing pathogens. Strategies to optimize mammary gland defenses can be an effective way to prevent the establishment of new intramammary infections and limit the use of antimicrobials to treat mastitis.

Symposium review: Features of Staphylococcus aureus mastitis pathogenesis that guide vaccine development strategies

Bovine mastitis affects animal health and welfare and milk production and quality, and it challenges the economic success of dairy farms. Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most commonly found pathogens in clinical mastitis but it also causes subclinical, persistent, and difficult-to-treat intramammary infections. Because of the failure of conventional antibiotic treatments and increasing pressure and concern from experts and consumers over the use of antibiotics in the dairy industry, many attempts have been made over the years to develop a vaccine for the prevention and control of Staph. aureus intramammary infections. Still, no commercially available vaccine formulation demonstrates sufficient protection and cost-effective potential. Multiple factors account for the lack of protection, including inadequate vaccine targets, high diversity among mastitis-provoking strains, cow-to-cow variation in immune response, and a failure to elicit an immune response that is appropriate for protection against a highly complex pathogen. The purpose of this review is to summarize key concepts related to the pathogenesis of Staph. aureus, and its interaction with the host, as well as to describe recent vaccine development strategies for prevention and control of Staph. aureus mastitis.

Metabolism and immune status during transition period influences the lactation performance in Zebu (Bos indicus) cows

We evaluated the changes in the concentration of innate immune molecules (haptoglobin: Hp, serum amyloid A: SAA, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-8), energy indicators [NEFA, dry matter intake (DMI) and body condition scoring (BCS)] during the transition period in dual-purpose Zebu (Deoni breed) cows in relation to milk yield. Blood collection was done at weekly intervals (–21±2, –14±1, –7±1, d pre-partum, day 0 (date of calving) and 3±1, 7±1, 14±1, 21±2 d postpartum period) for estimation of above plasma variables using commercially available bovine specific ELISA kits. We also recorded DMI and BCS during the corresponding period. Transition cows were classified based on their milk yield during the study period as high (6), medium (6) and low (6) yielding cows and data were analyzed by using Mixed-model repeated measure analysis. High yielding (HY) cows had significantly higher concentrations of SAA, TNF-α, and IL-6 during pre-partum and early postpartum period than low yielding (LY) cows. DMI was significantly higher in HY cows than MY (3rd and 7th d) or LY cows (21st d) while, BCS was significantly higher in HY than LY cows during pre-partum period (-7th d). LY cows had significantly higher concentration of NEFA during the postpartum period (14th and 21st d). It is concluded that the active functioning of the immune system and more dry matter intake in transition Deoni cows enabled to synthesise more milk during the postpartum period.

Production of 15-F2t-isoprostane as an assessment of oxidative stress in dairy cows at different stages of lactation

Oxidative stress contributes to dysfunctional immune responses and predisposes dairy cattle to several metabolic and inflammatory-based diseases. Although the negative effects of oxidative stress on transition cattle are well established, biomarkers that accurately measure oxidative damage to cellular macromolecules are not well defined in veterinary medicine. Measuring 15-F_2t-isoprostane, a lipid peroxidation product, is the gold standard biomarker for quantifying oxidative stress in human medicine. The aim of our study was to determine whether changes in 15-F_2t-isoprostane concentrations in plasma and milk could accurately reflect changes in oxidant status during different stages of lactation. Using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, 15-F_2t-isoprostane concentrations were quantified in milk and plasma of 12 multiparous Holstein-Friesian cows that were assigned to 3 different sampling periods, including the periparturient period (1-2 d in milk; n = 4), mid lactation (80-84 d in milk; n = 4), and late lactation (183-215 d in milk; n = 4). Blood samples also were analyzed for indicators of oxidant status, inflammation, and negative energy balance. Our data revealed that 15-F_2t-isoprostane concentrations changed at different stages of lactation and coincided with changes in other gauges of oxidant status in both plasma and milk. Interestingly, milk 15-F_2t-isoprostane concentrations and other indices of oxidant status did not follow the same trends as plasma values at each stage of lactation. Indeed, during the periparturient period, systemic 15-F_2t-isoprostane increased significantly accompanied by an increase in the systemic oxidant status index. Milk 15-F_2t-isoprostane was significantly decreased during the periparturient period compared with other lactation stages in conjunction with a milk oxidant status index that trended lower during this period. The results from this study indicate that changes in 15-F_2t-isoprostane concentrations in both milk and plasma may be strong indicators of an alteration in redox status both systemically and within the mammary gland.

Lactobacillus casei BL23 modulates the innate immune response in Staphylococcus aureus-stimulated bovine mammary epithelial cells

Probiotics have been adopted to treat and prevent various diseases in humans and animals. They were notably shown to be a promising alternative to prevent mastitis in dairy cattle. This inflammation of the mammary gland is generally of infectious origin and generates extensive economic losses worldwide. In a previous study, we found that Lactobacillus casei BL23 was able to inhibit the internalisation of Staphylococcus aureus, one of the major pathogens involved in mastitis, into bovine mammary epithelial cells (bMEC). In this study, we further explored the capacity of this strain to modulate the innate immune response of bovine mammary epithelial cells during S. aureus infection. L. casei BL23 was able to decrease the expression of several pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukins 6, 8, 1α and 1β and tumour necrosis factor alpha, in S. aureus-stimulated bMEC, 8 h post-infection. On the other hand, L. casei did not impair the induction of defensins, such as lingual antimicrobial peptide and defensin β1 in the presence of S. aureus, and even slightly increased the induction of tracheal antimicrobial peptide during S. aureus infection. Finally, this strain did not alter the expression of the pattern recognition receptor nucleotide-binding oligomerisation domain proteins (NOD2). This study demonstrates that L. casei BL23 displayed anti-inflammatory properties on S. aureus-stimulated bMEC. These results open the way to further characterisation of the BL23 probiotic potential in a bovine mammary gland context and to a better understanding of how all these beneficial properties combine in vivo to combat mastitis pathogens.

