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Zhu G, Lee HJ. Electrochemical sandwich-type biosensors for α-1 antitrypsin with carbon nanotubes and alkaline phosphatase labeled antibody-silver nanoparticles. Biosens Bioelectron 2016; 89:959-963. [PMID: 27816594 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2016.09.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Revised: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
A novel sandwich-type biosensor was developed for the electrochemical detection of α-1 antitrypsin (AAT, a recognized biomarker for Alzheimer's disease). The biosensor was composed of 3, 4, 9, 10-perylene tetracarboxylic acid/carbon nanotubes (PTCA-CNTs) as a sensing platform and alkaline phosphatase-labeled AAT antibody functionalized silver nanoparticles (ALP-AAT Ab-Ag NPs) as a signal enhancer. CNTs offer high surface area and good electrical conductivity. Importantly, Ag NPs could increase the amount of ALP on the sensing surface and the ALP could dephosphorylate 4-amino phenyl phosphate (APP) enzymatically to produce electroactive species 4-aminophenol (AP). For detecting AAT based on the sandwich-type biosensor, the results show that the peak current value of AP using ALP-AAT Ab-Ag NPs as signal enhancer is much higher than that by using ALP-AAT Ab bioconjugate (without Ag NPs), the biosensor exhibited desirable performance for AAT determination with a wide linearity in the range from 0.05 to 20.0pM and a low detection limit of 0.01pM. Finally, the developed sensor was successfully applied to the analysis of AAT concentration in serum samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gangbing Zhu
- Department of Chemistry and Green-Nano Materials Research Center, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro, Buk-gu, Daegu-city 41566, Republic of Korea; School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, PR China.
| | - Hye Jin Lee
- Department of Chemistry and Green-Nano Materials Research Center, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro, Buk-gu, Daegu-city 41566, Republic of Korea.
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Hakobyan S, Harding K, Aiyaz M, Hye A, Dobson R, Baird A, Liu B, Harris CL, Lovestone S, Morgan BP. Complement Biomarkers as Predictors of Disease Progression in Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2016; 54:707-16. [PMID: 27567854 DOI: 10.3233/jad-160420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
There is a critical unmet need for reliable markers of disease and disease course in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and early Alzheimer's disease (AD). The growing appreciation of the importance of inflammation in early AD has focused attention on inflammatory biomarkers in cerebrospinal fluid or plasma; however, non-specific inflammation markers have disappointed to date. We have adopted a targeted approach, centered on an inflammatory pathway already implicated in the disease. Complement, a core system in innate immune defense and potent driver of inflammation, has been implicated in pathogenesis of AD based on a confluence of genetic, histochemical, and model data. Numerous studies have suggested that measurement of individual complement proteins or activation products in cerebrospinal fluid or plasma is useful in diagnosis, prediction, or stratification, but few have been replicated. Here we apply a novel multiplex assay to measure five complement proteins and four activation products in plasma from donors with MCI, AD, and controls. Only one complement analyte, clusterin, differed significantly between control and AD plasma (controls, 295 mg/l; AD, 388 mg/l: p < 10- 5). A model combining clusterin with relevant co-variables was highly predictive of disease. Three analytes (clusterin, factor I, terminal complement complex) were significantly different between MCI individuals who had converted to dementia one year later compared to non-converters; a model combining these three analytes with informative co-variables was highly predictive of conversion. The data confirm the relevance of complement biomarkers in MCI and AD and build the case for using multi-parameter models for disease prediction and stratification.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Katharine Harding
- Division of Neurosciences and Mental Health, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Mohammed Aiyaz
- King's College London, Institute of Psychology, Psychiatry and Neuroscience, London, UK
| | - Abdul Hye
- King's College London, Institute of Psychology, Psychiatry and Neuroscience, London, UK
| | - Richard Dobson
- King's College London, Institute of Psychology, Psychiatry and Neuroscience, London, UK
| | - Alison Baird
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Benjamine Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Kim S, Wark AW, Lee HJ. Femtomolar Detection of Tau Proteins in Undiluted Plasma Using Surface Plasmon Resonance. Anal Chem 2016; 88:7793-9. [PMID: 27399254 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b01825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The ability to directly detect Tau protein and other neurodegenerative biomarkers in human plasma at clinically relevant concentrations continues to be a significant hurdle for the establishment of diagnostic tests for Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this article, we introduce a new DNA aptamer/antibody sandwich assay pairing and apply it for the detection of human Tau 381 in undiluted plasma at concentrations as low as 10 fM. This was achieved on a multichannel surface plasmon resonance (SPR) platform with the challenge of working in plasma overcome through the development of a tailored mixed monolayer surface chemistry. In addition, a robust methodology was developed involving various same chip control measurements on reference channels to which the detection signal was normalized. Comparative measurements in plasma between SPR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) measurements were also performed to highlight both the 1000-fold performance enhancement of SPR and the ability to measure both spiked and native concentrations that are not achievable with ELISA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suhee Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Green-Nano Materials Research Center, Kyungpook National University , 80 Daehakro, Buk-gu, Daegu-city, 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Alastair W Wark
- WestCHEM, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Technology and Innovation Centre, University of Strathclyde , 99 George Street, Glasgow, G1 1RD, U.K
| | - Hye Jin Lee
