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Knutsen HK, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Dall'Asta C, Gutleb AC, Humpf HU, Galli C, Metzler M, Oswald IP, Parent-Massin D, Binaglia M, Steinkellner H, Alexander J. Appropriateness to set a group health-based guidance value for fumonisins and their modified forms. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05172. [PMID: 32625807 PMCID: PMC7009576 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) established a tolerable daily intake (TDI) for fumonisin B1 (FB 1) of 1.0 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day based on increased incidence of megalocytic hepatocytes found in a chronic study with mice. The CONTAM Panel considered the limited data available on toxicity and mode of action and structural similarities of FB 2-6 and found it appropriate to include FB 2, FB 3 and FB 4 in a group TDI with FB 1. Modified forms of FBs are phase I and phase II metabolites formed in fungi, infested plants or farm animals. Modified forms also arise from food or feed processing, and include covalent adducts with matrix constituents. Non-covalently bound forms are not considered as modified forms. Modified forms of FBs identified are hydrolysed FB 1-4 (HFB 1-4), partially hydrolysed FB 1-2 (pHFB 1-2), N-(carboxymethyl)-FB 1-3 (NCM-FB 1-3), N-(1-deoxy-d-fructos-1-yl)-FB 1 (NDF-FB 1), O-fatty acyl FB 1, N-fatty acyl FB 1 and N-palmitoyl-HFB 1. HFB 1, pHFB 1, NCM-FB 1 and NDF-FB 1 show a similar toxicological profile but are less potent than FB 1. Although in vitro data shows that N-fatty acyl FBs are more toxic in vitro than FB 1, no in vivo data were available for N-fatty acyl FBs and O-fatty acyl FBs. The CONTAM Panel concluded that it was not appropriate to include modified FBs in the group TDI for FB 1-4. The uncertainty associated with the present assessment is high, but could be reduced provided more data are made available on occurrence, toxicokinetics and toxicity of FB 2-6 and modified forms of FB 1-4.
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Optimization for quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe extraction of mycotoxins and veterinary drugs by response surface methodology for application to egg and milk. J Chromatogr A 2018; 1532:20-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2017.11.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Revised: 11/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Cao X, Li X, Li J, Niu Y, Shi L, Fang Z, Zhang T, Ding H. Quantitative determination of carcinogenic mycotoxins in human and animal biological matrices and animal-derived foods using multi-mycotoxin and analyte-specific high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric methods. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1073:191-200. [PMID: 29278819 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Revised: 09/16/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive and reliable multi-mycotoxin-based method was developed to identify and quantify several carcinogenic mycotoxins in human blood and urine, as well as edible animal tissues, including muscle and liver tissue from swine and chickens, using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). For the toxicokinetic studies with individual mycotoxins, highly sensitive analyte-specific LC-MS/MS methods were developed for rat plasma and urine. Sample purification consisted of a rapid 'dilute and shoot' approach in urine samples, a simple 'dilute, evaporate and shoot' approach in plasma samples and a 'QuEChERS' procedure in edible animal tissues. The multi-mycotoxin and analyte-specific methods were validated in-house: The limits of detection (LOD) for the multi-mycotoxin and analyte-specific methods ranged from 0.02 to 0.41 μg/kg (μg/L) and 0.01 to 0.19 μg/L, respectively, and limits of quantification (LOQ) between 0.10 to 1.02 μg/kg (μg/L) and 0.09 to 0.47 μg/L, respectively. Apparent recoveries of the samples spiked with 0.25 to 4 μg/kg (μg/L) ranged from 60.1% to 109.8% with relative standard deviations below 15%. The methods were successfully applied to real samples. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study carried out using a small group of patients from the Chinese population with hepatocellular carcinoma to assess their exposure to carcinogenic mycotoxins using biomarkers. Finally, the multi-mycotoxin method is a useful analytical method for assessing exposure to mycotoxins edible in animal tissues. The analyte-specific methods could be useful during toxicokinetic and toxicological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqin Cao
- College of Medicine, Jianghan University, Wuhan, 430056, People's Republic of China; Department of Pharmacy, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaofei Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, People's Republic of China
| | - Yunhui Niu
- Department of Pharmacy, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Shi
- College of Medicine, Jianghan University, Wuhan, 430056, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenfeng Fang
- College of Medicine, Jianghan University, Wuhan, 430056, People's Republic of China
| | - Tao Zhang
- College of Medicine, Jianghan University, Wuhan, 430056, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Ding
- Department of Pharmacy, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, People's Republic of China.
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Modified mycotoxins: An updated review on their formation, detection, occurrence, and toxic effects. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 111:189-205. [PMID: 29158197 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2017] [Revised: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Modified mycotoxins are metabolites that normally remain undetected during the testing for parent mycotoxin. These modified forms of mycotoxins can be produced by fungi or generated as part of the defense mechanism of the infected plant. In some cases, they are formed during food processing. The various processing steps greatly affect mycotoxin levels present in the final product (free and modified), although the results are still controversial regarding the increase or reduction of these levels, being strongly related to the type of process and the composition of the food in question. Evidence exists that some modified mycotoxins can be converted into the parent mycotoxin during digestion in humans and animals, potentially leading to adverse health effects. Some of these formed compounds can be even more toxic, in case they have higher bioaccessibility and bioavailability than the parent mycotoxin. The modified mycotoxins can occur simultaneously with the free mycotoxin, and, in some cases, the concentration of modified mycotoxins may exceed the level of free mycotoxin in processed foods. Even though toxicological data are scarce, the possibility of modified mycotoxin conversion to its free form may result in a potential risk to human and animal health. This review aims to update information on the formation, detection, occurrence, and toxic effects caused by modified mycotoxin.
