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Sun N, Li E, Wang Z, Zhao J, Wang S, He J, Bai Y, Li H. Sodium tanshinone IIA sulfonate inhibits porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus via suppressing N gene expression and blocking virus-induced apoptosis. Antivir Ther 2013; 19:89-95. [PMID: 24158620 DOI: 10.3851/imp2694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) causes significant economic loss in the swine industry. Currently, there is no effective way to prevent PRRSV infection. Sodium tanshinone IIA sulfonate (STS), a natural compound derived from Salvia miltiorrhiza, was shown to possess anti-PRRSV activity, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of STS on PRRSV-induced cell apoptosis and PRRSV N protein expression pattern. METHODS Relative quantification real-time PCR was used to evaluate the inhibition of STS on N gene expression. Simultaneously indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and western blot were used to assess the effect on N protein expression. Apoptosis was analysed using fluorescence microscope with an annexin V-EGFP kit. The effect of STS on caspase-3 cleaving was assessed by western blot. RESULTS Our results showed that STS could inhibit viral N gene expression at both the messenger RNA stage and at the protein level in PRRSV-infected cells in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, STS could also rescue PRRSV-induced apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that STS may serve as a base compound for developing more effective drugs against PRRSV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Sun
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, PR China
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52
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Zou H, Zarlenga DS, Sestak K, Suo S, Ren X. Transmissible gastroenteritis virus: identification of M protein-binding peptide ligands with antiviral and diagnostic potential. Antiviral Res 2013; 99:383-90. [PMID: 23830854 PMCID: PMC7114267 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2013] [Revised: 05/18/2013] [Accepted: 06/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The membrane (M) protein is one of the major structural proteins of coronavirus particles. In this study, the M protein of transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) was used to biopan a 12-mer phage display random peptide library. Three phages expressing TGEV-M-binding peptides were identified and characterized in more depth. A phage-based immunosorbent assay (phage-ELISA) capable of differentiating TGEV from other coronaviruses was developed using one phage, phTGEV-M7, as antigen. When the phage-ELISA was compared to conventional antibody-based ELISA for detecting infections, phage-ELISA exhibited greater sensitivity. A chemically synthesized, TGEV-M7 peptide (pepTGEV-M7; HALTPIKYIPPG) was evaluated for antiviral activity. Plaque-reduction assays revealed that pepTGEV-M7 was able to prevent TGEV infection in vitro (p<0.01) following pretreatment of the virus with the peptide. Indirect immunofluorescence and real-time RT-PCR confirmed the inhibitory effects of the peptide. These results indicate that pepTGEV-M7 might be utilized for virus-specific diagnostics and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zou
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, China
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53
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Sun Y, Song M, Niu L, Bai X, Sun N, Zhao X, Jiang J, He J, Li H. Antiviral effects of the constituents derived from Chinese herb medicines on infectious bursal disease virus. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2013; 51:1137-1143. [PMID: 23607905 DOI: 10.3109/13880209.2013.781197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT The prevalence of infectious bursal disease has brought about enormous financial losses to the world poultry industry. Chinese herb medicines can provide valuable materials for discovery and development of new drugs. OBJECTIVE To screen constituents derived from Chinese herb medicines for their antiviral activity against infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) in vitro. MATERIALS AND METHODS Twenty constituents derived from Chinese herb medicines and B87 strain of IBDV were used. The 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC₅₀) and 50% effective concentration (EC₅₀) were determined by visualization of cytopathologic effect (CPE) and 3-(4,5-dimethyithiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazoliumbromide (MTT) test on chicken embryo fibroblast. Selectivity index (SI) and inhibition ratio (%I) were calculated from the data obtained from the MTT test. RESULTS Antiviral assays showed dipotassium glycyrrhizinate and ligustrazine hydrochloride among the 20 constituents tested exhibited significant inhibitory activity against IBDV in a dose-dependent manner. EC₅₀ of dipotassium glycyrrhizinate and ligustrazine hydrochloride were 663.2 ± 268.4 and 92.52 ± 21.13 µg/mL, and SI were >4.52 and >21.62, respectively. The time-of-addition and virucidal assay indicated that anti-IBDV activity of the two constituents could be due to their inhibiting virus replication and/or inactivating virus directly. The inhibition of virus attachment was not observed in the adsorption inhibition assay. Dipotassium glycyrrhizinate and ligustrazine hydrochloride exhibited more than 70% and 80% inhibition of IBDV, respectively, at the maximum safe concentration. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION We believe that dipotassium glycyrrhizinate and ligustrazine hydrochloride can be used to develop a new anti-IBDV compound, and it is worth applying the constituents in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaogui Sun