DNA methylation rather than single nucleotide polymorphisms regulates the production of an aberrant splice variant of IL6R in mastitic cows

Interleukin-6 receptor-alpha (IL6R) interacts with IL6 and forms a ligand-receptor complex, which can stimulate various cellular responses, such as cell proliferation, cell differentiation, and activation of inflammatory processes. Both genetic mutation and epigenetic modification regulate gene transcription. We identified a novel splice variant of bovine IL6R, designated as IL6R-TV, which is characterized by the skipping of exon 2 of the NCBI-referenced IL6R gene (IL6R-reference). The expression levels of IL6R-TV and IL6R-reference transcripts were lower in normal mammary gland tissues. These transcripts play a potential role during inflammatory infection. We also detected two putative functional SNPs (g.19711 T > C and g.19731 G > C) located within the upstream 100 bp of exon 2. These SNPs formed two haplotypes (T-G and C-C). Two mutant pSPL3 exon-trapping plasmids (pSPL3-T-G and pSPL3-C-C) were transferred into the bovine mammary epithelial cells (MAC-T) and human embryonic kidney 293 T cells (HEK293T) to investigate the relationship between the two SNPs and the aberrant splicing of IL6R. DNA methylation levels of the alternatively spliced exon in normal and mastitis-infected mammary gland tissues were quantified through nested bisulfate sequencing PCR (BSP) and cloning sequencing. We found that DNA methylation regulated IL6R transcription. The DNA methylation level was high in mastitis-infected mammary gland tissues and stimulated IL6R expression, thereby promoting the inclusion of the alternatively spliced exon. The upregulated expression of the two transcripts was due to DNA methylation modification rather than genetic mutations.

Selected reaction monitoring mass spectrometry of mastitis milk reveals pathogen-specific regulation of bovine host response proteins

Mastitis is a major challenge to bovine health. The detection of sensitive markers for mastitis in dairy herds is of great demand. Suitable biomarkers should be measurable in milk and should report pathogen-specific changes at an early stage to support earlier diagnosis and more efficient treatment. However, the identification of sensitive biomarkers in milk has remained a challenge, in part due to their relatively low concentration in milk. In the present study, we used a selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mass spectrometry approach, which allowed the absolute quantitation of 13 host response proteins in milk for the first time. These proteins were measured over a 54-h period upon an in vivo challenge with cell wall components from either gram-negative (lipopolysaccharide from Escherichia coli; LPS) or gram-positive bacteria (peptidoglycan from Staphylococcus aureus; PGN). Whereas our data clearly demonstrate that all challenged animals have consistent upregulation of innate immune response proteins after both LPS and PGN challenge, the data also reveal clearly that LPS challenge unleashes faster and shows a more intense host response compared with PGN challenge. Biomarker candidates that may distinguish between gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria include α-2 macroglobulin, α-1 antitrypsin, haptoglobin, serum amyloid A3, cluster of differentiation 14, calgranulin B, cathepsin C, vanin-1, galectin 1, galectin 3, and IL-8. Our approach can support further studies of large cohorts of animals with natural occurring mastitis, to validate the relevance of these suggested biomarkers in dairy production.

Mechanism of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and host pathogen interplay in bovine mastitis

Bacterial infection in the mammary gland parenchyma induces local and subsequently systemic inflammation that results in a complex disease. Mastitis in bovine is the result of various factors which function together. This review is aimed to analyze the factors involved in the pathogenesis of common bacterial species for bovine mastitis. The bacterial growth patterns, signaling pathway and the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) which activate immune responses is discussed. Clear differences in bacterial infection pattern are shown between bacterial species and illustrated TLRs, NLRs and RLGs molecular mechanism for the initiation of intramammary infection. The underlying reasons for the differences and the resulting host response are analyzed. Understandings of the mechanisms that activate and regulate these responses are central to the development of efficient anticipatory and treatment management. The knowledge of bovine mammary gland to common mastitis causing pathogens with possible immune mechanism could be a new conceptual understanding for the prospect of mastitis control program.

Subclinical mastitis (SCM) and proinflammatory cytokines are associated with mineral and trace element concentrations in human breast milk

The possibility that either subclinical mastitis (SCM), an inflammatory condition of the breast, or elevations in breast milk proinflammatory cytokines alter breast milk mineral and trace element composition in humans has not been investigated. In this cross-sectional study, breast milk samples (n=108) were collected from Guatemalan Mam-Mayan mothers at one of three stages of lactation (transitional, early and established), and categorized as SCM (Na:K >0.6) or non-SCM (Na:K ≤0.6). Milk concentrations of 12 minerals (calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, rubidium, selenium, sodium, strontium, and zinc) and 4 proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α) were measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), Lachat analyzer or Luminex multiplex bead cytokine assay. SCM was more prevalent during transitional (30%) than early (15.6%) and established (8.9%) lactation. Analysis of variance revealed that breast milk minerals differed by stage of lactation and SCM status. Breast milk minerals with the exception of magnesium were lower in established lactation, whereas SCM was associated with higher selenium and lower phosphorus. Regression models that controlled for lactation stage also confirmed that SCM was associated with lower milk phosphorus and higher milk selenium concentrations. Furthermore, cytokine concentrations were independently associated with several mineral concentrations: IL-1β with higher phosphorus and iron, IL-6 with higher calcium, magnesium, copper and manganese, IL-8 with higher calcium and zinc, and TNF-α with lower iron and manganese. We conclude that milk mineral and trace element concentrations are affected not only by the presence of SCM but also by proinflammatory cytokines in breast milk.

Mastitis associated with Sjögren's syndrome: a series of nine cases

Sjögren's syndrome is well known to target exocrine glands, especially lacrimal and salivary glands, which share with mammary glands anatomical, histological, and immunological features. Herein, we investigated the mammary involvement in patients with Sjögren's syndrome and compared the histological findings with minor salivary gland involvement. We reviewed the charts of patients with Sjögren's syndrome (followed in Montpellier University Hospital, between January 2000 and January 2015), in whom minor salivary gland and mammary tissues were available. Two expert pathologists analysed retrospectively these tissues in order to identify inflammatory patterns. Immunohistochemical stainings were performed to precise leucocyte distribution. Sixteen Sjögren's syndrome patients with available salivary and breast tissue samples were included. All were women, with a median age of 60.1 ± 11.3 years at Sjögren's syndrome diagnosis. Mammary biopsy was conducted because of breast symptoms in 6 patients and following imaging screening strategies for breast cancer in 10 patients. Nine patients exhibited an inflammatory breast pattern (lymphocytic infiltrates or duct ectasia), close to minor salivary gland histological findings. Immunohistochemical stainings (n = 5) revealed B and T cell infiltrates within breast tissue, with a higher proportion of T CD4+ cells, but no IgG4-secreting plasma cells were found. This is the first series to describe breast inflammatory patterns in Sjögren's syndrome. Mastitis is in line with the classical involvement of exocrine glands in this disease. These findings are consistent with the literature data considering Sjögren's syndrome as an "autoimmune epithelitis".