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Xing F, Yao H, Liu Y, Dai X, Brown RL, Bhatnagar D. Recent developments and applications of hyperspectral imaging for rapid detection of mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in food products. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 59:173-180. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1363709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fuguo Xing
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences /Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, P. R. China
- Geosystems Research Institute, Mississippi State University, Stennis Space Center, MS, USA
- Southern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service-United States Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Haibo Yao
- Geosystems Research Institute, Mississippi State University, Stennis Space Center, MS, USA
| | - Yang Liu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences /Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Xiaofeng Dai
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences /Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Robert L. Brown
- Southern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service-United States Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Deepak Bhatnagar
- Southern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service-United States Department of Agriculture, New Orleans, LA, USA
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Du X, Schrunk DE, Shao D, Imerman PM, Wang C, Ensley SM, Rumbeiha WK. Intra-laboratory Development and Evaluation of a Quantitative Method for Measurement of Aflatoxins B1, M1 and Q1 in Animal Urine by High Performance Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection. J Anal Toxicol 2017; 41:698-707. [PMID: 28985321 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkx059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins negatively impact animal health. Aflatoxins (AFs) are the most common mycotoxins affecting both large and small animals and are a common cause of toxin-related pet food recalls. Definitive diagnosis of aflatoxicosis is constrained by a lack of validated ante-mortem analytical methods for detection and quantitation of AFs and their metabolites in biological specimens. Herein, we developed and evaluated a urine-based quantitative method for measurement of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and its metabolites aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and aflatoxin Q1 (AFQ1) in animal urine. (Some of the results have been presented at 59th AAVLD conference, Greensboro, North Carolina, October 13-19th, 2016.) This method uses an immuno-affinity column for clean-up and pre-column derivatization followed by high performance liquid chromatography analysis with fluorescence detection. The method has high selectivity, recovery (>81%) and sensitivity with an instrument limit of detection of 0.20-1.02 pg; instrument limit of quantitation of 0.77-4.46 pg; and a method lower limit of quantitation of 0.30-2.5 ng/mL. The method has high accuracy, repeatability, and is rugged against minor changes. However, because of poor sensitivity of AFQ1 at low concentrations we recommend this method for quantitative determination of AFB1 and AFM1, and for qualitative measurement of AFQ1 in animal urine for diagnosis of aflatoxicosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangwei Du
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, 1850 Christensen Drive, Ames, IA 50011-1134, USA
| | - Dwayne E Schrunk
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, 1850 Christensen Drive, Ames, IA 50011-1134, USA
| | - Dahai Shao
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, 1850 Christensen Drive, Ames, IA 50011-1134, USA
| | - Paula M Imerman
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, 1850 Christensen Drive, Ames, IA 50011-1134, USA
| | - Chong Wang
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, 1850 Christensen Drive, Ames, IA 50011-1134, USA
| | - Steve M Ensley
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, 1850 Christensen Drive, Ames, IA 50011-1134, USA
| | - Wilson K Rumbeiha
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, 1850 Christensen Drive, Ames, IA 50011-1134, USA
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, De Saeger S, Eriksen GS, Farmer P, Fremy JM, Gong YY, Meyer K, Naegeli H, Parent-Massin D, Rietjens I, van Egmond H, Altieri A, Eskola M, Gergelova P, Ramos Bordajandi L, Benkova B, Dörr B, Gkrillas A, Gustavsson N, van Manen M, Edler L. Risks to human and animal health related to the presence of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified forms in food and feed. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04718. [PMID: 32625635 PMCID: PMC7010102 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi, occurring predominantly in cereal grains. Following the request of the European Commission, the CONTAM Panel assessed the risk to animal and human health related to DON, 3-acetyl-DON (3-Ac-DON), 15-acetyl-DON (15-Ac-DON) and DON-3-glucoside in food and feed. A total of 27,537, 13,892, 7,270 and 2,266 analytical data for DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside, respectively, in food, feed and unprocessed grains collected from 2007 to 2014 were used. For human exposure, grains and grain-based products were main sources, whereas in farm and companion animals, cereal grains, cereal by-products and forage maize contributed most. DON is rapidly absorbed, distributed, and excreted. Since 3-Ac-DON and 15-Ac-DON are largely deacetylated and DON-3-glucoside cleaved in the intestines the same toxic effects as DON can be expected. The TDI of 1 μg/kg bw per day, that was established for DON based on reduced body weight gain in mice, was therefore used as a group-TDI for the sum of DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside. In order to assess acute human health risk, epidemiological data from mycotoxicoses were assessed and a group-ARfD of 8 μg/kg bw per eating occasion was calculated. Estimates of acute dietary exposures were below this dose and did not raise a health concern in humans. The estimated mean chronic dietary exposure was above the group-TDI in infants, toddlers and other children, and at high exposure also in adolescents and adults, indicating a potential health concern. Based on estimated mean dietary concentrations in ruminants, poultry, rabbits, dogs and cats, most farmed fish species and horses, adverse effects are not expected. At the high dietary concentrations, there is a potential risk for chronic adverse effects in pigs and fish and for acute adverse effects in cats and farmed mink.
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Turner PC, Solfrizzo M, Gost A, Gambacorta L, Olsen M, Wallin S, Kotova N. Comparison of Data from a Single-Analyte and a Multianalyte Method for Determination of Urinary Total Deoxynivalenol in Human Samples. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:7115-7120. [PMID: 28318271 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b04755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) exposure is estimated by the combined measures of urinary DON and DON-glucuronides. In this study, data from single-mycotoxin (SM) and a multimycotoxin (MM) methods were compared for 256 Swedish adult urine samples. Both methods included β-glucuronidase predigestion, immunoaffinity enrichment, and LC-MS/MS. However, the specific reagents, apparatus, and conditions were not identical in part because the MM method measures additional mycotoxins. DON was detected in 88 and 63% of samples using the SM and MM methods, respectively, with the following mean and median concentrations: SM, mean = 5.0 ng/mL, SD = 7.4, range of positives = 0.5-60.2 ng/mL, median = 2.5 ng/mL, IQR = 1.0-5.5 ng/mL; MM, mean = 4.4 ng/mL, SD = 12.9, range of positives = 0.5-135.2 ng/mL, median = 0.8 ng/mL, IQR = 0.3-3.5. Linear regression showed a significant, albeit modest, correlation between the two measures (p = 0.0001, r = 0.591). The differences observed may reflect subtle handling differences in DON extraction and quantitation between the methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul C Turner
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland, United States
| | - Michele Solfrizzo
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA) of the National Research Council (CNR) , Bari, Italy
| | - Allison Gost
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland, United States
| | - Lucia Gambacorta
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA) of the National Research Council (CNR) , Bari, Italy
| | - Monica Olsen
- The National Food Agency , Box 622, SE 751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Stina Wallin
- The National Food Agency , Box 622, SE 751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Natalia Kotova
- The National Food Agency , Box 622, SE 751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
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Studies on the Presence of Mycotoxins in Biological Samples: An Overview. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9080251. [PMID: 28820481 PMCID: PMC5577585 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9080251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are fungal secondary metabolites with bioaccumulation levels leading to their carry-over into animal fluids, organs, and tissues. As a consequence, mycotoxin determination in biological samples from humans and animals has been reported worldwide. Since most mycotoxins show toxic effects at low concentrations and considering the extremely low levels present in biological samples, the application of reliable detection methods is required. This review summarizes the information regarding the studies involving mycotoxin determination in biological samples over the last 10 years. Relevant data on extraction methodology, detection techniques, sample size, limits of detection, and quantitation are presented herein. Briefly, liquid-liquid extraction followed by LC-MS/MS determination was the most common technique. The most analyzed mycotoxin was ochratoxin A, followed by zearalenone and deoxynivalenol—including their metabolites, enniatins, fumonisins, aflatoxins, T-2 and HT-2 toxins. Moreover, the studies were classified by their purpose, mainly focused on the development of analytical methodologies, mycotoxin biomonitoring, and exposure assessment. The study of tissue distribution, bioaccumulation, carry-over, persistence and transference of mycotoxins, as well as, toxicokinetics and ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion) were other proposed goals for biological sample analysis. Finally, an overview of risk assessment was discussed.
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Ayelign A, Woldegiorgis AZ, Adish A, De Boevre M, Heyndrickx E, De Saeger S. Assessment of aflatoxin exposure among young children in Ethiopia using urinary biomarkers. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2017; 34:1606-1616. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2017.1350290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Abebe Ayelign
- Department of Bioanalysis, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Center for Food Science and Nutrition, College of Natural Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Ashagrie Zewdu Woldegiorgis
- Center for Food Science and Nutrition, College of Natural Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Abdulaziz Adish
- Micronutrient Initiative (MI), Deputy Regional Director, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Department of Bioanalysis, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ellen Heyndrickx
- Department of Bioanalysis, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Department of Bioanalysis, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Multi-mycotoxin analysis using dried blood spots and dried serum spots. Anal Bioanal Chem 2017; 409:3369-3382. [PMID: 28299415 PMCID: PMC5395583 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-017-0279-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Revised: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 02/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
In this study, a rapid multi-mycotoxin approach was developed for biomonitoring and quantification of 27 important mycotoxins and mycotoxin metabolites in human blood samples. HPLC-MS/MS detection was used for the analysis of dried serum spots (DSS) and dried blood spots (DBS). Detection of aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, AFM1), trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, DON; DON-3-glucoronic acid, DON-3-GlcA; T-2; HT-2; and HT-2-4-GlcA), fumonisin B1 (FB1), ochratoxins (OTA and its thermal degradation product 2'R-OTA; OTα; 10-hydroxychratoxin A, 10-OH-OTA), citrinin (CIT and its urinary metabolite dihydrocitrinone, DH-CIT), zearalenone and zearalanone (ZEN, ZAN), altenuene (ALT), alternariols (AOH; alternariol monomethyl ether, AME), enniatins (EnA, EnA1, EnB, EnB1) and beauvericin (Bea) was validated for two matrices, serum (DSS), and whole blood (DBS). HPLC-MS/MS analysis showed signal suppression as well as signal enhancement due to matrix effects. However, for most analytes LOQs in the lower pg/mL range and excellent recovery rate were achieved using matrix-matched calibration. Besides validation of the method, the analyte stability in DBS and DSS was also investigated. Stability is a main issue for some analytes when the dried samples are stored under common conditions at room temperature. Nevertheless, the developed method was applied to DBS samples of a German cohort (n = 50). Besides positive findings of OTA and 2'R-OTA, all samples were positive for EnB. This methodical study establishes a validated multi-mycotoxin approach for the detection of 27 mycotoxins and metabolites in dried blood/serum spots based on a fast sample preparation followed by sensitive HPLC-MS/MS analysis. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.
