Gambling and pathological gambling among university students

Examining the presence of problem gambling awareness messages on college counseling center websites

College students are more at-risk for developing a gambling problem than the general adult U.S. population. Information behavior and information seeking theories, as well as empirical evidence, indicate that one resource that may provide guidance for students dealing with this issue is the college counseling center website (CCW). This study addressed the presence and nature of problem gambling messages on CCWs. As a random sample, 203 CCWs were selected to assess how frequently they provided any information about problem gambling, as well as the specific types of communications CCWs offered on this topic. Results showed that CCWs rarely included any messages about problem gambling. Specifically, only 15% of all CCWs contained information about problem gambling. Furthermore, messages about problem gambling were presented significantly less frequently than messages involving alcohol abuse, substance abuse, depression, anxiety/stress, and psychological struggles with food. Given the prevalence of problem gambling among college students, as well as the value that college students place on information provided on CCWs, it is important that these sites offer more information concerning this issue.

Predictors of gambling behaviors in Filipino Americans living in Honolulu or San Francisco

This study compared the prevalence and predictors of gambling behaviors between Filipino Americans who live in San Francisco (S.F.) or Honolulu. Data from the 1998-1999 Filipino American Community Epidemiological Survey were used to answer two research questions: (1) What are the prevalence and types of gambling behaviors among Filipino Americans and (2) What are the protective/risk factors of heavy gambling for Filipino Americans in S.F. and Honolulu? Overall, S.F. Filipino Americans had a higher level of participation in gambling, and the odds of gambling increased among older age groups, males, those who were US-born, and those with more health problems. Multinomial logistic regression analyses revealed that factors associated with infrequent and regular gambling participation were different between the S.F. group (older, male, higher education) and Honolulu group (male, US-born, more health concerns). Differential gambling environments, i.e., wide open gambling in S.F. and the restrictive gambling in Honolulu, may contribute to gambling participation and predictors of risk gambling Filipino Americans living in Honolulu and S.F. Policy makers and health professionals need to be aware of these differences to serve this population more effectively.

Sociodemographic and substance use correlates of gambling behavior in the Canadian general population

This study describes sociodemographic and substance use correlates of gambling behaviors, measured among 9,481 past-year gamblers from the Canadian general population. Compared to non-problem gamblers in this study (N=8,035), the 98 problem gamblers who scored 8 or more points on the Canadian Problem Gambling Research Index were more likely to report being "drunk or high" while gambling (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 8.92; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 5.46,14.55; p<.001), to admit to having an alcohol or drug problem (AOR: 3.80; 95% CI:2.21,6.52; p<.001), and to use electronic gambling devices (AOR: 4.85; 95% CI: 3.08-7.66; p<.001).

Prevalence of the addictions: a problem of the majority or the minority?

An increasing number of research studies over the last three decades suggest that a wide range of substance and process addictions may serve similar functions. The current article considers 11 such potential addictions (tobacco, alcohol, illicit drugs, eating, gambling, Internet, love, sex, exercise, work, and shopping), their prevalence, and co-occurrence, based on a systematic review of the literature. Data from 83 studies (each study n = at least 500 subjects) were presented and supplemented with small-scale data. Depending on which assumptions are made, overall 12-month prevalence of an addiction among U.S. adults varies from 15% to 61%. The authors assert that it is most plausible that 47% of the U.S. adult population suffers from maladaptive signs of an addictive disorder over a 12-month period and that it may be useful to think of addictions as due to problems of lifestyle as well as to person-level factors.

Cross-addiction on campus: more problems for student-athletes

Data on 503 students from rural and urban areas were collected from January 2009 to October 2009 to test for cross-addiction of alcohol dependency with disordered gambling among college athletes and nonathletes. To test for alcohol dependency, the Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST) was employed, while the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) was utilized to assess gambling behaviors. Athletes had higher frequencies of cross-addiction. For athletes there was a correlation between scores on the MAST and SOGS. Limitations related to data collection are discussed. Recommendations for further research directed toward the development of programs geared to assist students are given.

Alcohol influences the use of decisional support

AIM

Excess consumption of alcohol leads to impaired cognition and decision making; hence, alcohol-containing products and advertising contain warning messages about the adverse effects of excess drinking. However, there is a need to understand how alcohol influences the processing of advisory messages.