Differences in the Oxylipid Profiles of Bovine Milk and Plasma at Different Stages of Lactation

Mastitis is caused by a bacterial infection of the mammary gland, which reduces both milk quality and quantity produced for human consumption. The incidence and severity of bovine mastitis are greatest during the periparturient period that results from dysfunctional inflammatory responses and causes damage to milk synthesizing tissues. Oxylipids are potent fatty acid-derived mediators that control the onset and resolution of the inflammatory response. The purpose of this study was to investigate how oxylipid profiles change in bovine milk at different stages of the lactation cycle. Results showed significantly lower concentrations of both milk polyunsaturated fatty acid content and total oxylipid biosynthesis during early lactation when compared to mid- or late-lactation. The only oxylipid that was higher during early lactation was 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETE), which is often associated with inflammatory-based diseases. Milk oxylipid profiles during the different stages of lactation differed from plasma profiles. As such, plasma fatty acid and oxylipid concentrations are not a proxy for local changes in the mammary gland during the lactation cycle.

Exploring the genetic architecture and improving genomic prediction accuracy for mastitis and milk production traits in dairy cattle by mapping variants to hepatic transcriptomic regions responsive to intra-mammary infection

BACKGROUND

A better understanding of the genetic architecture of complex traits can contribute to improve genomic prediction. We hypothesized that genomic variants associated with mastitis and milk production traits in dairy cattle are enriched in hepatic transcriptomic regions that are responsive to intra-mammary infection (IMI). Genomic markers [e.g. single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)] from those regions, if included, may improve the predictive ability of a genomic model.

RESULTS

We applied a genomic feature best linear unbiased prediction model (GFBLUP) to implement the above strategy by considering the hepatic transcriptomic regions responsive to IMI as genomic features. GFBLUP, an extension of GBLUP, includes a separate genomic effect of SNPs within a genomic feature, and allows differential weighting of the individual marker relationships in the prediction equation. Since GFBLUP is computationally intensive, we investigated whether a SNP set test could be a computationally fast way to preselect predictive genomic features. The SNP set test assesses the association between a genomic feature and a trait based on single-SNP genome-wide association studies. We applied these two approaches to mastitis and milk production traits (milk, fat and protein yield) in Holstein (HOL, n = 5056) and Jersey (JER, n = 1231) cattle. We observed that a majority of genomic features were enriched in genomic variants that were associated with mastitis and milk production traits. Compared to GBLUP, the accuracy of genomic prediction with GFBLUP was marginally improved (3.2 to 3.9%) in within-breed prediction. The highest increase (164.4%) in prediction accuracy was observed in across-breed prediction. The significance of genomic features based on the SNP set test were correlated with changes in prediction accuracy of GFBLUP (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

GFBLUP provides a framework for integrating multiple layers of biological knowledge to provide novel insights into the biological basis of complex traits, and to improve the accuracy of genomic prediction. The SNP set test might be used as a first-step to improve GFBLUP models. Approaches like GFBLUP and SNP set test will become increasingly useful, as the functional annotations of genomes keep accumulating for a range of species and traits.

Antibiofilm and antibacterial effects of specific chitosan molecules on Staphylococcus aureus isolates associated with bovine mastitis

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the major pathogens causing bovine intramammary infections (IMIs) and mastitis. Mastitis is the primary cause for the use of antibiotics in dairy farms but therapeutic failure is often observed. One of the reasons for the lack of effectiveness of antibiotic therapy despite the observed susceptibility of bacterial isolates in vitro are bacterial biofilms. In this study, we used chitosan of well-defined molecular weight (0.4–0.6, 1.3, 2.6 and 4.0 kDa) and investigated their antibiofilm and antibacterial activities in in vitro and in vivo models related to S. aureus IMIs. A chitosan of at least 6 units of glucosamine was necessary for maximum antibacterial activity. The 2.6 and 4.0 kDa forms were able to prevent biofilm production by the biofilm hyperproducer strain S. aureus 2117 and a bovine MRSA (methicillin-resistant S. aureus). The intramammary administration of the 2.6 kDa chitosan showed no adverse effects in mice or in cows, as opposed to the slight inflammatory effect observed in mammary glands with the 4.0 kDa derivative. The 2.6 kDa chitosan killed bacteria embedded in pre-established biofilms in a dose-dependent manner with a >3 log10 reduction in CFU at 4 mg/ml. Also, the 2.6 kDa chitosan could prevent the persistence of the internalized MRSA into the mammary epithelial cell line MAC-T. An in vitro checkerboard assay showed that the 2.6 kDa chitosan produced a synergy with the macrolide class of antibiotics (e.g., tilmicosin) and reduced the MIC of both molecules by 2–8 times. Finally, the intramammary administration of the 2.6 kDa chitosan alone (P<0.01) or in combination with tilmicosin (P<0.0001) reduced the colonization of mammary glands in a murine IMI model. Our results suggest that the use of chitosan alone or in combination with a low dose of a macrolide could help reduce antibiotic use in dairy farms.

Immune response of Staphylococcus aureus strains in a mouse mastitis model is linked to adaptive capacity and genotypic profiles

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most frequently isolated major pathogens from intramammary infections (IMI) worldwide. The mechanisms by which S. aureus IMI are established and maintained in dairy cows involve both bacterial escape strategies and modulation of the host immune response. Moreover, it was shown that different S. aureus strains have varying effects on the immune response. The aim of this study was to investigate the immune response in a mouse mastitis model of two S. aureus strains isolated from bovine IMI with different clinical manifestation (persistent-P or non-persistent-NP), phenotypic and genotypic profile. Both strains were capable of establishing an IMI after 264h post inoculation (pi). Strain A (NP) showed a more aggressive behaviour than strain B (P) at early stages of IMI, while strain B multiplied initially at a lower rate but increased its replication capacity from 120h pi to the end of the study (264h pi). Strain A triggered a stronger initial inflammatory response compared with strain B inducing higher gene and protein expression of TLR2, NF-κB activation and higher gene expression of IL-1α at initial stage of IMI (6-12h pi) but inducing extensive mammary tissue damage. Immune cells response was different for each S. aureus strain throughout the course of infection, showing mammary glands inoculated with strain A greater initial immune cells stimulation compared with strain B and then a second immune cells stimulation (from 120 to 264h pi) represented by monocytes-macrophages, T and B lymphocytes, mainly stimulated by strain B, consistent with inflammatory process becoming chronic. Strain-specific pathogenicity observed underscores the importance of pathogen factors in the progression of the infectious process. These results contribute to increase the available information on host-pathogen interaction and point out for the need of further research to expand the knowledge about these interactions for developing new strategies to intervene in the IMI progress.