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Gao X, Tan Y, Guo H. Simultaneous determination of amitraz, chlordimeform, formetanate and their main metabolites in human urine by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1052:27-33. [PMID: 28346886 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2016] [Revised: 02/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
A rapid, simple and reliable high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method was developed for simultaneous determination of amitraz, chlordimeform, formetanate and their main metabolites, N-(2,4-dimethylphenyl)-N-methyl-formamidine (DMPF), 2,4-dimethylformamidine (DMF), 2,4-dimethylaniline (DMA), 4-chloro-2-methylaniline and 3-hydroxyacetanilide in human urine. The urine samples were mixed with buffer solutions (pH 8) and subsequently cleaned up by solid supported liquid/liquid extraction (SLE). The target analytes were efficiently separated with a Waters Atlantis T3 column (150mm×4.6mm, 5μm), ionized with electrospray ion source in positive mode, and quantitatively determined by tandem mass spectrometry in the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. In order to minimize matrix effects, the matrix-matched calibration curves of eight analytes were adopted with correlation coefficients (R2) above 0.99. The method were further validated by determining the limits of detection (LODs, 0.3-0.6ng/mL), the limits of quantitation (LOQs, 1.0-2.0ng/mL) and recoveries (89.1%-108.4%) with intra-day and inter-day relative standard deviation (RSD, <11%). The established method was applied and demonstrated in a real case by assaying a urine sample from a female poisoned by formetanate. The achieved results proved this method to be rapid, sensitive and accurate for simultaneous quantitation of eight analytes in human urine for intended forensic cases of human poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Gao
- Chongqing Key Lab of Catalysis & Functional Organic Molecules, Chongqing Technology and Business University, Chongqing 400067, China; School of Resources and Environment, Chongqing Technology and Business University, Chongqing 400067, China
| | - Yanglan Tan
- Institute for Nutritional Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Hao Guo
- Chongqing Institute of Forensic Science, Chongqing 400021, China.
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Kowalska K, Habrowska-Górczyńska DE, Piastowska-Ciesielska AW. Zearalenone as an endocrine disruptor in humans. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2016; 48:141-149. [PMID: 27771507 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2016.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Revised: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 10/16/2016] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA), a fungal mycotoxin, is present in a wide range of human foods. Many animal studies have found ZEA to possess a disruptive effect on the hormonal balance, mainly due to its similarity to naturally-occurring estrogens. With increasing consciousness of the adverse effects of endocrine disruptors on human health, it is becoming more important to monitor ZEA concentrations in food and identify its potential effects on human health. Based on a review of recent studies on animal models and molecular pathways in which ZEA is reported to have an influence on humans, we postulate that ZEA might act as an endocrine disruptor in humans in a similar way to animals. Moreover, its endocrine-disrupting effect might be also a causative factor in carcinogenesis. This review article summarizes the latest knowledge about the influence of ZEA on the human hormonal balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Kowalska
- Department of Comparative Endocrinology, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences and Postgraduate Training, Medical University of Lodz, Zeligowskiego 7/9, Lodz 90-752, Poland
| | - Dominika Ewa Habrowska-Górczyńska
- Department of Comparative Endocrinology, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences and Postgraduate Training, Medical University of Lodz, Zeligowskiego 7/9, Lodz 90-752, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Wanda Piastowska-Ciesielska
- Department of Comparative Endocrinology, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences and Postgraduate Training, Medical University of Lodz, Zeligowskiego 7/9, Lodz 90-752, Poland.
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Abdallah MF, Krska R, Sulyok M. Mycotoxin Contamination in Sugarcane Grass and Juice: First Report on Detection of Multiple Mycotoxins and Exposure Assessment for Aflatoxins B₁ and G₁ in Humans. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:E343. [PMID: 27869706 PMCID: PMC5127139 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8110343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was conducted to investigate the natural co-occurrence of multiple toxic fungal and bacterial metabolites in sugarcane grass and juice intended for human consumption in Upper Egypt. Quantification of the target analytes has been done using the "dilute and shoot" approach followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A total number of 29 and 33 different metabolites were detected in 21 sugarcane grass and 40 juice samples, respectively, with a trend of concentrations being higher in grass than in juice. Among the regulated mycotoxins, only aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and aflatoxin G₁ (AFG₁) were detected. The prevalence of AFB₁ was in 48% of grass samples and in 58% of juice with a maximum concentration of 30.6 μg/kg and 2.10 μg/kg, respectively. AFG₁ was detected in 10% of grass samples (7.76 μg/kg) and 18% of juice samples (34 μg/kg). Dietary exposure was assessed using a juice frequency questionnaire of adult inhabitants in Assiut City. The assessment revealed different levels of exposure to AFB₁ between males and females in winter and summer seasons. The estimated seasonal exposure ranged from 0.20 to 0.40 ng/kg b.w./day in winter and from 0.38 to 0.90 ng/kg b.w./day in summer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed F Abdallah
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt.
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str 20, Tulln A-3430, Austria.
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str 20, Tulln A-3430, Austria.
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str 20, Tulln A-3430, Austria.
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Assunção R, Silva M, Alvito P. Challenges in risk assessment of multiple mycotoxins in food. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2016. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2016.2039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Most fungi are able to produce several mycotoxins simultaneously and, consequently, to contaminate a wide variety of foodstuffs. Therefore, the risk of human co-exposure to multiple mycotoxins is real, raising a growing concern about their potential impact on human health. Besides, government and industry regulations are usually based on individual toxicities, and do not take into account the complex dynamics associated with interactions between co-occurring groups of mycotoxins. The present work assembles, for the first time, the challenges posed by the likelihood of human co-exposure to these toxins and the possibility of interactive effects occurring after absorption, towards knowledge generation to support a more accurate human risk assessment. Regarding hazard assessment, a physiologically-based framework is proposed in order to infer the health effects from exposure to multiple mycotoxins in food, including knowledge on the bioaccessibility, toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of single and combined toxins. The prioritisation of the most relevant mixtures to be tested under experimental conditions that attempt to mimic human exposure and the use of adequate mathematical approaches to evaluate interactions, particularly concerning the combined genotoxicity, were identified as the main challenges for hazard assessment. Regarding exposure assessment, the need of harmonised food consumption data, availability of multianalyte methods for mycotoxin quantification, management of left-censored data, use of probabilistic models and multibiomarker approaches are highlighted, in order to develop a more precise and realistic exposure assessment. To conclude, further studies on hazard and exposure assessment of multiple mycotoxins, using harmonised methodologies, are crucial towards an improvement of data quality and a more reliable and robust risk characterisation, which is central for risk management and, consequently, to prevent mycotoxins-associated adverse effects. A deep understanding of the nature of interactions between multiple mycotoxins will contribute to draw real conclusions on the health impact of human exposure to mycotoxin mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Assunção
- Food and Nutrition Department, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, I.P. (INSA), Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
- IIFA, Universidade de Évora, Palácio do Vimioso, Largo Marquês de Marialva, Apartado 94, 7002-554 Évora, Portugal
| | - M.J. Silva
- Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, I.P. (INSA), Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Center for Toxicogenomics and Human Health (ToxOmics), Nova Medical School, FCM-UNL, Campo Mártires da Pátria 130, 1169-056 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - P. Alvito
- Food and Nutrition Department, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, I.P. (INSA), Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
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66
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Hove M, De Boevre M, Lachat C, Jacxsens L, Nyanga L, De Saeger S. Occurrence and risk assessment of mycotoxins in subsistence farmed maize from Zimbabwe. Food Control 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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67
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Li L, Xia LR, Zhao YF, Wang HY. Development of immune-affinity 96 spots monolith array for multiple mycotoxins detection in food samples. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2016; 1029-1030:72-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2016.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Revised: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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68
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Chen L, Yu M, Wu Q, Peng Z, Wang D, Kuča K, Yao P, Yan H, Nüssler AK, Liu L, Yang W. Gender and geographical variability in the exposure pattern and metabolism of deoxynivalenol in humans: a review. J Appl Toxicol 2016; 37:60-70. [DOI: 10.1002/jat.3359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2016] [Revised: 05/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Liangkai Chen