METHOD

The current study used a computerised gambling simulation and investigated whether intoxication would affect the use of a decision aid. Using a double-blind repeated measures design, 16 adult males (aged 18-29) completed the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test and the South Oaks Gambling Screen and played a computer blackjack program on two separate occasions, under differing doses of alcohol. On certain conditions, the computerised decision aid gave advice to participants as to whether the odds were in their favour.

RESULTS

Participants were found to take longer to respond to the decision aid under higher risk conditions when they were losing.

CONCLUSION

Alcohol intoxication may lead to problems evaluating information pertaining to risk, and this has implications for the use of other decision aids designed to assist intoxicated individuals. The problems processing warning information were consistent with alcohol induced 'myopia' where intoxicated individuals had problems processing less salient cues.

Longitudinal patterns of gambling activities and associated risk factors in college students

AIMS

To investigate which clusters of gambling activities exist within a longitudinal study of college health, how membership in gambling clusters change over time and whether particular clusters of gambling are associated with unhealthy risk behaviour.

DESIGN

Four-year longitudinal study (2002-2006).

SETTING

Large, public university.

PARTICIPANTS

Undergraduate college students.

MEASUREMENTS

Ten common gambling activities were measured during 4 consecutive college years (years 1-4). Clusters of gambling activities were examined using latent class analyses. Relations between gambling clusters and gender, Greek membership, alcohol use, drug use, personality indicators of behavioural undercontrol and psychological distress were examined.

FINDINGS

Four latent gambling classes were identified: (1) a low-gambling class, (2) a card gambling class, (3) a casino/slots gambling class and (4) an extensive gambling class. Over the first college years a high probability of transitioning from the low-gambling class and the card gambling class into the casino/slots gambling class was present. Membership in the card, casino/slots and extensive gambling classes were associated with higher scores on alcohol/drug use, novelty seeking and self-identified gambling problems compared to the low-gambling class. The extensive gambling class scored higher than the other gambling classes on risk factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Extensive gamblers and card gamblers are at higher risk for problem gambling and other risky health behaviours. Prospective examinations of class membership suggested that being in the extensive and the low gambling classes was highly stable across the 4 years of college.

The co-occurrence of alcohol use and gambling activities in first-year college students

OBJECTIVE

Both alcohol use and gambling are behaviors that can be problematic for many college students; however, it is not clear whether the relationship between the 2 exists for students who have recently entered college.

PARTICIPANTS

The sample included 908 first-year college students who were surveyed in fall 2005, approximately 1 month after entering college.

METHODS

Participants completed Web-based surveys on alcohol use and gambling behaviors.

RESULTS

Alcohol use and alcohol-related risks were significantly related to both gambling frequency and peak gambling loss.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings have implications for researchers and clinicians working in the area of addictive behaviors among college students, suggesting that those presenting with problems in 1 domain may also be at risk for problems in the other.

The validity and reliability of four measures of gambling behaviour in a sample of Singapore University students

The primary aim of this study was to determine the reliability and validity of measures for detecting problem gamblers for use with university students in a Singapore context. The four instruments commonly used in gambling research, the DSM-IV, GA-20, SOGS and CPGI were administered to a sample of students (n = 193) from a representative cross section of faculties from one university. The CPGI was found to be the most reliable (alpha = 0.922) and valid in terms of construct validity as demonstrated by factor analysis. Despite being a lengthy instrument it is recommended that future studies such as randomized controlled trials of problem gambling interventions in Singapore adopt a modified version of the CPGI, made simpler and easier to use with fewer items and more appropriate terminology.

Student gambling, erroneous cognitions, and awareness of treatment in Scotland

Rates of probable pathological gambling in colleges and universities across Scotland were investigated with a nationally distributed sample consisting of students (n = 1,483) and members of staff (n = 492). Gambling-related erroneous cognitions (Gambling Beliefs Questionnaire [GBQ]) and gambling severity (South Oaks Gambling Screen [SOGS]) were measured, with additional questions enquiring about awareness of treatments available for gambling problems. Rates of past-year problem and probable pathological gambling for students were 4.0% and 3.9%, respectively. An exploratory factor analysis of the GBQ resulted in a 24-item five-factor model, with gambling severity (as indicated by SOGS scores), indices of increasing gambling involvement (gambling frequency and number of gambling activities), and male gender being positively correlated with higher levels of erroneous cognitions, suggesting erroneous cognitions may not be prominent for females with gambling problems. Less than a fifth of students were aware of where to go to receive help for gambling-related problems.