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, P.R. China
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54
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Wang ZW, Sun N, Wu CH, Jiang JB, Bai YS, Li HQ. In vitro antiviral activity and underlying molecular mechanisms of dipotassium glycyrrhetate against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Antivir Ther 2013; 18:997-1004. [PMID: 23872789 DOI: 10.3851/imp2662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) has caused large economic losses in the swine industry. Currently, there is no effective way to prevent PRRSV infection. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effect of dipotassium glycyrrhetate (DG), a derivative of glycyrrhetinic acid, on PRRSV infection ability. METHODS The cytotoxicity of DG was measured by MTT assay, and the effects of DG on PRRSV N gene/protein were investigated using real-time PCR, western blot and immunofluorescence assay. In addition, the effect of DG on cell apoptosis was analysed by fluorescence staining. RESULTS Our results indicated that DG could effectively inhibit virus replication and N gene expression in MARC-145 cells infected with PRRSV. When the infected cells received DG, the numbers of apoptotic cells were decreased, and the cleaved caspase-3 contents were decreased dramatically. CONCLUSIONS Our study demonstrates that DG could effectively inhibit the PRRS virus via multiple pathways including inhibition of virus replication and N gene expression and reduction of apoptotic cells. DG can serve as a potential chemical for PRRSV prevention and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Wei Wang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, PR China
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55
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Matsumoto Y, Matsuura T, Aoyagi H, Matsuda M, Hmwe SS, Date T, Watanabe N, Watashi K, Suzuki R, Ichinose S, Wake K, Suzuki T, Miyamura T, Wakita T, Aizaki H. Antiviral activity of glycyrrhizin against hepatitis C virus in vitro. PLoS One 2013; 8:e68992. [PMID: 23874843 PMCID: PMC3715454 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycyrrhizin (GL) has been used in Japan to treat patients with chronic viral hepatitis, as an anti-inflammatory drug to reduce serum alanine aminotransferase levels. GL is also known to exhibit various biological activities, including anti-viral effects, but the anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV) effect of GL remains to be clarified. In this study, we demonstrated that GL treatment of HCV-infected Huh7 cells caused a reduction of infectious HCV production using cell culture-produced HCV (HCVcc). To determine the target step in the HCV lifecycle of GL, we used HCV pseudoparticles (HCVpp), replicon, and HCVcc systems. Significant suppressions of viral entry and replication steps were not observed. Interestingly, extracellular infectivity was decreased, and intracellular infectivity was increased. By immunofluorescence and electron microscopic analysis of GL treated cells, HCV core antigens and electron-dense particles had accumulated on endoplasmic reticulum attached to lipid droplet (LD), respectively, which is thought to act as platforms for HCV assembly. Furthermore, the amount of HCV core antigen in LD fraction increased. Taken together, these results suggest that GL inhibits release of infectious HCV particles. GL is known to have an inhibitory effect on phospholipase A2 (PLA2). We found that group 1B PLA2 (PLA2G1B) inhibitor also decreased HCV release, suggesting that suppression of virus release by GL treatment may be due to its inhibitory effect on PLA2G1B. Finally, we demonstrated that combination treatment with GL augmented IFN-induced reduction of virus in the HCVcc system. GL is identified as a novel anti-HCV agent that targets infectious virus particle release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihiro Matsumoto
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomokazu Matsuura
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, the Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Haruyo Aoyagi
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mami Matsuda
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Su Su Hmwe
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomoko Date
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Watanabe
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koichi Watashi
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Suzuki
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shizuko Ichinose
- Research Center for Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kenjiro Wake
- Research Center for Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- Liver Research Unit, Minophagen Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tetsuro Suzuki
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Tatsuo Miyamura
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takaji Wakita