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Hubei Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene and MOE Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
| | - Miao Yu
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Hubei Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene and MOE Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
| | - Qinghua Wu
- College of Life Science; Yangtze University; Jingzhou Hubei China
- Center for Basic and Applied Research, Faculty of Informatics and Management; University of Hradec Kralove; Czech Republic
| | - Zhao Peng
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Hubei Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene and MOE Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
| | - Di Wang
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Hubei Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene and MOE Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
| | - Kamil Kuča
- Center for Basic and Applied Research, Faculty of Informatics and Management; University of Hradec Kralove; Czech Republic
- Biomedical Research Center; University Hospital Hradec Kralove; Czech Republic
| | - Ping Yao
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Hubei Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene and MOE Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
| | - Hong Yan
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene and MOE Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
| | - Andreas K. Nüssler
- Department of Traumatology; BG Trauma Center, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen; Tübingen Germany
| | - Liegang Liu
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Hubei Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene and MOE Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
| | - Wei Yang
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Hubei Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene and MOE Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health; Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Wuhan China
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Malir F, Ostry V, Pfohl-Leszkowicz A, Malir J, Toman J. Ochratoxin A: 50 Years of Research. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:E191. [PMID: 27384585 PMCID: PMC4963825 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8070191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 05/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Since ochratoxin A (OTA) was discovered, it has been ubiquitous as a natural contaminant of moldy food and feed. The multiple toxic effects of OTA are a real threat for human beings and animal health. For example, OTA can cause porcine nephropathy but can also damage poultries. Humans exposed to OTA can develop (notably by inhalation in the development of acute renal failure within 24 h) a range of chronic disorders such as upper urothelial carcinoma. OTA plays the main role in the pathogenesis of some renal diseases including Balkan endemic nephropathy, kidney tumors occurring in certain endemic regions of the Balkan Peninsula, and chronic interstitial nephropathy occurring in Northern African countries and likely in other parts of the world. OTA leads to DNA adduct formation, which is known for its genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. The present article discusses how renal carcinogenicity and nephrotoxicity cause both oxidative stress and direct genotoxicity. Careful analyses of the data show that OTA carcinogenic effects are due to combined direct and indirect mechanisms (e.g., genotoxicity, oxidative stress, epigenetic factors). Altogether this provides strong evidence that OTA carcinogenicity can also occur in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frantisek Malir
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove 50003, Czech Republic.
| | - Vladimir Ostry
- National Reference Center for Microfungi and Mycotoxins in Food Chains, Center of Health, Nutrition and Food in Brno, National Institute of Public Health in Prague, Brno 61242, Czech Republic.
| | - Annie Pfohl-Leszkowicz
- Department Bioprocess & Microbial Systems, Laboratory Chemical Engineering, INP/ENSA Toulouse, University of Toulouse, UMR 5503 CNRS/INPT/UPS, Auzeville-Tolosane 31320, France.
| | - Jan Malir
- Institute of State and Law, Czech Academy of Sciences, Narodni 18, Prague 11600, Czech Republic.
| | - Jakub Toman
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove 50003, Czech Republic.
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Anti-idiotypic nanobody-alkaline phosphatase fusion proteins: Development of a one-step competitive enzyme immunoassay for fumonisin B 1 detection in cereal. Anal Chim Acta 2016; 924:53-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2016.03.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2016] [Accepted: 03/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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71
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Fromme H, Gareis M, Völkel W, Gottschalk C. Overall internal exposure to mycotoxins and their occurrence in occupational and residential settings – An overview. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2016; 219:143-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2015.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Revised: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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72
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Jóźwik J, Kałużna-Czaplińska J. Current Applications of Chromatographic Methods in the Study of Human Body Fluids for Diagnosing Disorders. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2016; 46:1-14. [DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2014.929487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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73
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Föllmann W, Ali N, Blaszkewicz M, Degen GH. Biomonitoring of Mycotoxins in Urine: Pilot Study in Mill Workers. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2016; 79:1015-1025. [PMID: 27924714 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2016.1219540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Contamination of grains with mycotoxins results in a dietary background exposure of the general population. In occupational settings such as during processing of raw materials as in milling, an additional mycotoxin exposure by inhalation is possible. Biomonitoring is an integrative approach to assess human exposure from various sources and by all routes. To investigate possible workplace exposure to mycotoxins, a pilot study was conducted that compared levels of urinary biomarkers in mill workers to those in a control group with dietary mycotoxin intake alone. Workers (n = 17) from three grain mills in North Rhine Westphalia, Germany, provided spot urines during shift; volunteers (n = 13, IfADo staff) with matched age structure served as control group. The mycotoxins selected for biomarker analysis were citrinin (CIT) deoxynivalenol (DON), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEN). Immunoaffinity columns (CIT, DON, ZEN) or liquid-liquid extraction (OTA) was employed for urine sample cleanup prior to targeted analysis by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) or by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In addition, mycotoxin metabolites that may be formed in the organism were analyzed, including deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1), ochratoxin alpha (OTα), dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT), and α- and β-zearalenol (α- and β-ZEL), as well as phase II metabolites that were hydrolyzed with β-glucuronidase/arylsulfatase prior to sample cleanup. All analyte concentrations were adjusted for creatinine (crea) content in the spot urine samples. Citrinin, DON, OTA, and ZEN were detected in nearly all urine samples from mill workers and controls. Interestingly, DH-CIT was found at higher mean levels than the parent compound (~0.14 and 0.045 µg/g crea, respectively), suggesting an effective metabolism of CIT in humans. Other metabolites DOM-1, OTα, and α- and β-ZEL were detected less frequently in urine. Deoxynivalenol was detected at the highest concentrations (mean ~6 µg/g crea), followed by OTA (mean ~0.08 µg/g crea); ZEN (mean ~0.03 µg/g crea) and its metabolites appeared in urine at lower levels. Mycotoxin biomarker levels in urine from mill workers and controls were not significantly different. From these results it is concluded that biomarker levels measured in urine samples from the two cohorts reflect mainly dietary mycotoxin exposure. An additional occupational (inhalational) exposure of mill workers, if any, is apparently low at the investigated workplaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfram Föllmann
- a Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo) , Dortmund , Germany
| | - Nurshad Ali
- a Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo) , Dortmund , Germany
| | - Meinolf Blaszkewicz
- a Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo) , Dortmund , Germany
| | - Gisela H Degen
- a Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo) , Dortmund , Germany
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74
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Soto JB, Ruiz MJ, Manyes L, Juan-García A. Blood, breast milk and urine: potential biomarkers of exposure and estimated daily intake of ochratoxin A: a review. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2015; 33:313-28. [PMID: 26565760 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2015.1118160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The purposes of this review are to study potential biomarkers of exposure for ochratoxin A (OTA) in biological fluids (blood, urine and breast milk) for the period 2005-14, calculate the estimated daily intake (EDI) of OTA by using database consumption for the Spanish population, and, finally, to correlate OTA levels detected in blood and EDI values calculated from food products. The values of OTA detected in potential biomarkers of exposure for blood, breast milk and urine ranged from 0.15 to 18.0, from 0.002 to 13.1, and from 0.013 to 0.2 ng ml(-1), respectively. The calculated EDI for OTA in plasma ranged from 0.15 to 26 ng kg(-1) bw day(-1), higher than that obtained in urine (0.017-0.4 ng kg(-1) bw day(-1)). All these values are correlated with the range of EDI for OTA calculated from food products: 0.0001-25.2 ng kg(-1) bw day(-1).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - María-José Ruiz
- b Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy , University of Valencia , Valencia , Spain
| | - Lara Manyes
- b Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy , University of Valencia , Valencia , Spain
| | - Ana Juan-García
- b Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy , University of Valencia , Valencia , Spain