[Pathological gambling and its consequences for public health]

The article aimed to characterize pathological gambling, showing the main consequences of this disorder. Bibliographic survey on this theme was conducted, covering both national and international literature. Publications whose main findings emphasized related prevalence, social and economic costs, gambling legalization and resulting impact on public health, were selected. High suicide rate, comorbidity with other psychiatric disorders, family and work problems, and illicit behavior were consequences reported. The prevalence of this disorder is higher in countries that have legalized gambling and in Brazil there is evidence of growth in the number of pathological gamblers. The development of national research is fundamental to define public policies that are adequate for the Brazilian context.

Disordered gambling among college students: a meta-analytic synthesis

The purpose of this study was to use a meta-analytic procedure to synthesize the rates of disordered gambling for college students that have been reported in the research literature. In order to identify all possible studies that met stringent inclusion criteria, Medline, PsychINFO, and SocioIndex databases were searched with the terms "gambling," and "college student". This process resulted in 15 studies concerning gambling among college students that were published through July 2005. To synthesize the 15 studies, a random effects model for meta-analysis was applied. The estimated proportion of disordered gamblers among college students was 7.89%. This estimate is noteworthy because it is higher than that reported for adolescents, college students or adults in a previous study using meta-analytic procedures with studies conducted prior to 1997.

Motives and methods of under-age casino gamblers

Numerous studies have documented that under-age gambling is quite common. The present study employs interviews of 48 university students who gambled under-age to determine the motives and methods associated with casino gambling by minors. The information gathered in these interviews indicates that access to casinos is easily attained, that the risk of exposure once gambling is minimal, and the motivations of under-age gamblers differ in important ways from that of adults, as access to alcohol, accompanying parents, and the desire to experience the "forbidden fruit" of casino gambling are commonly mentioned motivations by under-age gamblers.

Gambling behavior of student-athletes and a student cohort: what are the odds?

This study investigated the prevalence of gambling, gambling related NCAA violations, and disordered gambling in student-athletes (n = 736) with a comparison cohort of students (n = 1,071) at four universities. Student-athletes reported similar rates of gambling frequency, use of a bookmaker, and disordered gambling as students. After accounting for demographic differences, student-athletes were less likely to engage in sports wagering than students. Several risk factors for disordered gambling were identified, including being male and reporting at least one parent with a history of gambling problems. These findings suggest that problems associated with gambling are a university-wide issue with student-athletes meriting additional attention because of implications for the integrity of intercollegiate sports. Improved prevention and intervention efforts for collegiate gambling are recommended.

Epidemiology of youth gambling problems in Canada: a national prevalence study

OBJECTIVES

To describe the epidemiology of gambling problems among youth aged 15 to 24 years in Canada and to examine whether these gambling prevalence patterns differ by sex and (or) by geographic region.

METHOD

We used data from The Canadian Community Health Survey: Mental Health and Well-Being. Gambling problems were determined according to the Canadian Problem Gambling Index. All prevalence estimates used appropriate sampling weights and bootstrap variance estimation procedures developed by Statistics Canada. Multivariate logistic regression modelling was also employed to supplement the above prevalence comparisons by age, sex, and region.

RESULTS

Among Canadian youth aged 15 to 24 years (n=5666), 61.35% gambled in the past 12 months and the national prevalence of moderate-risk or problem gambling was 2.22% (3.30% in male respondents and 1.10% in female respondents). Male respondents had significantly higher prevalence of gambling problems than female respondents. Regional prevalence estimates of youth moderate-risk or problem gambling were 1.37% in British Columbia, 2.17% in the Prairie provinces, 2.75% in Ontario, 2.12% in Quebec, and 1.71% in the Atlantic provinces.