- Department of Chemistry and Green-Nano Materials Research Center, Kyungpook National University , 80 Daehakro, Buk-gu, Daegu-city, 41566, Republic of Korea
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54
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Zheng L, Kong X, Cui Y, Wei Y, Zhang J, Wei W. Conversion from MCI to AD in patients with the APOE ε4 genotype: Prediction by plasma HCY and serum BDNF. Neurosci Lett 2016; 626:19-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Khoonsari PE, Häggmark A, Lönnberg M, Mikus M, Kilander L, Lannfelt L, Bergquist J, Ingelsson M, Nilsson P, Kultima K, Shevchenko G. Analysis of the Cerebrospinal Fluid Proteome in Alzheimer's Disease. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0150672. [PMID: 26950848 PMCID: PMC4780771 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder accounting for more than 50% of cases of dementia. Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease relies on cognitive tests and analysis of amyloid beta, protein tau, and hyperphosphorylated tau in cerebrospinal fluid. Although these markers provide relatively high sensitivity and specificity for early disease detection, they are not suitable for monitor of disease progression. In the present study, we used label-free shotgun mass spectrometry to analyse the cerebrospinal fluid proteome of Alzheimer’s disease patients and non-demented controls to identify potential biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease. We processed the data using five programs (DecyderMS, Maxquant, OpenMS, PEAKS, and Sieve) and compared their results by means of reproducibility and peptide identification, including three different normalization methods. After depletion of high abundant proteins we found that Alzheimer’s disease patients had lower fraction of low-abundance proteins in cerebrospinal fluid compared to healthy controls (p<0.05). Consequently, global normalization was found to be less accurate compared to using spiked-in chicken ovalbumin for normalization. In addition, we determined that Sieve and OpenMS resulted in the highest reproducibility and PEAKS was the programs with the highest identification performance. Finally, we successfully verified significantly lower levels (p<0.05) of eight proteins (A2GL, APOM, C1QB, C1QC, C1S, FBLN3, PTPRZ, and SEZ6) in Alzheimer’s disease compared to controls using an antibody-based detection method. These proteins are involved in different biological roles spanning from cell adhesion and migration, to regulation of the synapse and the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payam Emami Khoonsari
- Department of Medical Sciences, Cancer Pharmacology and Computational Medicine, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Anna Häggmark
- Affinity Proteomics, Science for Life Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maria Lönnberg
- Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry-BMC, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Maria Mikus
- Affinity Proteomics, Science for Life Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lena Kilander
- Department of Public Health/Geriatrics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lars Lannfelt
- Department of Public Health/Geriatrics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jonas Bergquist
- Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry-BMC, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Martin Ingelsson
- Department of Public Health/Geriatrics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Peter Nilsson
- Affinity Proteomics, Science for Life Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kim Kultima
- Department of Medical Sciences, Cancer Pharmacology and Computational Medicine, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| | - Ganna Shevchenko
- Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry-BMC, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Son HH, Lee DY, Seo HS, Jeong J, Moon JY, Lee JE, Chung BC, Kim E, Choi MH. Hair sterol signatures coupled to multivariate data analysis reveal an increased 7β-hydroxycholesterol production in cognitive impairment. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2016; 155:9-17. [PMID: 26385606 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2015] [Revised: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Altered cholesterol metabolism could be associated with cognitive impairment. The quantitative profiling of 19 hair sterols was developed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry coupled to multivariate data analysis. The limit of quantification of all sterols ranged from 5 to 20 ng/g, while the calibration linearity was higher than 0.98. The precision (% CV) and accuracy (% bias) ranged from 3.2% to 9.8% and from 83.2% to 119.4%, respectively. Among the sterols examined, 8 were quantitatively detected from two strands of 3-cm-long scalp hair samples of female participants, including mild cognitive impairment (MCI, n=15), Alzheimer's disease (AD, n=31), and healthy controls (HC, n=36). The cognitive impairment (MCI or AD) was correlated with a higher metabolic rate than that of HCs based on 7β-hydroxycholesterol (P<0.005). Significant negative correlations (r=-0.822) were detected between Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores and hair sample metabolic ratios of 7β-hydroxycholesterol to cholesterol, which is an accepted, sensitive, and specific tool for discriminating HCs from individuals with MCI or AD. In conclusion, improved diagnostic values can be obtained using hair sterol signatures coupled with MMSE scores. This method may prove useful for predictive diagnosis in population screening of cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Hwa Son
- Materials and Life Science Research Division, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 136-791, South Korea
| | - Do-Yup Lee
- Department of Bio and Fermentation Convergence Technology, Kookmin University, Seoul 136-702, South Korea
| | - Hong Seog Seo
- Cardiovascular Center, Korea University Guro Hospital, Seoul 152-703, South Korea
| | - Jihyeon Jeong
- Department of Psychiatry, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 120-752, South Korea
| | - Ju-Yeon Moon
- Materials and Life Science Research Division, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 136-791, South Korea
| | - Jung-Eun Lee
- Department of Bio and Fermentation Convergence Technology, Kookmin University, Seoul 136-702, South Korea
| | - Bong Chul Chung
- Materials and Life Science Research Division, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 136-791, South Korea
| | - Eosu Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 120-752, South Korea.