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideki Aizaki
- Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail:
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56
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Meng F, Ren Y, Suo S, Sun X, Li X, Li P, Yang W, Li G, Li L, Schwegmann-Wessels C, Herrler G, Ren X. Evaluation on the efficacy and immunogenicity of recombinant DNA plasmids expressing spike genes from porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus and porcine epidemic diarrhea virus. PLoS One 2013; 8:e57468. [PMID: 23526943 PMCID: PMC3602451 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2012] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) and porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PDEV) can cause severe diarrhea in pigs. Development of effective vaccines against TGEV and PEDV is one of important prevention measures. The spike (S) protein is the surface glycoprotein of TGEV and PEDV, which can induce specific neutralization antibodies and is a candidate antigen for vaccination attempts. In this study, the open reading frames of the TGEV S1 protein and in addition of the S or S1 proteins of PEDV were inserted into the eukaryotic expression vector, pIRES, resulting in recombinant plasmids, pIRES-(TGEV-S1-PEDV-S1) and pIRES-(TGEV-S1-PEDV-S). Subsequently, 6-8 weeks old Kunming mice were inoculated with both DNA plasmids. Lymphocyte proliferation assay, virus neutralization assay, IFN-γ assay and CTL activity assay were performed. TGEV/PEDV specific antibody responses as well as kinetic changes of T lymphocyte subgroups of the immunized mice were analyzed. The results showed that the recombinant DNA plasmids increased the proliferation of T lymphocytes and the number of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocyte subgroups. In addition, the DNA vaccines induced a high level of IFN-γ in the immunized mice. The specific CTL activity in the pIRES-(TGEV-S1-PEDV-S) group became significant at 42 days post-immunization. At 35 days post-immunization, the recombinant DNA plasmids bearing full-length S genes of TGEV and PEDV stimulated higher levels of specific antibodies and neutralizing antibodies in immunized mice.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Viral/blood
- Coronavirus Infections/immunology
- Coronavirus Infections/prevention & control
- Coronavirus Infections/veterinary
- DNA, Recombinant/genetics
- DNA, Recombinant/immunology
- DNA, Viral/genetics
- DNA, Viral/immunology
- Gastroenteritis, Transmissible, of Swine/immunology
- Gastroenteritis, Transmissible, of Swine/prevention & control
- Genes, Viral
- Interferon-gamma/blood
- Interleukin-4/blood
- Mice
- Plasmids/genetics
- Plasmids/immunology
- Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus/genetics
- Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus/immunology
- Swine
- Swine Diseases/immunology
- Swine Diseases/prevention & control
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Transmissible gastroenteritis virus/genetics
- Transmissible gastroenteritis virus/immunology
- Vaccines, DNA/genetics
- Vaccines, DNA/immunology
- Viral Proteins/genetics
- Viral Proteins/immunology
- Viral Vaccines/genetics
- Viral Vaccines/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Fandan Meng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Yudong Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Siqingaowa Suo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Xuejiao Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Xunliang Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Pengchong Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Wei Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Guangxing Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Lu Li
- College of Life Sciences, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | | | - Georg Herrler
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
| | - Xiaofeng Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
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57
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Hsu MJ, Hung SL. Antiherpetic potential of 6-bromoindirubin-3'-acetoxime (BIO-acetoxime) in human oral epithelial cells. Arch Virol 2013; 158:1287-96. [PMID: 23392633 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-013-1629-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2012] [Accepted: 12/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) functions in the regulation of glycogen metabolism, in the cell cycle, and in immune responses and is targeted by some viruses to favor the viral life cycle. Inhibition of GSK-3 by 6-bromoindirubin-3'-acetoxime (BIO-acetoxime), a synthetic derivative of a compound from the Mediterranean mollusk Hexaplex trunculus, protects cells from varicella infection. In this study, we examined the effects of BIO-acetoxime against herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) infection in human oral epithelial cells, which represent a natural target cell type. The results revealed that BIO-acetoxime relieves HSV-1-induced cytopathic effects and apoptosis. We also found that BIO-acetoxime reduced viral yields and the expression of different classes of viral proteins. Furthermore, addition of BIO-acetoxime before, simultaneously with or after HSV-1 infection significantly reduced viral yields. Collectively, BIO-acetoxime may suppress viral gene expression and protect oral epithelial cells from HSV-1 infection. These results suggest the possible involvement of GSK-3 in HSV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Ju Hsu