CONCLUSIONS

Youth, particularly young men, are at greater risk for gambling problems than adults. More prevention and research efforts are also needed to address the observed sex differences and interregional variability in the prevalence of gambling problems among youth. The national prevalence estimates from this study provide important baseline data against which future cohorts of Canadians can be monitored and measured.

Role of Gambling Media Exposure in Influencing Trajectories Among College Students

In the study, a model of the relationship between mass media depictions of gambling and subsequent gambling attitudes and behavioral intentions of college students was developed. A survey was conducted with 229 undergraduate students (79.5% female, mean age = 20.5, SD = 2.04) enrolled in three different communication courses at a large southeastern university. Through structural equation analysis, the six hypotheses of this study were analyzed using the method of maximum likelihood with AMOS 6. The model was consistent with the hypotheses that media exposure impacts gambling attitudes and behavioral intentions both positively and negatively, depending on the valence of the gambling depiction. Theoretical and practical implications of mass media exposure and gambling behaviors are discussed, and future research directions are outlined.

Injunctive norms and problem gambling among college students

Two studies examined the relationships among injunctive norms and college student gambling. In study 1 we evaluated the accuracy of perceptions of other students' approval of gambling and the relationship between perceived approval and gambling behavior. In study 2 we evaluated gambling behavior as a function of perceptions of approval of other students, friends, and family. In study 1, which included 2524 college students, perceptions of other students' approval of gambling were found to be overestimated and were negatively associated with gambling behavior. The results of study 2, which included 565 college students, replicated the findings of study 1 and revealed positive associations between gambling behavior and perceived approval of friends and family. Results highlight the complexity of injunctive norms and the importance of considering the reference group (e.g., peers, friends, family members) in their evaluation. Results also encourage caution in considering the incorporation of injunctive norms in prevention and intervention approaches.

A national study on gambling among US college student-athletes

OBJECTIVE

The authors examined the national prevalence of gambling problems and sports wagering among US college student-athletes.

PARTICIPANTS

A national sample of 20,739 student-athletes participated in the study.

METHODS

The authors used data from the first national survey of gambling among college athletes, conducted by the National Collegiate Athletic Association.

RESULTS

Men (62.4%) consistently had higher past-year prevalence of gambling than did women (42.8%). The authors identified 4.3% of men and 0.4% of women as problem or pathological gamblers. Among the most popular forms of gambling were playing cards, lotteries, and games of skill, with male-to-female prevalence ratio ranging 1.3-5.6 across various gambling activities. Athletes in golf and lacrosse were more likely to report sports wagering than were other athletes. Athletes in gender-specific sports wagered more prevalently than did athletes in unisex sports.

CONCLUSION

Gambling prevalence may be underestimated in this population because respondents' athletics eligibility is at stake. This study provides important baseline data for future cohorts of athletes.

Gambling and health risk behaviors among U.S. college student-athletes: findings from a national study

PURPOSE

To examine prevalence and associations of gambling problems and health risk behaviors among college athletes from the first national survey of gambling among U.S. college student-athletes.

METHODS

Conducted by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), this self-administered and anonymous survey collected information from a nationally representative sample of 20,739 student-athletes.

RESULTS

Males consistently had higher past-year prevalence of gambling than females (e.g., 62.4% of males reported some type of gambling vs. 42.8% of females). Based on DSM-IV Gambling Screen, this study identified 4.3% of males and 0.4% of females as problem/pathological gamblers. A general upward trend existed that as the level of gambling problems increased, so did the prevalence of substance use, gorging/vomiting, and unprotected sex. Cross-group comparisons by gambler type were all significant. Problem and pathological gamblers also experienced significantly more drug/alcohol-related problems than non-gamblers and social gamblers.

CONCLUSIONS

Direct associations found between gambling and multiple risk behaviors in college student-athletes support the persistence of the youth problem-behavior syndrome and suggest the need for multi-faceted initiatives to tackle these risk behaviors simultaneously.