| | - Man Ho Choi
- Materials and Life Science Research Division, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 136-791, South Korea.
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Alghadir AH, Gabr SA, Al-Eisa ES. Assessment of the effects of glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies and trace elements on cognitive performance in older adults. Clin Interv Aging 2015; 10:1901-7. [PMID: 26664103 PMCID: PMC4671766 DOI: 10.2147/cia.s95974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Homeostatic imbalance of trace elements such as iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) demonstrated adverse effects on brain function among older adults. Objective The present study aimed to investigate the effects of trace elements and the presence of anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies (GADAs) in human cognitive abilities among healthy older adults. Methods A total of 100 healthy subjects (65 males, 35 females; age range; 64–96 years) were recruited for this study. Based on Loewenstein Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment (LOTCA) score, the participants were classified according to cognitive performance into normal (n=45), moderate (n=30), and severe (n=25). Cognitive functioning, leisure-time physical activity (LTPA), serum trace elements – Fe, Cu, Zn, Zn/Cu, and GADAs were assessed using LOTCA battery, pre-validated physical activity (PA) questionnaire, atomic absorption, and immunoassay techniques, respectively. Results Approximately 45% of the study population (n=45) had normal distribution of cognitive function and 55% of the study population (n=55) had abnormal cognitive function; they were classified into moderate (score 62–92) and severe (score 31–62). There was a significant reduction in the level of Zn and Zn/Cu ratio along with an increase in the level of Fe, Cu, and anti-GADAs in subjects of severe (P=0.01) and moderate (P=0.01) cognitive performance. LOTCA-cognitive scores correlated positively with sex, HbA1c, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Zn/Cu ratio, and negatively with age, PA, body mass index, and anti-GADAs. Significant inter-correlation was reported between serum trace element concentrations and anti-GADAs which suggest producing a cognitive decline via oxidative and neural damage mechanism. Conclusion This study found significant associations among trace elements, anti-GADAs, and cognitive function in older adults. The homeostatic balance of trace elements should be recommended among older adults for better cognitive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad H Alghadir
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sami A Gabr
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia ; Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Einas S Al-Eisa
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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Li P, Nie Y, Yu J. An Effective Method to Identify Shared Pathways and Common Factors among Neurodegenerative Diseases. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0143045. [PMID: 26575483 PMCID: PMC4648499 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Groups of distinct but related diseases often share common symptoms, which suggest likely overlaps in underlying pathogenic mechanisms. Identifying the shared pathways and common factors among those disorders can be expected to deepen our understanding for them and help designing new treatment strategies effected on those diseases. Neurodegeneration diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and Huntington's disease (HD), were taken as a case study in this research. Reported susceptibility genes for AD, PD and HD were collected and human protein-protein interaction network (hPPIN) was used to identify biological pathways related to neurodegeneration. 81 KEGG pathways were found to be correlated with neurodegenerative disorders. 36 out of the 81 are human disease pathways, and the remaining ones are involved in miscellaneous human functional pathways. Cancers and infectious diseases are two major subclasses within the disease group. Apoptosis is one of the most significant functional pathways. Most of those pathways found here are actually consistent with prior knowledge of neurodegenerative diseases except two cell communication pathways: adherens and tight junctions. Gene expression analysis showed a high probability that the two pathways were related to neurodegenerative diseases. A combination of common susceptibility genes and hPPIN is an effective method to study shared pathways involved in a group of closely related disorders. Common modules, which might play a bridging role in linking neurodegenerative disorders and the enriched pathways, were identified by clustering analysis. The identified shared pathways and common modules can be expected to yield clues for effective target discovery efforts on neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Li