- Institute of Oral Biology, National Yang-Ming University, No. 155, Sec. 2, Li-Nong St., Pei-Tou, Taipei 11221, Taiwan
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58
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Zhao Q, Zhu J, Zhu W, Li X, Tao Y, Lv X, Wang X, Yin J, He C, Ren X. A Monoclonal Antibody Against Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus Generated via Immunization of a DNA Plasmid Bearing TGEV S1 Gene. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2013; 32:50-4. [DOI: 10.1089/mab.2012.0067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Jiayi Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Weijuan Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Xunliang Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Ye Tao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Xiaonan Lv
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Xue Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Jiechao Yin
- College of Life Sciences, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Cheng He
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaofeng Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
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59
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Gao M, Cui J, Ren Y, Suo S, Li G, Sun X, Su D, Opriessnig T, Ren X. Development and evaluation of a novel reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay for detection of type II porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. J Virol Methods 2012; 185:18-23. [PMID: 22659065 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2012.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2011] [Revised: 05/02/2012] [Accepted: 05/21/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to develop a reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay for detection of type II porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). Based on sequence alignment, four primers were designed amplifying the M gene of type II PRRSV and were subsequently utilized in an RT-LAMP assay. The RT-LAMP product had a ladder-like pattern of bands and the optimal reaction condition for this assay was determined to be 40 min at 63°C. Comparative analysis indicated that the RT-LAMP method was more sensitive than a conventional RT-PCR assay and comparable to a real-time PCR assay. In addition, the RT-LAMP assay was capable of detecting type II PRRSV in field samples and differentiating type II PRRSV from seven other porcine viruses which are all associated frequently with similar clinical symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Gao
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, China
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60
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Suo S, Ren Y, Li G, Zarlenga D, Bu RE, Su D, Li X, Li P, Meng F, Wang C, Ren X. Immune responses induced by DNA vaccines bearing Spike gene of PEDV combined with porcine IL-18. Virus Res 2012; 167:259-66. [PMID: 22643071 PMCID: PMC7114480 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2012] [Revised: 05/02/2012] [Accepted: 05/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is the causative agent of porcine epidemic diarrhea, a highly contagious enteric disease of swine. The Spike (S) protein is one of the main structural proteins of PEDV capable of inducing neutralizing antibodies in vivo. Herein, we generated three distinct DNA constructs in the eukaryotic expression plasmid pVAX1; one encoding the S protein [pVAX1-(PEDV-S)], the second encoding the N-terminal fragment (S1) [pVAX1-(PEDV-S1)] containing potent antigenic sites, and the third expressing the porcine interleukin-18 (pIL-18) [pVAX1-(IL-18)]. Immunofluorescence assays in BHK-21 cells demonstrated successful protein expression from all 3 constructs. Kunming mice were injected separately with each of these constructs or with a pVAX1-(PEDV-S1)/pVAX1-(IL-18) combination, an attenuated PEDV vaccine, or vector only control. Animals were examined for T lymphocyte proliferation, anti-PEDV antibodies, IFN-γ and IL-4 protein levels, and cytotoxic T cell function in mouse peripheral blood and spleen. In all cases, results showed that pVAX1-(PEDV-S) and the combination of pVAX1-(PEDV-S1) with pVAX1-(IL-18) induced the strongest responses; however, pIL-18 had no adjuvant effects when given in combination with pVAX1-(PEDV-S1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Siqingaowa Suo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, China
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61