Frequent Card Playing and Pathological Gambling: The Utility of the Georgia Gambling Task and Iowa Gambling Task for Predicting Pathology

The current investigation examined performance on two laboratory-based gambling tasks, the Georgia Gambling Task (GGT; Goodie, 2003. The effects of control on betting: Paradoxical betting on items of high confidence with low value. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, 598-610) and the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Anderson, 1994. Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition, 50, 7-15), as well as self-reported markers of gambling pathology using the Diagnostic Interview for Gambling Severity (DIGS; Winters, Specker, & Stinchfield, 2002. The downside: Problem and pathological gambling (pp. 143-148). Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Reno) among a sample of undergraduate students who are frequent card players. Two hundred twenty-one participants (55 female and 166 male; mean age 19.21 years) who self-classified as playing cards at least once per month completed these measures. Performance on GGT and IGT systematically related to gambling-related pathology in several ways. Overconfidence and bet acceptance on the GGT, and myopic focus on reward on the IGT, predicted gambling related pathology. GGT and IGT performance correlated with each other, but both contributed independently to predicting gambling pathology. Card playing frequency predicted gambling pathology but not GGT or IGT performance. Discussion focuses on the role of biases of judgment and risky decision making in pathological gambling.

The genetics of gambling and behavioral addictions

Behavioral addictions are considered as the repetitive occurrence of impulsive behaviors without consideration of their potential negative consequences. These addictions represent an increasing cost to society and are an important new field of research in psychiatric genetics. There has been a growing body of evidence on the familial aggregation and genetic influences on the development of behavioral addictions and mainly on pathological gambling. The aim of this article is to critically review findings of family and molecular genetic studies on behavioral addictions, focusing on pathological gambling and commenting on other disorders where appropriate. This review provides a comprehensive approach to genetic studies on behavioral addiction and points out the necessity of expanding the genetic research in this field. Future directions for genetic studies in this field are also discussed.

Risikofaktoren des problematischen Glücksspielverhaltens

Zusammenfassung. Theoretischer Hintergrund: Pathologisches Glücksspielverhalten nach DSM-IV oder ICD-10 wird als Impulskontrollstörung diagnostiziert. In diesem Artikel wird der Begriff auf problematisches Glücksspielverhalten erweitert. In der Literatur dominieren zwei theoretische Entstehungsmodelle: das “Sucht-“ und das “Neurosemodell“. Fragestellung: Was sind die Korrelate und Risikofaktoren für die Entstehung und Aufrechterhaltung problematischen Glücksspielverhaltens, welche Implikationen gibt es für die Modellannahmen und für die Behandlung. Methode: Auf der Basis einer Literaturanalyse wird ein Überblick über die bislang gesicherten Risikofaktoren gegeben. Ergebnisse: Es gibt eine Fülle von Querschnittsstudien und einige Längsschnittstudien, die Hinweise auf das Vorliegen einiger gesicherter Korrelate und Risikofaktoren geben. Schlussfolgerungen: Die Befunde unterstützen bestimmte Modellannahmen und sollten in der Prävention und Therapie von Personen mit problematischem Glücksspielverhalten berücksichtigt werden.

Does learning about the mathematics of gambling change gambling behavior?

The present research examined the influence of improved knowledge of odds and mathematical expectation on the gambling behavior of university students. A group of 198 students in an introductory statistics class received instruction on probability theory using examples from gambling. A comparison group of 134 students received generic instruction on probability, and another group of 138 students in classes on unrelated topics received no mathematical instruction. Students receiving the intervention demonstrated superior ability to calculate gambling odds as well as resistance to gambling fallacies 6 months after the intervention. Unexpectedly, this improvement in knowledge and skill was not associated with any decreases in actual gambling behavior. The implication of this research is that enhanced mathematical knowledge on its own may be insufficient to change gambling behavior.

Gambling and problem gambling in a sample of university students

University students from southern Alberta (n = 585) were administered a questionnaire to assess their gambling behaviour. Seventy-two percent reported gambling in the past 6 months, with the most common types being lotteries and instant win tickets (44%) and games of skill against other people (34%). Most students who gambled spent very little time and money doing so (median time spent = 1.5 hrs; median amount of money spent = $0). While gambling is an innocuous activity for most, a significant minority of students are heavy gamblers who experience adverse consequences from it. Seven and one-half percent of students were classified as problem or pathological gamblers, a rate significantly higher than in the general Alberta adult population. The characteristics that best differentiated problem gamblers from non-problem gamblers were more positive attitudes toward gambling, ethnicity (41% of Asian gamblers were problem gamblers), university major (kinesiology, education, management), superior ability to calculate gambling odds, and older age.