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Heyndrickx E, Sioen I, Huybrechts B, Callebaut A, De Henauw S, De Saeger S. Human biomonitoring of multiple mycotoxins in the Belgian population: Results of the BIOMYCO study. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2015; 84:82-9. [PMID: 26233555 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2015.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2015] [Revised: 06/06/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are important food contaminants responsible for health effects such as cancer, nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity or immunosuppression. The assessment of mycotoxin exposure is often based on calculations combining mycotoxin occurrence data in food with population data on food consumption. Because of limitations inherent to that approach, the direct measurement of biomarkers of exposure in biological fluids has been proposed as a suitable alternative to perform an accurate mycotoxin exposure assessment at individual level. For this reason, the BIOMYCO study was designed to assess mycotoxin exposure in Belgian adults and children using urinary biomarkers of exposure. Morning urine was gathered in a representative part of the Belgian population according to a standardised study protocol, whereby 155 children (3-12 years old) and 239 adults (19-65 years old) were selected based on random cluster sampling. These urine samples were analysed for the presence of 33 potential biomarkers with focus on aflatoxins, citrinin (CIT), fumonisins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone and their metabolites using two validated LC-MS/MS methods. Nine out of the 33 analysed mycotoxins were detected whereby deoxynivalenol (DON), OTA, CIT and their metabolites were the most frequently detected. Deoxynivalenol-15-glucuronide was the main urinary DON biomarker and was found in all urine samples in the ng/mL range. Furthermore deoxynivalenol-3-glucuronide was quantified in 91% of the urine samples collected from children and in 77% of the samples collected from adults. Deoxynivalenol was detected in 70% and 37% of the samples of children and adults respectively. For the first time deepoxy-deoxynivalenol-glucuronide was detected in children's urine (17%). In the samples collected by adults, the prevalence was 22%. Whereas all these mycotoxins contaminated the urine samples in the ng/mL range, CIT and OTA were present in much lower concentrations (pg/mL). OTA contaminated 51% and 35% of the samples collected by children and adults respectively. CIT and its metabolite were present in 72% and 6% of children's urine, whereas they contaminated 59% and 12% of adult's urine. Finally, α-zearalenol and β-zearalenol-14-glucuronide were found in respectively one and two samples from adults. The exposure to DON, OTA and CIT was compared between subgroups and urinary mycotoxin concentrations differed significantly among age and gender. Based on the urinary levels, the daily intake of DON and OTA was estimated and evaluated whereby, depending on the used method, 16-69% of the population possibly exceeded the tolerable daily intake for DON and 1% for OTA. The BIOMYCO study is the first study whereby a multi-toxin approach was applied for mycotoxin exposure assessment in adults and children on a large-scale. Moreover, it is the first study that described the exposure to an elaborated set of mycotoxins in the Belgian population. Biomarker analysis showed a clear exposure of a broad segment of the Belgian population to DON, OTA and CIT. The risk assessment based on these data indicates a potential concern for a number of individuals whereby young children need special attention because of the relatively higher food intake per kg body weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Heyndrickx
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Ghent University, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Isabelle Sioen
- Department of Public Health, Ghent University, De Pintelaan 185, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Bart Huybrechts
- Veterinary and Agrochemical Research Centre, Leuvensesteenweg 17, B-3080 Tervuren, Belgium.
| | - Alfons Callebaut
- Veterinary and Agrochemical Research Centre, Leuvensesteenweg 17, B-3080 Tervuren, Belgium.
| | - Stefaan De Henauw
- Department of Public Health, Ghent University, De Pintelaan 185, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Ghent University, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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De Ruyck K, De Boevre M, Huybrechts I, De Saeger S. Dietary mycotoxins, co-exposure, and carcinogenesis in humans: Short review. MUTATION RESEARCH. REVIEWS IN MUTATION RESEARCH 2015; 766:32-41. [PMID: 26596546 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2015.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2015] [Revised: 07/05/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites of fungi, affect global agriculture so prolifically that they are virtually ubiquitous at some concentration in the average human diet. Studies of in vitro and in vivo toxicity are discussed, leading to investigations of co-exposed mycotoxins, as well as carcinogenic effects. Some of the most common and toxicologically significant mycotoxins, such as the aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, patulin, zearalenone, and some ergot alkaloids are outlined. The wide variety of pathogenic mechanisms these compounds employ are shown capable of inducing a complex set of interactions. Of particular note are potential synergisms between mycotoxins with regard to carcinogenic attributable risk, indicating an important field for future study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl De Ruyck
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Inge Huybrechts
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, Dietary Exposure Assessment Group, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France.
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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A simple sample pretreatment method for multi-mycotoxin determination in eggs by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1417:1-7. [PMID: 26385084 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a reliable and fast method using a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) extraction procedure without any clean-up step was developed for simultaneous extraction of 15 mycotoxins, i.e., aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1, aflatoxin G2, aflatoxin M1, aflatoxin M2, deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, de-epoxy-DON, zearalenone, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, α-zearalanol, and β-zearalanol, from eggs. High-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was used to separate and detect all of the analytes. Electrospray ionization at both negative and positive modes and multiple reaction-monitoring mode were applied to detect these analytes. The main factors, such as extraction time, extraction solvent, evaporation temperature, and pH of the solvent, were carefully optimized to improve the extraction efficiency. The coefficients of determination of the calibration curves ranged from 0.9884 to 0.9998. The recoveries of most of the analytes were between 71.3% and 105.4% at three concentration levels, except for AFB1 that showed recovery rates of not more than 67.5% in all concentrations. The repeatability and intra-lab reproducibility of this method were both lower than 15% and 25%, respectively. The limit of quantification ranged from 0.2 μg/kg to 5 μg/kg. The matrix effect was evaluated and reduced by the use of matrix-matched calibration curves. The validated method was applied in a pilot study to analyze mycotoxin contamination in 12 eggs, and trace amounts of deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin G2, zearalenone and β-zearalenol were detected in these samples.
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78
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Arroyo-Manzanares N, Diana Di Mavungu J, Uka V, Malysheva SV, Cary JW, Ehrlich KC, Vanhaecke L, Bhatnagar D, De Saeger S. Use of UHPLC high-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry to investigate the genes involved in the production of secondary metabolites inAspergillus flavus. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2015; 32:1656-73. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2015.1071499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Gallo A, Giuberti G, Frisvad JC, Bertuzzi T, Nielsen KF. Review on Mycotoxin Issues in Ruminants: Occurrence in Forages, Effects of Mycotoxin Ingestion on Health Status and Animal Performance and Practical Strategies to Counteract Their Negative Effects. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:3057-111. [PMID: 26274974 PMCID: PMC4549740 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7083057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 07/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Ruminant diets include cereals, protein feeds, their by-products as well as hay and grass, grass/legume, whole-crop maize, small grain or sorghum silages. Furthermore, ruminants are annually or seasonally fed with grazed forage in many parts of the World. All these forages could be contaminated by several exometabolites of mycotoxigenic fungi that increase and diversify the risk of mycotoxin exposure in ruminants compared to swine and poultry that have less varied diets. Evidence suggests the greatest exposure for ruminants to some regulated mycotoxins (aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins and zearalenone) and to many other secondary metabolites produced by different species of Alternaria spp. (e.g., AAL toxins, alternariols, tenuazonic acid or 4Z-infectopyrone), Aspergillus flavus (e.g., kojic acid, cyclopiazonic acid or β-nitropropionic acid), Aspergillus fuminatus (e.g., gliotoxin, agroclavine, festuclavines or fumagillin), Penicillium roqueforti and P. paneum (e.g., mycophenolic acid, roquefortines, PR toxin or marcfortines) or Monascus ruber (citrinin and monacolins) could be mainly related to forage contamination. This review includes the knowledge of mycotoxin occurrence reported in the last 15 years, with special emphasis on mycotoxins detected in forages, and animal toxicological issues due to their ingestion. Strategies for preventing the problem of mycotoxin feed contamination under farm conditions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Gallo
- Institute of Feed & Food Science and Nutrition, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza 29122, Italy.
| | - Gianluca Giuberti
- Institute of Feed & Food Science and Nutrition, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza 29122, Italy.
| | - Jens C Frisvad
- Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Building 221, Kgs. Lyngby DK-2800, Denmark.
| | - Terenzio Bertuzzi
- Institute of Feed & Food Science and Nutrition, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza 29122, Italy.
| | - Kristian F Nielsen
- Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Building 221, Kgs. Lyngby DK-2800, Denmark.