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Li G, Shi N, Suo S, Cui J, Zarlenga D, Ren X. Vaccination of mice with ORF5 plasmid DNA of PRRSV; enhanced effects by co-immunizing with porcine IL-15. Immunol Invest 2011; 41:231-48. [PMID: 22017604 DOI: 10.3109/08820139.2011.614306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The open reading frame (ORF) 5 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) encodes a major envelope glycoprotein designated GP5. The GP5 protein is a candidate for vaccinating against PRRSV infection. In this study, recombinant plasmids bearing the PRRSV GP5 gene (pVAX-GP5) or the porcine interleukin 15 gene (pVAX-IL15) were generated. Mice were vaccinated with these gene constructs singularly or in combination, and subsequent humoral and cellular immune responses were evaluated. Proliferation assays showed that the number of T lymphocytes in the peripheral blood and spleens of treated mice were elevated by pVAX-GP5 and significantly enhanced by combination therapy involving pVAX-IL15. Flow cytometry data showed that the numbers of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were also higher in treated mice. Both pVAX-GP5 treatment alone and in combination with pVAX-IL15 resulted in elevated antibody levels as demonstrated by indirect ELISA. The pVAX-IL15 gene construct served as a molecular adjuvant in conjunction with the pVAX-GP5 to enhance the immune responses where intermediate doses of pVAX-IL15 were most effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangxing Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
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62
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Yin J, Li G, Li J, Yang Q, Ren X. In vitro and in vivo effects of Houttuynia cordata on infectious bronchitis virus. Avian Pathol 2011; 40:491-8. [PMID: 21848486 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2011.605107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), a coronavirus, causes infectious bronchitis leading to enormous economic loss in the poultry industry worldwide. Houttuynia cordata (Saururaceae) (HC) is a traditional Chinese medicine used in China. In the present study, the effect of HC on cell infection by IBV was determined using plaque assay and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. The inhibitory effect of HC on IBV infection in ovo and in vivo was analysed using specific pathogen free (SPF) chicken embryos and chickens. Moreover, the effect of HC on cell apoptosis induced by IBV was investigated. Results showed that HC had more than 90% inhibition rate against IBV infection in Vero cells and chicken embryo kidney cells, and decreased more than 90% apoptotic cells caused by IBV. HC fully protected the SPF embryos, and had more than 50% protection rate in SPF chickens, against IBV challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiechao Yin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, 150030, Harbin, China
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63
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Meng F, Zhao Z, Li G, Suo S, Shi N, Yin J, Zarlenga D, Ren X. Bacterial expression of antigenic sites A and D in the spike protein of transmissible gastroenteritis virus and evaluation of their inhibitory effects on viral infection. Virus Genes 2011; 43:335-41. [PMID: 21701858 PMCID: PMC7089297 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-011-0637-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2010] [Accepted: 06/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The spike (S) protein is a key structural protein of coronaviruses including, the porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV). The S protein is a type I membrane glycoprotein located in the viral envelope and is responsible for mediating the binding of viral particles to specific cell receptors and therefore specific cell types. It is also an important immune target for the host in neutralizing the virus. Four antigenic sites A, B, C, and D that reside near the N-terminal domain have been defined in the S protein. Of these, the region encoding antigenic sites A and to a lesser extent D, herein defined as S-AD, are most critical in eliciting host neutralizing antibodies. Herein, we enzymatically amplified, cloned, and expressed the S-AD fragment from TGEV in the prokaryotic expression vector, pET-30a. Maximum protein expression was achieved at 30°C over a 5-h period post-induction. Rabbit polyclonal antiserum was generated using recombinant S-AD (rS-AD) protein. In contrast to prior studies showing no activity with bacterially produced S protein, results indicated that polyclonal serum recognized TGEV-infected cells and reduced infection by 100%. Furthermore, the truncated rS-AD peptide was able to bind to the surface of cells from swine testes in a competitive manner and completely inhibit viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fandan Meng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
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64
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Ren X, Li G, Sui X. Antiviral activities of phosphonoformate sodium to pseudorabies herpesvirus infection in vitro. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2011; 49:608-613. [PMID: 21554003 DOI: 10.3109/13880209.2010.538416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Phosphonoformate sodium (PFS) has been used as an anti-herpesvirus drug; nevertheless, studies of the use of PFS for treatment of pseudorabies herpesvirus (PrV) infection in the veterinary setting have not been widely reported. OBJECTIVE The present study aimed to analyze the inhibitory effect of PFS on cell infection and apoptosis induced by PrV. MATERIALS AND METHODS The infectivity of PrV was determined by plaque assays when PFS was applied to the virus, to the virus-infected cells, and to the cells prior to infection. PCR amplifying DNA polymerase, gE, gG, and gD genes of PrV was performed. PrV-induced cell apoptosis was analyzed by immunofluorescence and flow cytometry. RESULTS PFS inhibits cell infection by PrV. Addition of the drug decreased the number of apoptotic cells. Amplification of DNA polymerase and other viral structural genes detected in this study by PCR was reduced, because there were fewer viral DNA copies being made in the presence of the drug. The drug has an inhibitory effect on cell apoptosis induced by PrV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION PFS has inhibitory effects on cell infection by PrV, which may be used as an anti-PrV agent or combined with other anti-PrV agents. PrV-induced cell apoptotic cells and viral DNA copies decreased in the presence of the PFS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ren