Integrating Sequence-based GWAS and RNA-Seq Provides Novel Insights into the Genetic Basis of Mastitis and Milk Production in Dairy Cattle

Connecting genome-wide association study (GWAS) to biological mechanisms underlying complex traits is a major challenge. Mastitis resistance and milk production are complex traits of economic importance in the dairy sector and are associated with intra-mammary infection (IMI). Here, we integrated IMI-relevant RNA-Seq data from Holstein cattle and sequence-based GWAS data from three dairy cattle breeds (i.e., Holstein, Nordic red cattle, and Jersey) to explore the genetic basis of mastitis resistance and milk production using post-GWAS analyses and a genomic feature linear mixed model. At 24 h post-IMI, genes responsive to IMI in the mammary gland were preferentially enriched for genetic variants associated with mastitis resistance rather than milk production. Response genes in the liver were mainly enriched for variants associated with mastitis resistance at an early time point (3 h) post-IMI, whereas responsive genes at later stages were enriched for associated variants with milk production. The up- and down-regulated genes were enriched for associated variants with mastitis resistance and milk production, respectively. The patterns were consistent across breeds, indicating that different breeds shared similarities in the genetic basis of these traits. Our approaches provide a framework for integrating multiple layers of data to understand the genetic architecture underlying complex traits.

Counts of bovine monocyte subsets prior to calving are predictive for postpartum occurrence of mastitis and metritis

The heightened susceptibility to infectious diseases in postpartum dairy cows is often attributed to immune dysfunction associated with the transition period. However, the cell populations involved in this immune dysfunction and the dynamics between those populations are not well defined. Monocytes play a crucial role in governing initial immune response in bacterial infections. Bovine monocytes are subdivided in classical (CD14⁺/CD16⁻), intermediate (CD14⁺/CD16⁺) and non-classical monocytes (CD14⁻/CD16⁺) with distinct phenotypic and functional differences. This study investigated the relationship of monocyte subsets counts in blood at 42 and 14 days prior to expected calving date to occurrence of metritis and mastitis within 2 weeks postpartum. In the enrolled prospective cohort of 27 German Holstein cows, housed at the Institute of Animal Nutrition of the Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute Braunschweig, Germany, n = 13 developed metritis and/or mastitis postpartum. A multivariable logistic regression was used to analyze the relationship between prepartum cell counts of monocyte subsets and neutrophils with postpartum disease. Our model revealed that higher counts of the two CD14⁺ monocyte subsets were predictive of disease. In contrast, higher numbers of the CD14⁻ monocyte subset were negatively associated with disease. Interestingly, the neutrophil count, a common hallmark for inflammatory response, was not associated with the outcome variable at either time point. The results indicate that the number and composition of monocyte subsets before calving are related to the susceptibility to infectious disease within 2 weeks postpartum. Furthermore the oppositional effect of CD14⁺ and CD14⁻ subsets strengthens the hypothesis that these subsets have different functional roles in the inflammatory response in dairy cows.

Apoptosis of Endothelial Cells by 13-HPODE Contributes to Impairment of Endothelial Barrier Integrity

Inflammation is an essential host response during bacterial infections such as bovine mastitis. Endothelial cells are critical for an appropriate inflammatory response and loss of vascular barrier integrity is implicated in the pathogenesis of Streptococcus uberis-induced mastitis. Previous studies suggested that accumulation of linoleic acid (LA) oxygenation products derived from 15-lipoxygenase-1 (15-LOX-1) metabolism could regulate vascular functions. The initial LA derivative from the 15-LOX-1 pathway, 13-hydroperoxyoctadecadienoic acid (HPODE), can induce endothelial death, whereas the reduced hydroxyl product, 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid (HODE), is abundantly produced during vascular activation. However, the relative contribution of specific LA-derived metabolites on impairment of mammary endothelial integrity is unknown. Our hypothesis was that S. uberis-induced LA-derived 15-LOX-1 oxygenation products impair mammary endothelial barrier integrity by apoptosis. Exposure of bovine mammary endothelial cells (BMEC) to S. uberis did not increase 15-LOX-1 LA metabolism. However, S. uberis challenge of bovine monocytes demonstrated that monocytes may be a significant source of both 13-HPODE and 13-HODE during mastitis. Exposure of BMEC to 13-HPODE, but not 13-HODE, significantly reduced endothelial barrier integrity and increased apoptosis. Changing oxidant status by coexposure to an antioxidant during 13-HPODE treatment prevented adverse effects of 13-HPODE, including amelioration of apoptosis. A better understanding of how the oxidant status of the vascular microenvironment impacts endothelial barrier properties could lead to more efficacious treatments for S. uberis mastitis.

Human milk proresolving mediators stimulate resolution of acute inflammation

Human milk contains nutrients and bioactive products relevant to infant development and immunological protection. Here, we investigated the proresolving properties of milk using human milk lipid mediator isolates (HLMIs) and determined their impact on resolution programs in vivo and with human macrophages. HLMIs reduced the maximum neutrophil numbers (14.6±1.2 × 10(6)-11.0±1.0 × 10(6) cells per exudate) and shortened the resolution interval (Ri; 50% neutrophil reduction) by 54% compared with peritonitis. Using rigorous liquid-chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS)-based lipid mediator (LM) metabololipidomics, we demonstrated that human milk possesses a proresolving LM-specialized proresolving mediator (LM-SPM) signature profile, containing SPMs (e.g. resolvins (Rv), protectins (PDs), maresins (MaRs), and lipoxins (LXs)) at bioactive levels (pico-nanomolar concentrations) that enhanced human macrophage efferocytosis and bacterial containment. SPMs identified in human milk included D-series Rvs (e.g., RvD1, RvD2, RvD3, AT-RvD3, and RvD4), PD1, MaR1, E-series Rvs (e.g. RvE1, RvE2, and RvE3), and LXs (LXA4 and LXB4). Of the SPMs identified in human milk, RvD2 and MaR1 (50 ng per mouse) individually shortened Ri by ∼75%. Milk from mastitis gave higher leukotriene B4 and prostanoids and lower SPM levels. Taken together, these findings provide evidence that human milk has proresolving actions via comprehensive LM-SPM profiling, describing a potentially novel mechanism in maternal-infant biochemical imprinting.