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80
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Matumba L, Van Poucke C, Njumbe Ediage E, De Saeger S. Keeping mycotoxins away from the food: Does the existence of regulations have any impact in Africa? Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2015; 57:1584-1592. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2014.993021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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81
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Preliminary estimation of deoxynivalenol excretion through a 24 h pilot study. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:705-18. [PMID: 25723325 PMCID: PMC4379519 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7030705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Revised: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A duplicate diet study was designed to explore the occurrence of 15 Fusarium mycotoxins in the 24 h-diet consumed by one volunteer as well as the levels of mycotoxins in his 24 h-collected urine. The employed methodology involved solvent extraction at high ionic strength followed by dispersive solid phase extraction and gas chromatography determination coupled to mass spectrometry in tandem. Satisfactory results in method performance were achieved. The method’s accuracy was in a range of 68%–108%, with intra-day relative standard deviation and inter-day relative standard deviation lower than 12% and 15%, respectively. The limits of quantitation ranged from 0.1 to 8 µg/Kg. The matrix effect was evaluated and matrix-matched calibrations were used for quantitation. Only deoxynivalenol (DON) was quantified in both food and urine samples. A total DON daily intake amounted to 49.2 ± 5.6 µg whereas DON daily excretion of 35.2 ± 4.3 µg was determined. DON daily intake represented 68.3% of the established DON provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI). Valuable preliminary information was obtained as regards DON excretion and needs to be confirmed in large-scale monitoring studies.
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82
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Disposable and reliable electrochemical magnetoimmunosensor for Fumonisins simplified determination in maize-based foodstuffs. Biosens Bioelectron 2015; 64:633-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.09.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Revised: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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83
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Winkler J, Kersten S, Valenta H, Hüther L, Meyer U, Engelhardt U, Dänicke S. Simultaneous determination of zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and their metabolites in bovine urine as biomarkers of exposure. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2015. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2014.1745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A feeding trial with 30 dairy cows which were fed rations with three different concentrations of zearalenone (ZEA) and deoxynivalenol (DON) contaminated maize was carried out to examine the ZEA and DON concentration in urine. German Holstein cows (n=30) were divided into three groups (n=10 in each) which received diets with following toxin concentrations: CON (0.02 mg ZEA and 0.07 mg DON, per kg dry matter (DM)), FUS-50 (0.33 mg ZEA and 2.62 mg DON, per kg DM), FUS-100 (0.66 mg ZEA and 5.24 mg DON, per kg DM). For urine analysis, a reliable, cost-efficient and sensitive method for simultaneous determination of ZEA, DON and their metabolites was developed. The method comprises a solid phase extraction clean-up on Oasis HLB cartridges followed by LC-MS/MS measurement. ZEA, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, DON and de-epoxydeoxynivalenol (DOM) could be detected in the urine samples of the feeding trial. Thereby, DON was almost completely metabolised to DOM (83-98%) independent of the DON exposure. Moreover, conjugated toxins were the major urinary metabolites based on results of the analysis with β-glucuronidase treated and untreated samples. Furthermore, relationships between toxin intake and urinary toxin concentration could be established. In conclusion, increased urine toxin concentrations may hint on toxin exposure through the diets and thus the mycotoxins ZEA and DON and their detected metabolites could be used as biomarkers of exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Winkler
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 50, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - S. Kersten
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 50, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - H. Valenta
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 50, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - L. Hüther
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 50, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - U. Meyer
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 50, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - U. Engelhardt
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Schleinitzstraße 20, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - S. Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 50, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany
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84
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Brezina U, Rempe I, Kersten S, Valenta H, Humpf HU, Dänicke S. Diagnosis of intoxications of piglets fed with Fusarium toxin-contaminated maize by the analysis of mycotoxin residues in serum, liquor and urine with LC-MS/MS. Arch Anim Nutr 2014; 68:425-47. [PMID: 25355041 DOI: 10.1080/1745039x.2014.973227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Concentrations of zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON) and their metabolites α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), β-zearalenol (β-ZEL), zearalanone (ZAN), α-zearalanol (α-ZAL), β-zearalanol (β-ZAL) and de-epoxy-deoxynivalenol (de-DON) in serum, liquor and urine of female piglets fed diets containing 0.01, 0.05, 0.08, 0.17 and 0.29 mg ZEN/kg and 0.03, 0.59, 1.27, 2.01 and 4.52 mg DON/kg during 29 days of treatment were analysed. After 1, 3, 8, 15, 22 and 29 days, four piglets per group were slaughtered. The simultaneous determination of all analytes was carried out using a sensitive and selective in-house-validated liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method after sample preparation with Oasis™ HLB columns. ZEN, α-ZEL, DON and de-DON were detected in serum, whereas in liquor only ZEN, DON and de-DON were found at lower concentrations. In urine, all analytes were detected in considerably higher concentrations as in serum and liquor, whereby α- and β-ZAL could only be detected sporadically. Apart from ZEN in liquor and α- and β-ZAL in urine, the mycotoxin concentrations increased with increasing concentrations of Fusarium toxins in the diet. The toxin intake per kg body weight 3-4 h prior to slaughtering correlated well with the DON and the sum of DON and de-DON concentrations in all three specimens as well as with the ZEN, α-ZEL and the sum of ZEN and metabolite concentrations in urine. Due to the high correlation between the dietary DON concentration and the DON (r = 0.855) and the sum of DON and de-DON (r = 0.870) concentration in serum, the exposure to DON can be evaluated. Moreover, serum levels of these toxins indicative of an exceeding of the guidance value in feed can be established using the corresponding regression equations. Strictly speaking, these relationships are only valid for the experimental conditions of the underlying experiment. For practical application of these relationships, the individual variation needs to be additionally considered. Effects of the duration of toxin exposure within the feeding groups were observed for ZEN, DON and de-DON in all specimens as well as for α-ZEL, β-ZEL and ZAN in urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Brezina
- a Institute of Animal Nutrition , Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health , Braunschweig , Germany
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85
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Gerding J, Cramer B, Humpf H. Determination of mycotoxin exposure in Germany using an LC‐MS/MS multibiomarker approach. Mol Nutr Food Res 2014; 58:2358-68. [DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201400406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Revised: 09/11/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Gerding
- Institute of Food Chemistry Westfälische Wilhelms‐Universität Münster Münster Germany
- NRW Graduate School of Chemistry Münster Germany
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry Westfälische Wilhelms‐Universität Münster Münster Germany
| | - Hans‐Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry Westfälische Wilhelms‐Universität Münster Münster Germany
- NRW Graduate School of Chemistry Münster Germany
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86
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Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Moltó JC, Mañes J, Berrada H. Exposure assessment approach through mycotoxin/creatinine ratio evaluation in urine by GC–MS/MS. Food Chem Toxicol 2014; 72:69-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2014.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2014] [Revised: 07/06/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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87
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Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Moltó JC, Mañes J, Berrada H. Development of a GC–MS/MS strategy to determine 15 mycotoxins and metabolites in human urine. Talanta 2014; 128:125-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.04.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2014] [Revised: 04/22/2014] [Accepted: 04/25/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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88
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Ali N, Blaszkewicz M, Degen GH. Occurrence of the mycotoxin citrinin and its metabolite dihydrocitrinone in urines of German adults. Arch Toxicol 2014; 89:573-8. [PMID: 25224402 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-014-1363-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