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China. or
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Ren X, Meng F, Yin J, Li G, Li X, Wang C, Herrler G. Action mechanisms of lithium chloride on cell infection by transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus. PLoS One 2011; 6:e18669. [PMID: 21573100 PMCID: PMC3089605 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2010] [Accepted: 03/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) is a porcine coronavirus. Lithium chloride (LiCl) has been found to be effective against several DNA viruses, such as Herpes simplex virus and vaccinia virus. Recently, we and others have reported the inhibitory effect of LiCl on avian infectious bronchitis coronavirus (IBV) infection, an RNA virus. In the current study, the action mechanism of LiCl on cell infection by TGEV was investigated. Plaque assays and 3-(4,5)-dimethylthiahiazo(-z-y1)-3,5-di-phenyl tetrazoliumbromide (MTT) assays showed that the cell infection by TGEV was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner, when LiCl was added to virus-infected cells; the cell infection was not affected when either cells or viruses were pretreated with the drug. The inhibition of TGEV infection in vitro by LiCl was observed at different virus doses and with different cell lines. The inhibitory effect of LiCl against TGEV infection and transcription was confirmed by RT-PCR and real-time PCR targeting viral S and 3CL-protease genes. The time-of-addition effect of the drug on TGEV infection indicated that LiCl acted on the initial and late stage of TGEV infection. The production of virus was not detected at 36 h post-infection due to the drug treatment. Moreover, immunofluorescence (IF) and flow cytometry analyses based on staining of Annexin V and propidium iodide staining of nuclei indicated that early and late cell apoptosis induced by TGEV was inhibited efficiently. The ability of LiCl to inhibit apoptosis was investigated by IF analysis of caspase-3 expression. Our data indicate that LiCl inhibits TGEV infection by exerting an anti-apoptotic effect. The inhibitory effect of LiCl was also observed with porcine epidemic diarrhea coronavirus. Together with other reports concerning the inhibitory effect of lithium salts on IBV in cell culture, our results indicate that LiCl may be a potent agent against porcine and avian coronaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China.
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Ren X, Sui X, Yin J. The effect of Houttuynia cordata injection on pseudorabies herpesvirus (PrV) infection in vitro. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2011; 49:161-166. [PMID: 20942608 DOI: 10.3109/13880209.2010.505242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Pseudorabies herpesvirus (PrV) belongs to the Alphaherpesvirinae. Piglets infected with PrV die within a few days. Development of effective antiviral agents is one alternative or complementary method to prevent PrV infection. Houttuynia cordata Thunb. (Saururaceae), H. cordata, a traditional Chinese medicine, is often used to relieve lung abnormal symptoms, infectious disease, refractory hemoptysis and malignant pleural effusion in China. OBJECTIVE The present study aimed to investigate the effect of H. cordata injection on cell infection by PrV using Vero cells (a monkey kidney cell line) and swine testis cells (ST) as models. MATERIALS AND METHODS The infectivity of PrV was determined by plaque assays when H. cordata was applied to the virus, to the virus infected cells, and to the cells prior to infection. The genomic DNA copies post-drug treatment were confirmed by PCR and reverse transcription PCR. The cell apoptosis caused by the virus was analyzed. RESULTS H. cordata efficiently inhibited cell infection after incubating the drug with PrV. Nevertheless, H. cordata was more efficient in Vero cells than in ST cells in terms of its inhibitory effect. Low-dosage drug inhibited cell apoptosis induced by PrV; nevertheless, high-dosage drug alone resulted in cell apoptosis. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION H. cordata has a direct inhibitory activity against PrV in vitro. H. cordata may be used as an anti-PrV agent or combined with other anti-PrV agents. PrV infection induces cell apoptosis and H. cordata inhibits cell infection. The optimal administration dosage of H. cordata should be taken into account in the future, because high-dosage H. cordata alone causes cell apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ren
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China.