Nutritional strategies to optimize dairy cattle immunity

Dairy cattle are susceptible to increased incidence and severity of both metabolic and infectious diseases during the periparturient period. A major contributing factor to increased health disorders is alterations in bovine immune mechanisms. Indeed, uncontrolled inflammation is a major contributing factor and a common link among several economically important infectious and metabolic diseases including mastitis, retained placenta, metritis, displaced abomasum, and ketosis. The nutritional status of dairy cows and the metabolism of specific nutrients are critical regulators of immune cell function. There is now a greater appreciation that certain mediators of the immune system can have a reciprocal effect on the metabolism of nutrients. Thus, any disturbances in nutritional or immunological homeostasis can provide deleterious feedback loops that can further enhance health disorders, increase production losses, and decrease the availability of safe and nutritious dairy foods for a growing global population. This review will discuss the complex interactions between nutrient metabolism and immune functions in periparturient dairy cattle. Details of how either deficiencies or overexposure to macro- and micronutrients can contribute to immune dysfunction and the subsequent development of health disorders will be presented. Specifically, the ways in which altered nutrient metabolism and oxidative stress can interact to compromise the immune system in transition cows will be discussed. A better understanding of the linkages between nutrition and immunity may facilitate the design of nutritional regimens that will reduce disease susceptibility in early lactation cows.

Functionality and genomics of selenium and vitamin E supplementation in ruminants

Selenium (Se) and vitamin E are essential micronutrients for animal health and production. The major function of both Se and vitamin E is to prevent the oxidative damage of biological membranes and they can influence growth, reproduction, immune function, health, and product quality in ruminants. Both Se and vitamin E are important for maintaining low cellular and systemic concentrations of reactive oxygen species and lipid hydroperoxides, to ensure optimum cellular function. Discovery of various selenoproteins and vitamin E-responsive genes has contributed significantly to improving our understanding about multiple functions of Se and vitamin E. There is evidence that these functions extend beyond the classical antioxidant properties to immunomodulation and intracellular cell signalling and gene regulation. Research in recent years has also shown that supranutritional supplementation of Se and vitamin E is required to improve the performance of ruminants under certain stressful conditions such as heat stress and during transition period. Considering the growing awareness among consumers of the benefits of antioxidant-rich food, there is a great opportunity for the livestock industries to focus on producing antioxidant-enriched milk and meat products or functional foods. The present review focuses on the recent developments in understanding multiple functions of Se and vitamin E at the cellular and molecular level and the effects of supranutritional supplementation on ruminant performance. In addition, the paper also articulates the potential opportunities to produce functional foods enriched with antioxidants, and underlines the need for optimum supplementation of these micronutrients for efficient ruminant production.

15-F2t-Isoprostane Concentrations and Oxidant Status in Lactating Dairy Cattle with Acute Coliform Mastitis

Background

Severe mammary tissue damage during acute coliform mastitis in cattle is partially caused by oxidative stress. Although considered a gold standard biomarker in some human conditions, the utility of 15‐F_2t‐Isoprostanes (15‐F_2t‐Isop) in detecting oxidative stress in dairy cattle has not been validated.

Hypothesis

Concentrations of 15‐F_2t‐Isop in plasma, urine, and milk correlate with changes in oxidant status during severe coliform mastitis in cattle.

Animals

Eleven lactating Holstein‐Friesian dairy cows in their 3rd–6th lactation.

Methods

A case–control study using cows with acute coliform mastitis and matched healthy controls were enrolled into this study. Measures of inflammation, oxidant status, and redox status in plasma and milk samples were quantified using commercial assays. Plasma, urine, and milk 15‐F_2t‐Isop were quantified by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS) and ELISA assays. Data were analyzed by Wilcoxon rank sum tests (α = 0.05).

Results

Plasma 15‐F_2t‐Isop quantified by LC‐MS/MS was positively correlated with systemic oxidant status (r = 0.83; P = .01). Urine 15‐F_2t‐Isop quantified by LC‐MS/MS did not correlate with systemic oxidant status, but was negatively correlated with redox status variables (r = −0.83; P = .01). Milk 15‐F_2t‐Isop quantified by LC‐MS/MS was negatively correlated (r = −0.86; P = .007) with local oxidant status. Total 15‐F_2t‐Isop in milk quantified by a commercial ELISA (cbELISA) was positively correlated with oxidant status in milk (r = 0.98; P < .001).

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Free plasma 15‐F_2t‐Isop quantified by LC‐MS/MS and total milk 15‐F_2t‐Isop quantified by cbELISA are accurate biomarkers of systemic and mammary gland oxidant status, respectively. Establishing reference intervals for free and total 15‐F_2t‐Isops for evaluating oxidative stress in dairy cows should currently be based on the LC‐MS/MS method.

Metabolic Disorders in the Transition Period Indicate that the Dairy Cows' Ability to Adapt is Overstressed

Simple Summary

Metabolic disorders are a key problem in the transition period of dairy cows and often appear before the onset of further health problems. Problems derive from difficulties animals have to adapt to large variations and disturbances occurring both outside and inside the organism. A lack of success in solving these issues may be due to predominant approaches in farm management and agricultural science, dealing with such disorders as merely negative side effects. Instead, a successful adaptation of animals to their living conditions should be seen as an important end in itself. Both farm management and agricultural sciences should support animals in their ability to cope with nutritional and metabolic challenges by employing a functional and result-driven approach.

Abstract

Metabolic disorders are a key problem in the transition period of dairy cows and often appear before the onset of further health problems. They mainly derive from difficulties the animals have in adapting to changes and disturbances occurring both outside and inside the organisms and due to varying gaps between nutrient supply and demand. Adaptation is a functional and target-oriented process involving the whole organism and thus cannot be narrowed down to single factors. Most problems which challenge the organisms can be solved in a number of different ways. To understand the mechanisms of adaptation, the interconnectedness of variables and the nutrient flow within a metabolic network need to be considered. Metabolic disorders indicate an overstressed ability to balance input, partitioning and output variables. Dairy cows will more easily succeed in adapting and in avoiding dysfunctional processes in the transition period when the gap between nutrient and energy demands and their supply is restricted. Dairy farms vary widely in relation to the living conditions of the animals. The complexity of nutritional and metabolic processes and their large variations on various scales contradict any attempts to predict the outcome of animals’ adaptation in a farm specific situation. Any attempts to reduce the prevalence of metabolic disorders and associated production diseases should rely on continuous and comprehensive monitoring with appropriate indicators on the farm level. Furthermore, low levels of disorders and diseases should be seen as a further significant goal which carries weight in addition to productivity goals. In the long run, low disease levels can only be expected when farmers realize that they can gain a competitive advantage over competitors with higher levels of disease.