- National Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yaling Nie
- National Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jingkai Yu
- National Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- * E-mail:
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A correlativity study of plasma APL1β28 and clusterin levels with MMSE/MoCA/CASI in aMCI patients. Sci Rep 2015; 5:15546. [PMID: 26503441 PMCID: PMC4621490 DOI: 10.1038/srep15546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) is a sub-clinical condition characterized by memory deficits that are not severe enough to affect daily functioning. Here we investigated two potential biomarkers found in the cerebrospinal fluid of AD patients, APLP1-derived Aβ-like peptides 28 (APL1β28) and clusterin plasma levels, in terms of their relationship to cognitive function, as reflected in the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and the Cognitive Assessment Screening Instrument (CASI) in aMCI patients. Forty-seven aMCI patients and thirty-five age- and gender-matched healthy adult controls were recruited for this study. Using the ELISA method, we found that the mean concentrations of both APL1β28 and clusterin were not significantly different between the control and aMCI groups. The APL1β28 levels were positively correlated with clusterin and that both were negatively correlated with the MMSE scores of the aMCI patients. Clusterin levels were negatively correlated with the MoCA and CASI scores of the aMCI patients. Using multivariate analysis, the correlation between clusterin and MMSE/MoCA/CASI was independent of other AD risk factors including age, education, sex, body mass index and ApoE genotype. The data presented here demonstrate that plasma clusterin levels reflect cognitive function in aMCI patients.
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60
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Vibrational spectroscopic analysis of peripheral blood plasma of patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:7747-56. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8940-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Revised: 06/17/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Cytokines and chemokines as biomarkers of ethanol-induced neuroinflammation and anxiety-related behavior: role of TLR4 and TLR2. Neuropharmacology 2015; 89:352-9. [PMID: 25446779 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Revised: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidence supports the influence of neuroimmune system activation on behavior. We have demonstrated that ethanol activates the innate immune system by stimulating toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling in glial cells, which triggers the release of inflammatory mediators and causes neuroinflammation. The present study aimed to evaluate whether the ethanol-induced up-regulation of cytokines and chemokines is associated with anxiety-related behavior, 24 h after ethanol removal, and if TLR4 or TLR2 is involved in these effects. We used WT, TLR4-KO and TLR2-KO mice treated with alcohol for 5 months to show that chronic ethanol consumption increases the levels of cytokines (IL-1β, IL-17, TNF-α) and chemokines (MCP-1, MIP-1α, CX3CL1) in the striatum and serum (MCP-1, MIP-1α, CX3CL1) of WT mice. Alcohol deprivation for 24 h induces IFN-γ levels in the striatum and maintains high levels of some cytokines (IL-1β, IL-17) and chemokines (MIP-1α, CX3CL1) in this brain region. The latter events were associated with an increase in anxiogenic-related behavior, as evaluated by the dark and light box and the elevated plus maze tests. Notably, mice lacking TLR4 or TLR2 receptors are largely protected against ethanol-induced cytokine and chemokine release, and behavioral associated effects during alcohol abstinence. These data support the role of TLR4 and TLR2 responses in neuroinflammation and in anxiogenic-related behavior effects during ethanol deprivation, and also provide evidence that chemokines and cytokines can be biomarkers of ethanol-induced neuroimmune response.