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Meng F, Ren X. Characterization and utility of monoclonal antibodies against spike protein of transmissible gastroenteritis virus. Lett Appl Microbiol 2011; 52:201-7. [PMID: 21223341 PMCID: PMC7197895 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.2010.02988.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Aims: This work aims to characterize the utility of four newly generated monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV). Methods and Results: Four monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the N‐terminal half of spike protein (S1 protein) of TGEV were identified. Affinity constant of these mAbs was analysed. These mAbs were capable of reacting with the TGEV S1 protein analysed by ELISA and Western blot. A competition assay between the different mAbs was performed to determine whether the different antibodies mapped in the same or a different antigenic region of the protein. Investigation on the neutralizing ability of these mAbs indicated that two of these mAbs completely neutralized TGEV at an appropriate concentration. These mAbs were able to detect the TGEV‐infected cells in immunofluorescence assays and Western blot. Moreover, they differentiated TGEV S protein from other control proteins. Conclusions: The generated four mAbs are very specific, and the established immunofluorescence assays, Western blot and discrimination ELISA are useful approaches for detecting of TGEV. Significance and Impact of the Study: It is a novel report regarding the use of the S1 protein of TGEV to generate specific mAbs. Their utility and the established immunoassays contribute to the surveillance of TGE coronavirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Meng
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
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Ren X, Liu B, Yin J, Zhang H, Li G. Phage displayed peptides recognizing porcine aminopeptidase N inhibit transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus infection in vitro. Virology 2010; 410:299-306. [PMID: 21176936 PMCID: PMC7111919 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2010] [Revised: 06/22/2010] [Accepted: 11/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Porcine aminopeptidase N (pAPN) is a cellular receptor of transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), a porcine coronavirus. Interaction between the spike (S) protein of TGEV and pAPN initiates cell infection. Small molecules, especially peptides are an expanding area for therapy or diagnostic assays for viral diseases. Here, the peptides capable of binding the pAPN were, for the first time, identified by biopanning using a random 12-mer peptide library to the immobilized protein. Three chemically synthesized peptides recognizing the pAPN showed effective inhibition ability to TGEV infection in vitro. A putative TxxF motif was identified in the S protein of TGEV. Phages bearing the specific peptides interacted with the pAPN in ELISA. 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assays confirmed the protective effect of the peptides on cell infection by TGEV. Moreover, the excellent immune responses in mice induced by the identified phages provided the possibility to develop novel phage-based vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
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Meng F, Yin J, Li X, Yang W, Li G, Ren X. Production and characterization of a monoclonal antibody against spike protein of transmissible gastroenteritis virus. Hybridoma (Larchmt) 2010; 29:345-50. [PMID: 20715993 DOI: 10.1089/hyb.2010.0009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) is a member of coronaviruses. The viral spike (S) protein mediates the interaction between TGEV and its susceptible cells. Here, we expressed a truncated gene encoding the N terminal half of TGEV S gene (designated S1 gene) in a prokaryotic system. The resulting S1 protein was used to immunize BALB/c mice followed by the generation of a monoclonal antibody (MAb). A generated MAb (7F9) was identified by ELISA and the chromosome number of the hybridoma cell was analyzed. The immunoreactivity of the MAb to TGEV S protein was confirmed by Western blot analysis. Moreover, immunofluorescence assays showed that the MAb is able to detect cell infection by TGEV. The MAb achieved in this study can be used as a specific diagnostic reagent for detecting TGEV S protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fandan Meng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
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Li P, Ren X. Reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification for rapid detection of transmissible gastroenteritis virus. Curr Microbiol 2010; 62:1074-80. [PMID: 21127872 PMCID: PMC7080135 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-010-9825-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2010] [Accepted: 11/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) is the causative agent of porcine transmissible gastroenteritis, and sensitive detection methods are required for preventing the disease. In this article, reverse transcription-loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) was developed to detect TGEV. Three pairs of primers targeting the nucleocapsid (N) gene of TGEV were synthesized and used in the RT-LAMP. The optimization, sensitivity, and specificity of the RT-LAMP were evaluated. Our results showed that the RT-LAMP amplified the N gene with high specificity, efficiency, and rapidity at isothermal condition. The optimal reaction condition was achieved at 60°C for 30 min. The RT-LAMP assay was more sensitive than gel-based RT-PCR and PCR. It had a higher sensitivity than enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using the equal virus templates. In addition, the established RT-LAMP differentiated TGEV from porcine epidemic diarrhea virus, porcine rotavirus, porcine pseudorabies virus, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus, and avian infectious bronchitis virus. The approach is suitable for detecting TGEV for field diagnostics or in less-equipped laboratories due to its convenience and simplicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengchong Li
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang, 150030, Harbin, China
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Ren X, Suo S, Jang YS. Development of a porcine epidemic diarrhea virus M protein-based ELISA for virus detection. Biotechnol Lett 2010; 33:215-20. [PMID: 20882317 PMCID: PMC7088053 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-010-0420-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2010] [Accepted: 09/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A membrane (M), protein-based ELISA was developed to detect porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV). The M gene of PEDV was expressed in Escherichia coli. The purified recombinant M protein was used to immunize rabbits to generate a polyclonal antibody. Immunofluorescence analysis indicated that the anti-PEDV-M antibody reacted with PEDV-infected cells. The antibody was utilized to develop an indirect ELISA to detect PEDV. Other viruses, porcine transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus, avian infectious bronchitis coronavirus, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus, classic swine fever virus and porcine pseudorabies virus, were unreactive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ren
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin 150030, China.