Role of endothelial cells in bovine mammary gland health and disease

The bovine mammary gland is a dynamic and complex organ composed of various cell types that work together for the purpose of milk synthesis and secretion. A layer of endothelial cells establishes the blood–milk barrier, which exists to facilitate the exchange of solutes and macromolecules necessary for optimal milk production. During bacterial challenge, however, endothelial cells divert some of their lactation function to protect the underlying tissue from damage by initiating inflammation. At the onset of inflammation, endothelial cells tightly regulate the movement of plasma components and leukocytes into affected tissue. Unfortunately, endothelial dysfunction as a result of exacerbated or sustained inflammation can negatively affect both barrier integrity and the health of surrounding extravascular tissue. The objective of this review is to highlight the role of endothelial cells in supporting milk production and regulating optimal inflammatory responses. The consequences of endothelial dysfunction and sustained inflammation on milk synthesis and secretion are discussed. Given the important role of endothelial cells in orchestrating the inflammatory response, a better understanding of endothelial function during mastitis may support development of targeted therapies to protect bovine mammary tissue and mammary endothelium.

Acute mammary and liver transcriptome responses after an intramammary Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide challenge in postpartal dairy cows

The study investigated the effect of an intramammary lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge on the bovine mammary and liver transcriptome and its consequences on metabolic biomarkers and liver tissue composition. At 7 days of lactation, 7 cows served as controls (CTR) and 7 cows (LPS) received an intramammary Escherichia coli LPS challenge. The mammary and liver tissues for transcriptomic profiling were biopsied at 2.5 h from challenge. Liver composition was evaluated at 2.5 h and 7 days after challenge, and blood biomarkers were analyzed at 2, 3, 7 and 14 days from challenge. In mammary tissue, the LPS challenge resulted in 189 differentially expressed genes (DEG), with 20 down-regulated and 169 up-regulated. In liver tissue, there were 107 DEG in LPS compared with CTR with 42 down-regulated and 65 up-regulated. In mammary, bioinformatics analysis highlighted that LPS led to activation of NOD-like receptor signaling, Toll-like receptor signaling, RIG-I-like receptor signaling and apoptosis pathways. In liver, LPS resulted in an overall inhibition of fatty acid elongation in mitochondria and activation of the p53 signaling pathway. The LPS challenge induced changes in liver lipid composition, a systemic inflammation (rise of blood ceruloplasmin and bilirubin), and an increase in body fat mobilization. The data suggest that cells within the inflamed mammary gland respond by activating mechanisms of pathogen recognition. However, in the liver the response likely depends on mediators originating from the udder that affect liver functionality and specifically fatty acid metabolism (β-oxidation, ketogenesis, and lipoprotein synthesis).

Neutrophil dynamics in the blood and milk of crossbred cows naturally infected with Staphylococcus aureus

AIM

The present study was designed to evaluate the neutrophil dynamics in terms of the functional competence during subclinical mastitis (SCM) and clinical mastitis (CM).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 146 Karan fries cows were screened and were divided into three groups as control (n=12), SCM, n=12 and CM, n=12 groups on the basis of California mastitis test scoring, bacteriological evaluation, gross and morphological changes in milk and by counting milk somatic cell count (SCC). Both blood and milk polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) were isolated in the study. Phagocytic activity (PA) was studied by spectrophotometrically; neutrophil extracelluar traps (NETs) were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM); CD44 was quantified by flow cytometry and apoptosis was studied by fluorescent microscopy.

RESULTS

Significantly (p<0.05) higher SCC, PA was found in milk of CM cows as compared to SCM and control cows. Significantly lower (p<0.05) apoptosis was observed in PMNs isolated from both blood and milk of CM group of cows when compared to control and SCM group. The milk neutrophils of CM group of cows formed NETs as evidenced from the SEM images. Surface expression of CD44 revealed a significantly (p<0.05) lower expression in milk neutrophils of CM group of cows when compared to SCM and control group of cows.

CONCLUSION

The study indicated a positive correlation between delayed neutrophil apoptosis, persistent staying of neutrophils at the site of infection along with formation of NETs as the strategies to fight against the pathogens in the udder during Staphylococcal mastitis. The study forms a strong base for future molecular research in terms of neutrophil recruitment and neutrophil removal from the site of infection.

[Aspects of the innate immune response to intramammary Staphylococcus aureus infections in cattle]

Staphylococcus aureus is the pathogen most frequently isolated from bovine mastitis worldwide, causing chronic intramammary infections that limit profitable dairying. The objective of this article is to characterize the mechanisms involved in S. aureus mammary gland infections considering two different aspects of the infectious process; on the one hand, the aspects involved in the host innate immune response and on the other hand, the capacity of this organism to evade the immune system and interact with different cell types. The exploration of S. aureus interactions with the immune response of bovine mammary gland will help identify targets to outline new preventive or curative alternatives for intramammary infections caused by this organism.

Bovine mastitis: frontiers in immunogenetics

Mastitis is one of the most prevalent and costly diseases in the dairy industry with losses attributable to reduced milk production, discarded milk, early culling, veterinary services, and labor costs. Typically, mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland most often, but not limited to, bacterial infection, and is characterized by the movement of leukocytes and serum proteins from the blood to the site of infection. It contributes to compromised milk quality and the potential spread of antimicrobial resistance if antibiotic treatment is not astutely applied. Despite the implementation of management practises and genetic selection approaches, bovine mastitis control continues to be inadequate. However, some novel genetic strategies have recently been demonstrated to reduce mastitis incidence by taking advantage of a cow's natural ability to make appropriate immune responses against invading pathogens. Specifically, dairy cattle with enhanced and balanced immune responses have a lower occurrence of disease, including mastitis, and they can be identified and selected for using the high immune response (HIR) technology. Enhanced immune responsiveness is also associated with improved response to vaccination, increased milk, and colostrum quality. Since immunity is an important fitness trait, beneficial associations with longevity and reproduction are also often noted. This review highlights the genetic regulation of the bovine immune system and its vital contributions to disease resistance. Genetic selection approaches currently used in the dairy industry to reduce the incidence of disease are reviewed, including the HIR technology, genomics to improve disease resistance or immune response, as well as the Immunity(+)™ sire line. Improving the overall immune responsiveness of cattle is expected to provide superior disease resistance, increasing animal welfare and food quality while maintaining favorable production levels to feed a growing population.