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Kim S, Lee HJ. Direct Detection of α-1 Antitrypsin in Serum Samples using Surface Plasmon Resonance with a New Aptamer-Antibody Sandwich Assay. Anal Chem 2015; 87:7235-40. [PMID: 26070325 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b01192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The challenges associated with performing surface plasmon resonance (SPR) based measurements in serum and other biofluids have continued to limit the applicability of this valuable sensing technology for sensitive bioaffinity measurements of proteins in clinically relevant samples. In this paper, a new sandwich assay is introduced for the quantitative SPR analysis of α-1 antitrypsin (AAT), which is a recognized biomarker for Alzheimer's disease. Detection was performed via the specific adsorption of AAT onto a gold chip surface modified with a DNA aptamer. The measurement dynamic range and also sensitivity in serum were improved with the subsequent surface binding of antiAAT. A methodology was established to measure the target protein in serum, albumin and immunoglobulin G (IgG) solutions with the results correlated with measurements in buffer only. A comparison between SPR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) measurements was also made. The detection of AAT in serum at clinically relevant concentrations was demonstrated with target concentrations as low as 10 fM readily achievable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suhee Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Green-Nano Materials Research Center, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro, Buk-gu, Daegu-city, 702-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Jin Lee
- Department of Chemistry and Green-Nano Materials Research Center, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro, Buk-gu, Daegu-city, 702-701, Republic of Korea
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63
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Plagg B, Marksteiner J, Kniewallner KM, Humpel C. Platelet dysfunction in hypercholesterolemia mice, two Alzheimer's disease mouse models and in human patients with Alzheimer's disease. Biogerontology 2015; 16:543-58. [PMID: 25947203 PMCID: PMC4487346 DOI: 10.1007/s10522-015-9580-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a severe neurodegenerative disorder characterized mainly by accumulation of amyloid-β plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, synaptic and neuronal loss. Blood platelets contain the neurotransmitter serotonin and amyloid-precursor protein (APP), and may thus be useful as a peripheral biomarker for AD. The aim of the present study was to functionally characterize platelets by FACS, to examine alterations in APP expression and secretion, and to measure serotonin levels in hypercholesterolemia mice with AD-like pathology and in two AD mouse models, the triple transgenic AD model (3xTg) and the APP overexpressing AD model with the Swedish–Dutch–Iowa mutations (APP_SweDI). These data are supplemented with epidermal growth factor (EGF) levels and compared with changes observed in platelets of patients with AD. We observed decreased platelet APP isoforms in 3xTg mice and patients with AD when analysed by means of Western blot. In patients, a significant increase of APP levels was observed when assessed by ELISA. Secreted APPβ proved to be altered amongst all three animal models of AD at different time points and in human patients with AD. Serotonin levels were only reduced in 7 and 14 month old 3xTg mice. Moreover, we found significantly lower EGF levels in human AD patients and could thereby reproduce previous findings. Taken together, our data confirm that platelets are dysfunctional in AD, however, results from AD animal models do not coincide in all aspects, and markedly differ when compared to AD patients. We support previous data that APP, as well as EGF, could become putative biomarkers for diagnosing AD in human platelets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Plagg
- Laboratory of Psychiatry and Experimental Alzheimer's Research, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstr. 35, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
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Eshkoor SA, Hamid TA, Mun CY, Ng CK. Mild cognitive impairment and its management in older people. Clin Interv Aging 2015; 10:687-93. [PMID: 25914527 PMCID: PMC4401355 DOI: 10.2147/cia.s73922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 234] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a common condition in the elderly. It is characterized by deterioration of memory, attention, and cognitive function that is beyond what is expected based on age and educational level. MCI does not interfere significantly with individuals’ daily activities. It can act as a transitional level of evolving dementia with a range of conversion of 10%–15% per year. Thus, it is crucial to protect older people against MCI and developing dementia. The preventive interventions and appropriate treatments should improve cognitive performance, and retard or prevent progressive deficits. The avoidance of toxins, reduction of stress, prevention of somatic diseases, implementation of mental and physical exercises, as well as the use of dietary compounds like antioxidants and supplements can be protective against MCI. The modification of risk factors such as stopping smoking, as well as the treatment of deficiency in vitamins and hormones by correcting behaviors and lifestyle, can prevent cognitive decline in the elderly. The progressive increase in the growth rate of the elderly population can enhance the rate of MCI all over the world. There is no exact cure for MCI and dementia; therefore, further studies are needed in the future to determine causes of MCI and risk factors of progression from MCI to dementia. This will help to find better ways for prevention and treatment of cognitive impairment worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chan Yoke Mun
- Institute of Gerontology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chee Kyun Ng
- Institute of Gerontology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
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Shevchenko G, Konzer A, Musunuri S, Bergquist J. Neuroproteomics tools in clinical practice. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2015; 1854:705-17. [PMID: 25680928 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2015.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are characterized by neuronal impairment that leads to disease-specific changes in the neuronal proteins. The early diagnosis of these disorders is difficult, thus, the need for identifying, developing and using valid clinically applicable biomarkers that meet the criteria of precision, specificity and repeatability is very vital. The application of rapidly emerging technology such as mass spectrometry (MS) in proteomics has opened new avenues to accelerate biomarker discovery, both for diagnostic as well as for prognostic purposes. This review summarizes the most recent advances in the mass spectrometry-based neuroproteomics and analyses the current and future directions in the biomarker discovery for the neurodegenerative diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Neuroproteomics: Applications in Neuroscience and Neurology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganna Shevchenko
- Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry-BMC and SciLife Lab, Uppsala University, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Anne Konzer
- Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry-BMC and SciLife Lab, Uppsala University, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Sravani Musunuri
- Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry-BMC and SciLife Lab, Uppsala University, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jonas Bergquist
- Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry-BMC and SciLife Lab, Uppsala University, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Abstract
Traumatic brain injury, a leading cause of mortality and morbidity, is divided into three grades of severity: mild, moderate, and severe, based on the Glasgow Coma Scale, the loss of consciousness, and the development of post-traumatic amnesia. Although mild traumatic brain injury, including concussion and subconcussion, is by far the most common, it is also the most difficult to diagnose and the least well understood. Proper recognition, management, and treatment of acute concussion and mild traumatic brain injury are the fundamentals of an emerging clinical discipline. It is also becoming increasingly clear that some mild traumatic brain injuries have persistent, and sometimes progressive, long-term debilitating effects. Evidence indicates that a single traumatic brain injury can precipitate or accelerate multiple age-related neurodegenerations, increase the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and motor neuron disease, and that repetitive mild traumatic brain injuries can provoke the development of a tauopathy, chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Clinically, chronic traumatic encephalopathy is associated with behavioral changes, executive dysfunction, memory loss, and cognitive impairments that begin insidiously and progress slowly over decades. Pathologically, chronic traumatic encephalopathy produces atrophy of the frontal and temporal lobes, thalamus, and hypothalamus, septal abnormalities, and abnormal deposits of hyperphosphorylated tau (τ) as neurofibrillary tangles and disordered neurites throughout the brain. The incidence and prevalence of chronic traumatic encephalopathy and the genetic risk factors critical to its development are currently unknown. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy frequently occurs as a sole diagnosis, but may be associated with other neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Lewy body disease, and motor neuron disease. Currently, chronic traumatic encephalopathy can be diagnosed only at autopsy; however, promising efforts to develop imaging, spinal fluid, and peripheral blood biomarkers are underway to diagnose and monitor the course of disease in living subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann C Mckee
- VA Boston HealthCare System; Center for the Study of Traumatic Encephalopathy, Alzheimer's Disease Center, and Departments of Neurology and Pathology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Daniel H Daneshvar
- VA Boston HealthCare System; Center for the Study of Traumatic Encephalopathy, Alzheimer's Disease Center, and Departments of Neurology and Pathology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
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Clinical Implication of High Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein for the Development of Dementia in Parkinson's Disease. Dement Neurocogn Disord 2015. [DOI: 10.12779/dnd.2015.14.3.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Correlations of amyloid-β concentrations between CSF and plasma in acute Alzheimer mouse model. Sci Rep 2014; 4:6777. [PMID: 25345439 PMCID: PMC4209448 DOI: 10.1038/srep06777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyloid-β (Aβ) is one of the few neuropathological biomarkers associated with transporters of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Despite the well-characterized clinical indication of decreasing Aβ levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD), the link between the alternation of Aβ level in the blood and the progress of the disorder is still controversial. Here, we report a direct correlation of Aβ(1-42) levels between CSF and plasma in AD mouse model. We injected monomeric Aβ(1-42) directly into the intracerebroventricular (ICV) region of normal adult mouse brains to induce AD-like phenotypes. Using sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, we observed proportional elevation of Aβ(1-42) levels in both CSF and plasma in a dose-dependent manner. Our findings that plasma Aβ(1-42) reflects the condition of CSF Aβ(1-42) warrant further investigation as a biomarker for the blood diagnosis of AD.
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Suppression effects of betaine-enriched spinach on hyperhomocysteinemia induced by guanidinoacetic acid and choline deficiency in rats. ScientificWorldJournal 2014; 2014:904501. [PMID: 25250392 PMCID: PMC4163418 DOI: 10.1155/2014/904501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 08/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Betaine is an important natural component of rich food sources, especially spinach. Rats were fed diets with betaine or spinach powder at the same level of betaine for 10 days to investigate the dose-dependent effects of spinach powder supplementation on hyperhomocysteinemia induced by guanidinoacetic acid (GAA) addition and choline deprivation. The GAA-induced hyperhomocysteinemia in rats fed 25% casein diet (25C) was significantly suppressed by supplementation with betaine or spinach, and it was completely suppressed by taking 11.0% spinach supplementation. The choline deprivation-induced enhancement of plasma homocysteine concentration in rats fed 25% soybean protein diet (25S) was markedly suppressed by 3.82% spinach. Supplementation with betaine or spinach partially prevented the effects of GAA on hepatic concentrations of methionine metabolites. The decrease in activity of betaine-homocysteine S-methyltransferase (BHMT) and cystathionine β-synthase (CBS) in GAA-induced hyperhomocysteinemia was recovered by supplementation with betaine or spinach. Supplementation with betaine or spinach did not affect BHMT activity, whereas it partially restored CBS activity in choline-deprived 25S. The results indicated that betaine or spinach could completely suppress the hyperhomocysteinemia induced by choline deficiency resulting from stimulating the homocysteine removal by both remethylation and cystathionine formation.