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Ren X, Li G, Liu B. Binding characterization of determinants in porcine aminopeptidase N, the cellular receptor for transmissible gastroenteritis virus. J Biotechnol 2010; 150:202-6. [PMID: 20643168 PMCID: PMC7114188 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2010.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2010] [Revised: 07/02/2010] [Accepted: 07/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Four truncated porcine aminopeptidase N (pAPN, a cellular receptor for porcine coronaviruses) proteins were expressed in prokaryotic cells. The recognizing of a specific serum against pAPN to these proteins was investigated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunoblotting. The binding ability of the proteins to transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), a porcine coronavirus, was analyzed by ELISA. The inhibitory effect of these proteins to cell infection by TGEV was analyzed using plaque assays. Our data indicate that three truncated pAPNs positively reacted with the specific antiserum and the major binding regions of pAPN were limited in regions 36aa–223aa, 349aa–591aa and 592–963aa. The proteins showed discrepant binding activity to either pAPN antibody or TGE virions. Moreover, the truncated proteins blocked the infection of cells by TGEV to different extent. The results suggest that the major antibody-binding domains of pAPN may associate with the receptor-binding determinants. The role of APN is discussed in the context of virus receptor usage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, 150030 Harbin, China.
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Ren X, Yin J, Li G, Herrler G. Cholesterol dependence of pseudorabies herpesvirus entry. Curr Microbiol 2010; 62:261-6. [PMID: 20625735 PMCID: PMC7080178 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-010-9700-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2010] [Accepted: 06/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Lipid rafts are special microdomains in the plasma membrane. They are enriched in sphingolipids and cholesterol, playing critical roles in many biological processes. The purpose of this study is to analyze the requirement of cholesterol, a crucial component of lipid rafts for cell infection by pseudorabies virus (PrV). Cholesterol of plasma membrane or viral envelope was depleted with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MβCD), and the infectivity of three strains of PrV was determined with plaque assays. The effect of adding cholesterol to MβCD-treated cells and viruses on cell infection was analyzed. Furthermore, effect of post-adsorption cholesterol depletion on PrV infection was investigated. We show that cholesterol depletion of either the plasma membrane or the viral membrane by MβCD significantly impaired the infectivity of PrV strains Kaplan, Becker, and Bartha K-61. The virus was shown to have lower cholesterol content and to respond to lower MβCD concentrations. Exogenous cholesterol added to either MβCD-treated cells or virions partially restored the virus infectivity. Optimal PrV infection requires cholesterol in viral and plasma membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Harbin, 150030, China.
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Ren X, Wang M, Yin J, Ren Y, Li G. Heterologous expression of fused genes encoding the glycoprotein 5 from PRRSV: a way for producing functional protein in prokaryotic microorganism. J Biotechnol 2010; 147:130-5. [PMID: 20356565 PMCID: PMC7114092 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2010.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2009] [Revised: 03/15/2010] [Accepted: 03/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Based on the bioinformatics analysis of the gene encoding glycoprotein 5 (GP5) of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) isolate HH08, two gene fragments were amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), deleting the signal peptide and transmembrane sequences in GP5 gene. Both gene fragments were designated GP5a and GP5b, respectively. They were ligated with a linker and cloned into prokaryotic expression vector, pET-30a. Expression of the protein of interest was induced by isopropyl beta-d-1-thiogalactopyranoside. The purified protein was used as an immunogen to elicit antibody in rabbit. The immunoreactivity of the protein was determined using ELISA and Western blot. Biologically active GP5 and anti-GP5 antibody inhibited cell infection by PRRSV. Moreover, the antibody produced in this study was capable of detecting the cell infection by PRRSV and distinguishing this virus from other viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, 150030 Harbin, China
- Corresponding authors. Tel.: +86 451 55190385; fax: +86 451 55103336.
| | - Mingcui Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, 150030 Harbin, China
| | - Jiechao Yin
- College of Life Sciences, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, 150030 Harbin, China
| | - Yudong Ren
- Department of Computer, College of Engineering, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, 150030 Harbin, China
| | - Guangxing Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, 150030 Harbin, China
- Corresponding authors. Tel.: +86 451 55190385; fax: +86 451 55103336.
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