Problem and pathological gambling among college athletes

BACKGROUND

Problematic gambling is common in college students, and in particular, athletes.

METHODS

The frequency of problem and pathological gambling was determined among 636 college athletes at three Midwest universities using the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS). The Gambling Attitude Scale (GAS) was used to assess college athletes' attitudes toward gambling in general and toward four modes of gambling (casinos, betting on horse races, lottery and the Internet). A profile of college athletes' gambling attitudes and behavior was developed through the data obtained from each of these instruments.

RESULTS

Nearly 15% of respondents had a SOGS score >or=3, indicating problem or pathological gambling. Those at risk for a gambling problem gambled frequently, had family and/or friends with perceived gambling problems, were nonwhite, older, started gambling at a younger age, preferred games of skill, and held positive attitudes toward gambling in general and Internet gambling, in particular.

CONCLUSIONS

Gambling problems are widespread among college athletes who constitute a vulnerable group. Specific interventions are needed to target this group.

The epidemiology of college alcohol and gambling policies

Background

This article reports the first national assessment of patterns of drinking and gambling-related rulemaking on college campuses (e.g., punitive versus recovery oriented). Analyses relating school policies to known school rates of drinking or gambling identified potentially influential policies. These results can inform and encourage the development of guidelines, or "best practices," upon which schools can base future policy.

Methods

The college policy information was collected from handbooks, Web sites and supplemental materials of 119 scientifically selected colleges included in the fourth (2001) Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study (CAS). A coding instrument of 40 items measured the scope and focus of school alcohol and gambling policies. This instrument included items to measure the presence of specific policies and establish whether the policies were punitive or rehabilitative. A total of 11 coders followed a process of information extraction, coding and arbitration used successfully in other published studies to codify policy information.

Results

Although all schools had a student alcohol use policy, only 26 schools (22%) had a gambling policy. Punitive and restrictive alcohol policies were most prevalent; recovery-oriented policies were present at fewer than 30% of schools. Certain alcohol and gambling policies had significant relationships with student binge drinking rates.

Conclusions

The relative lack of college recovery-oriented policies suggests that schools might be overlooking the value of rehabilitative measures in reducing addictive behaviors among students. Since there are few college gambling-related policies, schools might be missing an opportunity to inform students about the dangers of excessive gambling.

Psychosocial variables associated with adolescent gambling

The authors empirically examined the relations between several psychosocial variables associated with adolescent problem gambling. Participants were 2,336 students in Grades 7-13, and all completed a questionnaire regarding gambling activities, gambling severity, perceived social support, drug and alcohol dependence, and various social, emotional, and behavioral problems. With respect to gambling severity, 4.9% of adolescents met the criteria for pathological gambling, and 8.0% were found to be at risk. Psychosocial difficulties associated with problem gambling include poor perceived familial and peer social support, substance use problems, conduct problems, family problems, and parental involvement in gambling and substance use. A set of predictor variables that may lead to problem gambling includes having family problems, having conduct problems, being addicted to drugs or alcohol, and being male.

Role of culture in gambling and problem gambling

There has been a significant gap in the gambling literature regarding the role of culture in gambling and problem gambling (PG). This paper aims to this such gap by presenting a systematic review of the cultural variations in gambling and PG as well as a discussion of the role cultural variables can play in the initiation and maintenance of gambling in order to stimulate further research. The review shows that although studies investigating prevalence rates of gambling and PG among different cultures are not plentiful, evidence does suggest certain cultural groups are more vulnerable to begin gambling and to develop PG. Significant factors including familial/genetic, sociological, and individual factors have been found in the Western gambling literature as playing important roles in the development and maintenance of PG. These factors need to be examined now in other cultural groups so we can better understand the etiological processes involved in PG and design culturally sensitive treatments. In addition, variables, such as cultural values and beliefs, the process of acculturation, and the influence of culturally determined, help-seeking behaviors need to be also examined in relation to the role they could play in the initiation of and maintenance of gambling. Understanding the contribution of cultural variables will allow us to devise better prevention and treatment options for PG. Methodological problems in this area of research are highlighted, and suggestions for future research are included.