As data on food contamination with the mycotoxin citrinin (CIT) are scarce, a recently developed method for biomarker analysis (Blaszkewicz et al. in Arch Toxicol 87:1087-1094, 2013) was applied to investigate CIT exposure of German adults. CIT and its human metabolite dihydrocitrinone (HO-CIT) were determined in urine samples from a group of 50 healthy adults (n = 27 females and n = 23 males). After cleanup by immunoaffinity (CitriTest®) columns, extracts were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. The mycotoxin and its major metabolite HO-CIT were detected in 82 and 84 % of all urine samples, at concentrations ranging from 0.02 (limit of detection, LOD) to 0.08 ng/mL for CIT, and 0.05 (LOD) to 0.51 ng/mL for HO-CIT. Median urine analyte levels in the cohort were 0.03 (CIT) and 0.06 ng/mL (OH-CIT) or adjusted to creatinine 20.2 ng/g crea (CIT) and 60.9 ng/g crea (HO-CIT), respectively. Except for higher urinary CIT levels in males, differences between subgroups were not significant. This first biomarker analysis indicates widespread and variable exposure to CIT in German adults, and conversion of ingested mycotoxin to its less toxic metabolite HO-CIT, which may serve as biomarker of exposure in addition to the parent compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurshad Ali
- Leibniz-Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo) at TU Dortmund, Ardeystrasse 67, 44139, Dortmund, Germany
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89
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Fast and sensitive LC–MS/MS method measuring human mycotoxin exposure using biomarkers in urine. Arch Toxicol 2014; 89:1993-2005. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-014-1358-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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90
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Juan C, Manyes L, Font G, Juan-García A. Evaluation of immunologic effect of Enniatin A and quantitative determination in feces, urine and serum on treated Wistar rats. Toxicon 2014; 87:45-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Revised: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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91
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Brezina U, Valenta H, Rempe I, Kersten S, Humpf HU, Dänicke S. Development of a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method for the simultaneous determination of zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and their metabolites in pig serum. Mycotoxin Res 2014; 30:171-86. [PMID: 24925826 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-014-0200-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2014] [Revised: 05/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive and selective liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method using negative electrospray ionisation (LC-ESI-MS/MS) was developed for the simultaneous determination of zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON) and their metabolites α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, zearalanone, α-zearalanol, β-zearalanol and de-epoxy-deoxynivalenol in pig serum. For method development, different sample preparation columns were tested for their suitability for extraction and clean up. Finally, preparation of serum samples was carried out using Oasis™ HLB solid-phase extraction (SPE) columns. The analyte concentrations were determined by the use of isotopically labelled internal standards (IS). The method was in-house validated for all analytes. Calibration graphs (0.3-480 ng/ml) were prepared and high degree of linearity was achieved (r ≥ 0.99). Results for method precision ranged between 2.7 and 21.5 % for inter-day and between 1.1 and 11.1 % for intra-day. The recoveries were in the range of 82-131 %. Limits of detection and quantification ranged 0.03-0.71 and 0.08-2.37 ng/ml, respectively. The method has been successfully used for quantitative determination of ZEN, DON and their metabolites in pig serum from a feeding trial with practically relevant ZEN and DON concentrations. This method is precise and reproducible and can be used as a multi-biomarker method to assess animal exposure to these mycotoxins and for diagnosis of intoxications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Brezina
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Braunschweig, Germany
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92
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Belhassen H, Jiménez-Díaz I, Ghali R, Ghorbel H, Molina-Molina JM, Olea N, Hedili A. Validation of a UHPLC-MS/MS method for quantification of zearalenone, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, α-zearalanol, β-zearalanol and zearalanone in human urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2014; 962:68-74. [PMID: 24907545 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2014.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Revised: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Humans can be exposed to mycotoxins through the diet. Evaluation of exposure levels to mycotoxins can be performed by direct determination in urine. The present work proposes a sensitive ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method for the determination of zearalenone (ZON) and its five metabolites (α-zearalenol [α-ZOL], β-zearalenol [β-ZOL], α-zearalanol [zeranol, α-ZAL], β-zearalanol [teranol, β-ZAL] and zearalanone [ZAN]) in human urine samples. The method involves the enzymatic hydrolysis of the samples, extraction of the analytes using liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) with ethyl acetate/formic acid (99:1 v/v) and a cleanup step using hexane, prior to their quantification by UHPLC-MS/MS, using an electrospray ionization (ESI) interface in the negative mode. Zearalenone-d6 (ZON-d6) was used as surrogate. The limits of detection and the limits of quantification ranged from 0.03 to 0.3ngmL(-1) and from 0.1 to 1.0ngmL(-1), respectively. The method was validated using matrix-matched calibration and a spike recovery assay. Recovery rates for spiked samples ranged from 96% to 104%, with relative standard deviations lower than 8.5%. This method was satisfactorily applied to 42 urine samples from Tunisian women for the determination of zearalenone and its five metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Belhassen
- Center of Urgent Medical Assistance of Tunis, Laboratory of Toxicology and Environment (LR12SP07), Tunis, Tunisia
| | - I Jiménez-Díaz
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Granada, E-18012, Spain; Laboratory of Medical Investigations, San Cecilio University Hospital, University of Granada, Granada, E-18071, Spain.
| | - R Ghali
- Center of Urgent Medical Assistance of Tunis, Laboratory of Toxicology and Environment (LR12SP07), Tunis, Tunisia
| | - H Ghorbel
- Center of Urgent Medical Assistance of Tunis, Laboratory of Toxicology and Environment (LR12SP07), Tunis, Tunisia
| | - J M Molina-Molina
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Granada, E-18012, Spain; Laboratory of Medical Investigations, San Cecilio University Hospital, University of Granada, Granada, E-18071, Spain; CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Granada, E-18071, Spain
| | - N Olea
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Granada, E-18012, Spain; Laboratory of Medical Investigations, San Cecilio University Hospital, University of Granada, Granada, E-18071, Spain; CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Granada, E-18071, Spain
| | - A Hedili
- Center of Urgent Medical Assistance of Tunis, Laboratory of Toxicology and Environment (LR12SP07), Tunis, Tunisia
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93
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Heyndrickx E, Sioen I, Bellemans M, De Maeyer M, Callebaut A, De Henauw S, De Saeger S. Assessment of mycotoxin exposure in the Belgian population using biomarkers: aim, design and methods of the BIOMYCO study. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2014; 31:924-31. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2014.900192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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94
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Rubert J, León N, Sáez C, Martins CP, Godula M, Yusà V, Mañes J, Soriano JM, Soler C. Evaluation of mycotoxins and their metabolites in human breast milk using liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2014; 820:39-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2013] [Revised: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 02/06/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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95
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Berthiller F, Burdaspal P, Crews C, Iha M, Krska R, Lattanzio V, MacDonald S, Malone R, Maragos C, Solfrizzo M, Stroka J, Whitaker T. Developments in mycotoxin analysis: an update for 2012-2013. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2014. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2013.1637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This review highlights developments in mycotoxin analysis and sampling over a period between mid-2012 and mid-2013. It covers the major mycotoxins: aflatoxins, Alternaria toxins, ergot alkaloids, fumonisins, ochratoxins, patulin, trichothecenes and zearalenone. A wide range of analytical methods for mycotoxin determination in food and feed were developed last year, in particular immunochemical methods and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based methods. After a section on sampling and sample preparation, due to the rapid spread and developments in the field of LC-MS/MS multimycotoxin methods, a separate section has been devoted to this area of research. It is followed by a section on mycotoxins in botanicals and spices, before continuing with the format of previous reviews in this series with dedicated sections on method developments for the individual mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- F. Berthiller
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - P.A. Burdaspal
- National Centre for Food, Spanish Food Safety and Nutrition Agency, Carretera de Majadahonda a Pozuelo km 5, 228220 Majadahonda, Spain
| | - C. Crews
- The Food and Environment Research Agency, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, United Kingdom
| | - M.H. Iha
- Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Laboratrio I de Ribeiro Preto, Av Dr Arnaldo 355, CEP 14085-410, Ribeiro Preto SP, Brazil
| | - R. Krska
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - V.M.T. Lattanzio
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Via Amendola 122/o, Bari 700126, Italy