Genetic effects of single nucleotide polymorphisms in JAK2 and STAT5A genes on susceptibility of Chinese Holsteins to mastitis

The JAK-STAT pathway plays a key role in host immunity. The present study was designed to evaluate the effects of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in STAT5A and JAK2 genes on some serum cytokines, mastitis and milk production traits. Two SNPs (SNP1 43046497A/C and SNP2 43047829G/A) in STAT5A, and four SNPs in JAK2 (SNP3 39652267A/G, SNP4 39630048C/T, SNP5 39631044G/A, and SNP6 39631175T/C) were revealed and genotyped in 268 Chinese Holstein cattle. Fixed model was used to analyze the association of SNPs with phenotypes by general linear model procedure of SAS 9.1. SNP1 and SNP4 were significantly associated with IL-6 and IL-17 (P < 0.05), respectively. In JAK2 gene, SNP3 was highly significant (P < 0.01) and SNP5 was significant (P < 0.05) in association with SCC, whereas, the association of SNP6 was found significant (P < 0.05) with both SCC and SCS. Combination genotype analysis revealed that SNPs in JAK2 gene significantly associated with SCC and SCS were associated significantly with the corresponding phenotypes in combinations as well. The GG genotype of SNP3 individually and in any combination genotypes showed lowest SCC. The dominant effect of SNP1, SNP5 and SNP6 was found highly significant (P < 0.01) on the corresponding phenotypes (IL-6, SCC and SCS). As for haplotype analysis, two haplotypes were revealed between the two SNPs of STAT5A gene and four haplotypes amongst four SNPs in JAK2 gene; strong linkage disequilibrium (D' > 0.9) was observed between all these haplotypes. The results imply that the identified SNPs could be powerful markers to select dairy cattle with improved genetic resistance against mastitis.

Moving towards the immunodiagnosis of staphylococcal intramammary infections

Bovine mastitis is the primary disease of dairy cattle that has a great impact on the dairy industry. It is estimated that worldwide economic losses due to mastitis range between US$82 and US$131 per cow/year. A fast and efficient diagnosis of the disease remains a major bottleneck that directly influences the speed with which treatment decisions and management are undertaken. Microbiological culture remains the gold standard in the identification of bacteria that cause mastitis, but the method has inherent limitations, such as a delay in obtaining results and cost, and requires special care during the collection and processing of the sample. For this reason, multiple groups have devoted efforts to develop alternative methods that, preferably, can be easily accomplished in the field. The specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction has enabled the emergence of major diagnostic methods used in clinical practice, such as immunoassays, which have significant advantages in terms of speed, sensitivity, specificity, and portability. Commercially, immunodiagnostics have been used in the detection of various diseases in cattle. However, in several cases, only a presumptive diagnosis can be made, which requires confirmation using culture-based methods. This review discusses the immunological-based assays developed since the 1990s for the detection of Staphylococcus aureus, which is considered the primary pathogen of contagious bovine mastitis. Although no ideal antigens ensure the accurate performance of tests and the costs need to be reduced to allow for good market competitiveness, immunoassays, particularly lateral flow immunoassay and immunoagglutination, have emerged as promising tests to be used in the field.

Bioimpedancemetry in the diagnostics of inflammatory process in the mammary gland

The changes in mammary gland bioimpedance were examined in the dynamics of the inflammatory process. Bioimpedance of affected gland was 2-3-fold lower than that of the contralateral one; normally, this difference did not exceed 10%. The phases of inflammation development were paralleled by changes in bioimpedance. During wound epithelization, impedance increased and approximated the normal level. Further increase of bioimpedance by more than 30% and its stabilization at this level attested to recurrence of inflammation, while its irreversible drop indicated devitalization the tissues. The diagnostic criterion attesting to the development of local inflammatory reaction is deviation of bioimpedance in the impaired area by more than 15% from that of the adjacent intact site.

Deep sequencing-based transcriptional analysis of bovine mammary epithelial cells gene expression in response to in vitro infection with Staphylococcus aureus stains

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is an important etiological organism in chronic and subclinical mastitis in lactating cows. Given the fundamental role the primary bovine mammary epithelial cells (pBMECs) play as a major first line of defense against invading pathogens, their interactions with S. aureus was hypothesized to be crucial to the establishment of the latter’s infection process. This hypothesis was tested by investigating the global transcriptional responses of pBMECs to three S. aureus strains (S56,S178 and S36) with different virulent factors, using a tag-based high-throughput transcriptome sequencing technique. Approximately 4.9 million total sequence tags were obtained from each of the three S. aureus-infected libraries and the control library. Referenced to the control, 1720, 219, and 427 differentially expressed unique genes were identified in the pBMECs infected with S56, S178 and S36 S. aureus strains respectively. Gene ontology (GO) and pathway analysis of the S56-infected pBMECs referenced to those of the control revealed that the differentially expressed genes in S56-infected pBMECs were significantly involved in inflammatory response, cell signalling pathways and apoptosis. In the same vein, the clustered GO terms of the differentially expressed genes of the S178-infected pBMECs were found to comprise immune responses, metabolism transformation, and apoptosis, while those of the S36-infected pBMECs were primarily involved in cell cycle progression and immune responses. Furthermore, fundamental differences were observed in the levels of expression of immune-related genes in response to treatments with the three S. aureus strains. These differences were especially noted for the expression of important pro-inflammatory molecules, including IL-1α, TNF, EFNB1, IL-8, and EGR1. The transcriptional changes associated with cellular signaling and the inflammatory response in this study may reflect different immunomodulatory mechanisms that underlie the interaction between pBMECs and S. aureus strains during infection by the latter.

The mammary gland in domestic ruminants: a systems biology perspective

Milk and dairy products are central elements in the human diet. It is estimated that 108kg of milk per year are consumed per person worldwide. Therefore, dairy production represents a relevant fraction of the economies of many countries, being cattle, sheep, goat, water buffalo, and other ruminants the main species used worldwide. An adequate management of dairy farming cannot be achieved without the knowledge on the biological mechanisms behind lactation in ruminants. Thus, understanding the morphology, development and regulation of the mammary gland in health, disease and production is crucial. Presently, innovative and high-throughput technologies such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics allow a much broader and detailed knowledge on such issues. Additionally, the application of a systems biology approach to animal science is vastly growing, as new advances in one field of specialization or animal species lead to new lines of research in other areas or/and are expanded to other species. This article addresses how modern research approaches may help us understand long-known issues in mammary development, lactation biology and dairy production.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Dairy production depends upon the knowledge of the morphology and regulation of the mammary gland and lactation. High-throughput technologies allow a much broader and detailed knowledge on the biology of the mammary gland. This paper reviews the major contributions that genomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics and proteomics approaches have provided to understand the regulation of the mammary gland in health, disease and production. In the context of mammary gland "omics"-based research, the integration of results using a Systems Biology Approach is of key importance.