Indicated prevention of problem gambling among college students

This research provides a brief qualitative description of the development of an indicated prevention intervention for college student gamblers. The proposed intervention integrates alcohol prevention strategies with elements of gambling treatment. The intervention combines cognitive-behavioral skills-training and motivational interviewing and includes personalized normative feedback, cognitive correction, discussion of gambling consequences, and relapse prevention techniques. Examples detailing all phases of the intervention are provided from interviews conducted in a pilot of the intervention. Preliminary pilot data suggests the intervention shows promise in reducing high risk gambling among college students.

Awareness of gambling-related problems, policies and educational programs among high school and college administrators

This brief report summarizes a survey of high school and college representatives and their awareness toward gambling-related problems. The Massachusetts Council on Compulsive Gambling developed a survey instrument to review the policies and training programs of 20 high schools and 10 colleges that were located within the catchment areas of Massachusetts Department of Public Health state-sponsored gambling treatment programs. The results revealed that there is an important discrepancy between the prevalence of gambling-related problems among young people and the awareness of these problems among educators. High school and colleges evidence a paucity of existing gambling-related regulations or policies. There is little opportunity for students and educators to learn within the school setting about gambling and its potential hazards. Without sufficient in-service education and training for faculty and staff, there is little likelihood that this group of educators can engage in the early identification or prevention efforts that are so vital to advancing the health and welfare of young people.

Risk factors in adolescence: the case of gambling, videogame playing, and the internet

It has been noted that adolescents may be more susceptible to pathological gambling. Not only is it usually illegal, but it appears to be related to high levels of problem gambling and other delinquent activities such as illicit drug taking and alcohol abuse. This paper examines risk factors not only in adolescent gambling but also in videogame playing (which shares many similarities with gambling). There appear to be three main forms of adolescent gambling that have been widely researched. Adolescent gambling activities and general risk factors in adolescent gambling are provided. As well, the influence of technology on adolescents in the form of both videogames and the Internet are examined. It is argued that technologically advanced forms of gambling may be highly appealing to adolescents.

Risk factors for pathological gambling

To better understand pathological gambling, potential risk factors were assessed within three domains--gambling behaviors, substance abuse and other problem behaviors, and sociodemographic factors. A random-digit-dial telephone survey was conducted in 1999-2000 with a representative sample of the U.S. population aged 18 or older. The current analyses uses data from the 2168 respondents who gambled in the year before the interview. Gambling measures included the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS)-IV for pathological gambling, frequency of 15 types of gambling, and size of win or loss on the last occasion. Other measures included the quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption, frequency of illicit drug use and criminal offending, and the DIS-IV for alcohol and drug abuse and dependence. Results showed that casino gambling is associated with a high risk of gambling pathology. Lottery, cards, and bingo are associated with a moderately high risk of gambling pathology. Participation in a greater number of types of gambling is strongly predictive of gambling pathology, even after frequency of gambling and size of win or loss are taken into account. Alcohol abuse is strongly predictive of gambling pathology, even with gambling behaviors held constant. Minority and low socioeconomic status (SES) group members have higher levels of gambling pathology than other groups after all other factors are considered.

Correlates of college student gambling in the United States

The authors report findings from the first national survey of gambling among college students. They collected information from 10,765 students attending 119 scientifically selected colleges included in the 2001 Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study (CAS), which indicated that 42% of responding students gambled in the last school year and 2.6% gambled weekly or more frequently. These findings contradict the widely held opinion based on previous studies that gambling is prevalent among college students. Previous studies used convenience samples that might have overestimated the risk for gambling problems. Male students and students of legal age (> or = 21 y) were more likely than others to gamble. Availability of gambling, measured by the number of types of gambling venues located in the schools' states, influenced their decisions to gamble. The concordance of characteristics associated with both gambling and binge drinking suggested a disposition to take risks that is independent of the risk objects.