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Noguchi M, Sato T, Nagai K, Utagawa I, Suzuki I, Arito M, Iizuka N, Suematsu N, Okamoto K, Kato T, Yamaguchi N, Kurokawa MS. Roles of serum fibrinogen α chain-derived peptides in Alzheimer's disease. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2014; 29:808-18. [PMID: 24190360 DOI: 10.1002/gps.4047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2013] [Accepted: 10/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To find a blood biomarker and disease-related peptides in Alzheimer's disease (AD), we comprehensively detected serum peptides. METHODS Ion intensity of serum peptides from 62 AD patients and 82 control subjects was measured by mass spectrometry. RESULTS A total of 157 peptides were detected from 30 AD patients and 30 healthy control (HC) subjects. Sixty out of the 157 peptide profiles discriminated between the AD and HC groups. Sixteen out of the 60 peptides were identified, 10 out of which were fragments of a fibrinogen α chain (FIBA). Among the 10 peptides, four and six peptides were derived from fibrinopeptide A (FPA, Aα1-16) and the C-terminal region of the αC-domain (αCDC, Aα557-610), respectively. The profile of 10 FIBA-derived peptides combined with age discriminated between the two groups with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) of 0.940. Validation of this model using a testing set of 32 AD patients and 19 HC subjects showed an AUROC of 0.717, sensitivity of 65.6%, and specificity of 73.7% by a cutoff value of 0.56420. Another value, 0.04029, showed sensitivity of 96.9%, suggesting that subjects with values less than 0.04029 rarely possess AD. FPA and αCDC showed increased ion intensity in the AD group compared with the HC group (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS The profile of 10 FIBA-derived peptides combined with age would be a candidate biomarker for AD, which facilitates screening of the disease. The significant release of FPA and αCDC may be involved in the aberrant coagulation that leads to vascular damage in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miwa Noguchi
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan
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Biochemical and immunological aspects of protein aggregation in neurodegenerative diseases. JOURNAL OF THE IRANIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s13738-014-0491-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Faria MC, Gonçalves GS, Rocha NP, Moraes EN, Bicalho MA, Gualberto Cintra MT, Jardim de Paula J, José Ravic de Miranda LF, Clayton de Souza Ferreira A, Teixeira AL, Gomes KB, Carvalho MDG, Sousa LP. Increased plasma levels of BDNF and inflammatory markers in Alzheimer's disease. J Psychiatr Res 2014; 53:166-72. [PMID: 24576746 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Revised: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly. Neurotrophic factors and inflammatory markers may play considerable roles in AD. In this study we measured, through Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay, the plasma levels of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and neuronal growth factor (NGF), as well as tumor necrosis factor-alpha soluble receptors, sTNFR1 and sTNFR2, and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (sICAM-1), in 50 AD patients, 37 patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and 56 healthy elderly controls. BDNF levels, expressed as median and interquartile range, were higher for AD patients (2545.3, 1497.4-4153.4 pg/ml) compared to controls (1503.8, 802.3-2378.4 pg/ml), P < 0.001. sICAM-1 was also higher in AD patients. sTNFR1 levels were increased in AD when compared to controls and also to MCI. GDNF, NGF and sTNFR2 levels showed no significant differences among the studied groups. The increase in BDNF might reflect a compensatory mechanism against early neurodegeneration and seems to be related to inflammation. sTNFR1 appears to mark not only the inflammatory state but also differentiates between MCI and AD, which may be an additional tool for differentiating degrees of cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayara Chaves Faria
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av.Antonio Carlos, 6627, Pampulha, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Gisele Santos Gonçalves
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av.Antonio Carlos, 6627, Pampulha, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Natália Pessoa Rocha
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Investigação Médica, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Edgar Nunes Moraes
- Ambulatório de Idosos do Instituto Jenny de Andrade Faria do Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Departamento de Clínica Médica da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Maria Aparecida Bicalho
- Ambulatório de Idosos do Instituto Jenny de Andrade Faria do Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Departamento de Clínica Médica da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Marco Túlio Gualberto Cintra
- Ambulatório de Idosos do Instituto Jenny de Andrade Faria do Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Jonas Jardim de Paula
- Ambulatório de Idosos do Instituto Jenny de Andrade Faria do Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Luís Felipe José Ravic de Miranda
- Ambulatório de Idosos do Instituto Jenny de Andrade Faria do Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - Antônio Lúcio Teixeira
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Investigação Médica, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Departamento de Clínica Médica da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Karina Braga Gomes
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Maria das Graças Carvalho
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av.Antonio Carlos, 6627, Pampulha, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Lirlândia P Sousa
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av.Antonio Carlos, 6627, Pampulha, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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73
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Biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease analysis by mass spectrometry-based proteomics. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:7865-82. [PMID: 24806343 PMCID: PMC4057708 DOI: 10.3390/ijms15057865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Revised: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a common chronic and destructive disease. The early diagnosis of AD is difficult, thus the need for clinically applicable biomarkers development is growing rapidly. There are many methods to biomarker discovery and identification. In this review, we aim to summarize Mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics studies on AD and discuss thoroughly the methods to identify candidate biomarkers in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood. This review will also discuss the potential research areas on biomarkers.