| | - S. MacDonald
- The Food and Environment Research Agency, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, United Kingdom
| | - R.J. Malone
- Trilogy Analytical Laboratory, 870 Vossbrink Drive, Washington, MO 63090, USA
| | - C. Maragos
- USDA, ARS National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, 1815 N. University St., Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - M. Solfrizzo
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Via Amendola 122/o, Bari 700126, Italy
| | - J. Stroka
- Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM), European Commission Joint Research Centre, Retieseweg 111, 2440 Geel, Belgium
| | - T.B. Whitaker
- Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department, N.C. State University, P.O. Box 7625, Raleigh, NC 27695-7625, USA
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96
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Hu W, Li X, He G, Zhang Z, Zheng X, Li P, Li CM. Sensitive competitive immunoassay of multiple mycotoxins with non-fouling antigen microarray. Biosens Bioelectron 2013; 50:338-44. [PMID: 23880109 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.06.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2013] [Revised: 06/09/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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97
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Wallin S, Hardie L, Kotova N, Lemming EW, Nälsén C, Ridefelt P, Turner P, White K, Olsen M. Biomonitoring study of deoxynivalenol exposure and association with typical cereal consumption in Swedish adults. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2013. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2013.1581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin of the trichothecene family commonly found in cereals infested with different Fusarium species. DON acts primarily on the gastrointestinal and immune system and is suspected to be an underlying agent causing several outbreaks of gastrointestinal disorder among humans, which prompts studies of human exposure and estimations of intake among populations. However, assessing human exposure to mycotoxins is associated with several difficulties. Therefore, a study was undertaken among adults (18-80 years) in a subgroup of Riksmaten, the Swedish national survey investigating dietary habits, examining both the association between urinary DON concentration and dietary intake of cereals, and estimations of daily DON intake. The results indicate that exposure to DON is common among Swedish adults, as this mycotoxin was detected in 292 out of 326 urine samples (90%) at levels ranging from non-detectable to 65.8 ng DON/ml urine with a median level of 2.9 ng/ml. Furthermore, urinary DON (ng/mg creatinine) was associated with intake (g/day) of total cereal grain as well as whole grain. Urinary DON was also significantly associated with breakfast cereals and porridge consumption (P<0.05). Estimated DON intake in this study ranged between 2.5 and 5,443 ng/kg body weight (bw). 1% of the individuals had estimated intakes above the group provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI; 1 μg/kg), whereas the mean and median intakes of 159 and 84 ng DON/kg bw, respectively, were considerably below the PMTDI. Along with the toxicological profile of DON, no serious health implications are to be expected for the majority of Swedish adults, although a potential health concern remains for some high cereal consumers. In conclusion, biomonitoring could prove to be a valuable tool for observing DON exposure among populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Wallin
- National Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, 75126 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - L.J. Hardie
- Division of Epidemiology, Leeds Institute for Genetics, Health and Therapeutics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - N. Kotova
- National Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, 75126 Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - C. Nälsén
- National Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, 75126 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - P. Ridefelt
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section Clinical Chemistry, Uppsala University, University Hospital, 75185 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - P.C. Turner
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - K.L.M. White
- Division of Epidemiology, Leeds Institute for Genetics, Health and Therapeutics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - M. Olsen
- National Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, 75126 Uppsala, Sweden
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98
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Solfrizzo M, Gambacorta L, Warth B, White K, Srey C, Sulyok M, Krska R, Gong Y. Comparison of single and multi-analyte methods based on LC-MS/MS for mycotoxin biomarker determination in human urine. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2013. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2013.1575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The performances of four LC-MS/MS methodologies for determination of up to eight mycotoxin biomarkers in human urines were compared by involving three laboratories that analysed common urine samples spiked at two levels of each biomarker. Each laboratory received a calibration solution, spiked urines and the corresponding unspiked urine. The two spiking levels for each biomarker were chosen by considering the levels naturally occurring in human urines and the limits of quantification of the LC-MS/MS methodologies used by the participating laboratories. The results of each laboratory were evaluated for their z-score values. The percentage of satisfactory z-scores (| z | < 2) were: 100% for deoxynivalenol, de-epoxy deoxynivalenol, aflatoxin M1, β-zearalenol and zearalenone, 87% for α-zearalenol, 50% for ochratoxin A and 42% for fumonisin B1. Good method performances were obtained for most biomarkers at the levels tested in this study, as demonstrated by the overall percentage of satisfactory z-scores for all analytes (87%). Unsatisfactory/questionable z-scores (| z | ≯2) were obtained for fumonisin B1 (7/12 results), ochratoxin A (4/8 results) and ?-zearalenol (1/8 results). The percentage of satisfactory z-scores for fumonisin B1 and ochratoxin A increased from 42 to 83% for fumonisin B1 and from 50 to 62% for ochratoxin A when laboratories 1 and 2 used own calibrants. Factors that could explain the different results obtained for fumonisin B1 and ochratoxin A with provided and own calibration solutions could not be identified in this study and should be carefully investigated in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Solfrizzo
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council of Italy, Via Amendola 122/o, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - L. Gambacorta
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council of Italy, Via Amendola 122/o, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - B. Warth
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - K. White
- Division of Epidemiology, Leeds Institute of Genetics, Health and Therapeutics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - C. Srey
- Division of Epidemiology, Leeds Institute of Genetics, Health and Therapeutics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - M. Sulyok
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - R. Krska
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Y.Y. Gong
- Division of Epidemiology, Leeds Institute of Genetics, Health and Therapeutics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University Belfast, 18-30 Malone Road, Belfast BT9 5BN, United Kingdom
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99
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Dänicke S, Brezina U. Kinetics and metabolism of the Fusarium toxin deoxynivalenol in farm animals: Consequences for diagnosis of exposure and intoxication and carry over. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 60:58-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Revised: 07/07/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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100
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Shephard GS, Burger HM, Gambacorta L, Gong YY, Krska R, Rheeder JP, Solfrizzo M, Srey C, Sulyok M, Visconti A, Warth B, van der Westhuizen L. Multiple mycotoxin exposure determined by urinary biomarkers in rural subsistence farmers in the former Transkei, South Africa. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 62:217-25. [PMID: 23985452 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.08.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2013] [Revised: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Subsistence farmers are exposed to a range of mycotoxins. This study applied novel urinary multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS methods to determine multiple exposure biomarkers in the high oesophageal cancer region, Transkei, South Africa. Fifty-three female participants donated part of their maize-based evening meal and first void morning urine, which was analysed both with sample clean-up (single and multi-biomarker) and by a 'dilute-and-shoot' multi-biomarker method. Results were corrected for recovery with LOD for not detected. A single biomarker method detected fumonisin B1 (FB1) (87% incidence; mean±standard deviation 0.342±0.466 ng/mg creatinine) and deoxynivalenol (100%; mean 20.4±49.4 ng/mg creatinine) after hydrolysis with β-glucuronidase. The multi-biomarker 'dilute-and-shoot' method indicated deoxynivalenol-15-glucuronide was predominantly present. A multi-biomarker method with β-glucuronidase and immunoaffinity clean-up determined zearalenone (100%; 0.529±1.60 ng/mg creatinine), FB1 (96%; 1.52±2.17 ng/mg creatinine), α-zearalenol (92%; 0.614±1.91 ng/mg creatinine), deoxynivalenol (87%; 11.3±27.1 ng/mg creatinine), β-zearalenol (75%; 0.702±2.95 ng/mg creatinine) and ochratoxin A (98%; 0.041±0.086 ng/mg creatinine). These demonstrate the value of multi-biomarker methods in measuring exposures in populations exposed to multiple mycotoxins. This is the first finding of urinary deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, their conjugates, ochratoxin A and zearalenols in Transkei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon S Shephard
- PROMEC Unit, Medical Research Council, PO Box 19070, Tygerberg 7505, South Africa.
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