Problem gambling in a federal prison population: results from the South Oaks Gambling Screen

Three hundred and sixty three medium security federal prison inmates were interviewed with the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) with 5.2% of the sample achieving SOGS scores greater than 4 and another 7.4% attaining scores of 3 or 4, traditional markers of pathological gambling and problem gambling, respectively. Attempts were made to evaluate the relative accuracy of the continuum and dichotomy models of problem gambling by contrasting three groups of subjects (SOGS<3, SOGS=3 or 4, SOGS>4) on a series of gambling-related measures and comparing the relative ability of the SOGS and a dichotomized version of the SOGS to account for residual variance in these same gambling-related measures. Results were consistent with the view that problem gambling embodies features of both a continuum and dichotomy. Nearly half the subjects had desisted from problem gambling on their own, although self-remitters displayed less severe and extensive patterns of problem gambling than non-remitting subjects.

The Effects of Modeling and Experience on Young Children's Persistence at a Gambling Game

Gambling is common among children and adolescents, but Hide is known about factors initiating or maintaining this behavior. Fifty-one male and 51 female kindergarten and first grade children were invited to play a game involving repeated opportunities to select colored chips from a cup while blindfolded. Children playing for tangible incentives elected to play longer than those who were not (p <.001). Seeing a videotaped model win or fail to win a large prize had no effect on persistence with the game. Playing again one week later, children playing for incentives exhibited a more successful strategy, quitting sooner (p <.04) and with more winnings (p <.03). The parameters of experiential versus observational learning are discussed, with implications for educating children about risk-taking.

Student-Athletes and Gambling: An Analysis of Attitudes Towards Risk-Taking

Gambling scandals at Arizona State University, Boston College, and Northwestern University have made gambling prevention a point of emphasis in the NCAA and throughout colleges and universities across the nation. Despite this emphasis, there is minimal research at any level regarding gambling and student-athletes. This research examines attitudinal differences towards risk-taking among student-athletes who gamble on college sports and those who indicate no such gambling activity. Our findings indicate that student-athletes who gambled were more likely to have attitudes supportive of risk taking behavior than their student-athlete peers who did not gamble.

An Analysis of the Relationship of Alcohol to Casino Gambling Among College Students

Research has found significant overlap in the problem drinker and pathological gambler populations. This finding leads to the question of whether the pairing of drinking and gambling at lower levels of intensity is similarly related to a variety of negative consequences. The data for the present study were gathered in Memphis, TN, and Reno, NV, from questionnaires completed by 835 students in two universities. The data indicate that about one-fourth of students who gamble in casinos frequendy or always drink while gambling. Drinking when gambling is significantly related for males, but not for females, to size of bet, obtaining additional money while at the casino, and losing more than one can afford. The analysis suggests that an increased effort should be made to inform even casual drinkers and casual gamblers of the dangers of pairing these behaviors.

The natural history of problem gambling from age 18 to 29

Aggregate-level prevalences and individual-level developmental trajectories of untreated problem gambling were examined in an 11-year, 4-wave longitudinal study spanning the adolescent through young adult years. The past-year prevalences, 3-4 year incidences, and lifetime prevalences of problem gambling from adolescence through young adulthood were relatively stable at 2%-3%, 1%-2%, and 3%-5%, respectively. Despite the stability of the prevalences at the aggregate level, problem gambling appeared to be more transitory and episodic than enduring and chronic at the individual level. The present study is consistent with the limited evidence available on the natural history of problem gambling in the community in suggesting that natural recovery may be the rule rather than the exception.

Diagnosis and treatment of pathologic gambling

Pathologic gambling (PG) is an impulse control disorder characterized by recurrent and maladaptive gambling behaviors that significantly disrupt the patient's functioning in the personal, familial, or vocational spheres. Pathologic gambling is estimated to currently affect 1% to 3.4% of the adult US population and is frequently comorbid with substance abuse or dependence, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and affective disorders. Studies show evidence for the involvement of the serotonergic, noradrenergic, and dopaminergic systems in the etiology of PG. Medication treatment studies performed in PG patients demonstrated the short-term efficacy of various serotonin reuptake inhibitors, opioid antagonists, and mood stabilizers in a subsample of adult pathologic gamblers who seek treatment. This review focuses on recent research examining the neurobiology and treatment of PG.