T helper 17-associated cytokines are produced during antigen-specific inflammation in the mammary gland

Infectious mastitis cuts down milk production profitability and is a major animal welfare problem. Bacteria-induced inflammation in the mammary gland (MG) is driven by innate immunity, but adaptive immunity can modulate the innate response. Several studies have shown that it is possible to elicit inflammation in the MG by sensitization to an antigen subsequently infused into the lumen of the gland. The objective of our study was to characterize the inflammation triggered in the MG of cows sensitized to ovalbumin, by identifying the cytokines and chemokines likely to play a part in the reaction. Among immunized cows, responders mobilized locally high numbers of leukocytes. An overexpression of the genes encoding IL-17a, IL-17F, IL-21, IL-22 and INF-γ was found in milk cell RNA extracts in the early phase of the inflammatory response. At the protein level, IL-17A was detected in milk as soon as the first sampling time (8 h post-challenge), and both IL-17A and IFN-γ concentrations peaked at 12 to 24 h post-challenge. In mammary tissue from challenged quarters, overexpression of the genes encoding IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21, IL-22, IL-26 and IFN-γ was observed. Neutrophil-attracting chemokines (CXCL3 and CXCL8) were found in milk, and overexpressed transcripts of chemokines attracting lymphocytes and other mononuclear leukocytes (CXCL10, CCL2, CCL5, CCL20) were detected in mammary tissue. Expression of IL-17A, as revealed by immunohistochemistry, was located in epithelial cells, in leukocytes in the connective tissue and in association with the epithelium, and in migrated alveolar leukocytes of challenged quarters. Altogether, these results show that antigen-specific inflammation in the MG was characterized by the production of IL-17 and IFN-γ. The orientation of the inflammatory response induced by the antigen-specific response has the potential to strongly impact the outcome of bacterial infections of the MG.

Significance of metabolic stress, lipid mobilization, and inflammation on transition cow disorders

The incidence and severity of disease in cows is greatest during the transition period, when immune functions are impaired. Intense lipid mobilization is associated with both metabolic and infectious diseases in the transition cow. Significant increases in plasma nonesterified fatty acids contribute to oxidative stress and uncontrolled inflammatory responses. A dysfunctional inflammatory response is the common link between metabolic and infectious diseases around the time of calving. Intervention strategies that can reduce lipid mobilization may improve inflammatory responses and reduce the economic losses associated with health disorders during the transition period.

Nonesterified fatty acids modify inflammatory response and eicosanoid biosynthesis in bovine endothelial cells

Intense lipid mobilization during the transition period in dairy cows is associated with increased disease susceptibility. The potential impact of altered plasma nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) concentrations and composition on host inflammatory responses that may contribute to disease incidence and severity are not known. The objective of this study was to evaluate if increased NEFA concentrations could modify vascular inflammatory responses in vitro by changing the expression of important inflammatory mediators that are important in the pathogenesis of infectious diseases of transition cows such as mastitis and metritis. Bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEC) were cultured with different concentrations of a NEFA mixture that reflected the plasma NEFA composition during different stages of lactation. The expression of cytokines, adhesion molecules, and eicosanoids were measured to assess changes in BAEC inflammatory phenotype. Addition of NEFA mixtures altered the fatty acid profile of BAEC by increasing the concentration of stearic acid (C18:0) and decreasing the content of arachidonic acid (C20:4n6c) and other long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the phospholipid fraction. A significant increase also occurred in mRNA expression of cytokine and adhesion molecules that are associated with increased inflammatory responses during the transition period. Expression of cyclooxygenase 2, an important enzyme associated with eicosanoid biosynthesis, was increased in a NEFA concentration-dependent manner. The production of linoleic acid-derived eicosanoids 9- and 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acids also was increased significantly after treatment with NEFA mixtures. This research described for the first time specific changes in vascular inflammatory response during in vitro exposure to NEFA mixtures that mimic the composition and concentration found in cows during the transition period. These findings could explain, in part, alterations in inflammatory responses observed during intense lipid mobilization stages such as in the transition period of dairy cows. Future studies should analyze specific mechanisms by which high NEFA concentrations induce a vascular proinflammatory phenotype including the effect of 9 and 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acids and other lipid mediators.

Selenium-dependent regulation of oxidative stress and immunity in periparturient dairy cattle

Uncontrolled or impaired immune and inflammatory responses in periparturient dairy cows are associated with increased incidence and severity of infectious diseases. The progressive development of oxidative stress during the transition from late gestation to peak lactation is thought to be a significant underlying factor leading to dysfunctional immune cell responses. Certain trace minerals, such as selenium (Se), can ameliorate oxidative stress and reduce the severity of several economically important diseases in dairy cattle including mastitis and metritis. Many of the health benefits of Se can be attributed to the antioxidant functions of selenoproteins. Changes in selenoprotein activity as a consequence of Se nutritional status can directly alter a number of critical cellular functions involved in the inflammatory response. A better understanding of how Se can optimize immune cell responses may facilitate the design of nutritional regimes that will reduce health disorders during the periparturient period.

Effects of sodium octanoate on innate immune response of mammary epithelial cells during Staphylococcus aureus internalization

Bovine mammary epithelial cells (bMECs) are capable of initiating an innate immune response to invading bacteria. Short chain fatty acids can reduce Staphylococcus aureus internalization into bMEC, but it has not been evaluated if octanoic acid (sodium octanoate, NaO), a medium chain fatty acid (MCFA), has similar effects. In this study we determined the effect of NaO on S. aureus internalization into bMEC and on the modulation of innate immune elements. NaO (0.25–2 mM) did not affect S. aureus growth and bMEC viability, but it differentially modulated bacterial internalization into bMEC, which was induced at 0.25–0.5 mM (~60%) but inhibited at 1-2 mM (~40%). Also, bMEC showed a basal expression of all the innate immune genes evaluated, which were induced by S. aureus. NaO induced BNBD4, LAP, and BNBD10 mRNA expression, but BNBD5 and TNF-α were inhibited. Additionally, the pretreatment of bMEC with NaO inhibited the mRNA expression induction generated by bacteria which coincides with the increase in internalization; only TAP and BNDB10 showed an increase in their expression; it coincides with the greatest effect on the reduction of bacterial internalization. In conclusion, NaO exerts a dual effect on S. aureus internalization in bMEC and modulates elements of innate immune response.