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75
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Demartini DR, Schilling LP, da Costa JC, Carlini CR. Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases: an environmental proteomic point of view. J Proteomics 2014; 104:24-36. [PMID: 24751585 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Revised: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases are severe neurodegenerative conditions triggered by complex biochemical routes. Many groups are currently pursuing the search for valuable biomarkers to either perform early diagnostic or to follow the disease's progress. Several studies have reported relevant findings regarding environmental issues and the progression of such diseases. Here the etiology and mechanisms of these diseases are briefly reviewed. Approaches that might reveal candidate biomarkers and environmental stressors associated to the diseases were analyzed under a proteomic perspective. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Environmental and structural proteomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo Ribeiro Demartini
- Center of Biotechnology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Prédio 43431, Sala 214, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| | - Lucas Porcello Schilling
- Brain Institute of Rio Grande do Sul, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Av. Ipiranga 6690, 90610-000 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Jaderson Costa da Costa
- Brain Institute of Rio Grande do Sul, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Av. Ipiranga 6690, 90610-000 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| | - Célia Regina Carlini
- Center of Biotechnology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Prédio 43431, Sala 214, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Brain Institute of Rio Grande do Sul, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Av. Ipiranga 6690, 90610-000 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Abstract
Dementia is currently diagnosed based on clinical symptoms and signs, but significant brain damage has already occurred by the time a clinical diagnosis of dementia is made, and it is increasingly recognized that this may be too late for any effective intervention. It would therefore be of great public health and preventive value to define a variety of biomarkers that could permit early detection of persons at a higher risk for developing dementia, and specifically dementia due to Alzheimer's disease. Nevertheless, for the purpose of large-scale screening, circulating biomarkers are more appropriate because they are less invasive than lumbar puncture, less costly than brain amyloid imaging and can be easily assessed repeatedly in a primary care clinic setting. In this brief review we will review a number of candidate molecules implicated as possible predictors of dementia risk. These candidates include markers of vascular injury, metabolic and inflammatory states, amyloid and tau pathway markers, measures of neural degeneration and repair efforts, and other molecules that might contribute to anatomical and functional changes characteristic of dementia and Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galit Weinstein
- Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, B602, 72 East Concord Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA
- Framingham Heart Study, 73 Mount Wayte Avenue, Framingham, MA 01702, USA
| | - Sudha Seshadri
- Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, B602, 72 East Concord Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA
- Framingham Heart Study, 73 Mount Wayte Avenue, Framingham, MA 01702, USA
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Song F, Poljak A, Kochan NA, Raftery M, Brodaty H, Smythe GA, Sachdev PS. Plasma protein profiling of Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer's disease using iTRAQ quantitative proteomics. Proteome Sci 2014; 12:5. [PMID: 24433274 PMCID: PMC3898732 DOI: 10.1186/1477-5956-12-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Accepted: 01/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND With the promise of disease modifying treatments, there is a need for more specific diagnosis and prognosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Plasma biomarkers are likely to be utilised to increase diagnostic accuracy and specificity of AD and cognitive decline. METHODS Isobaric tags (iTRAQ) and proteomic methods were used to identify potential plasma biomarkers of MCI and AD. Relative protein expression level changes were quantified in plasma of 411 cognitively normal subjects, 19 AD patients and 261 MCI patients. Plasma was pooled into 4 groups including normal control, AD, amnestic single and multiple domain MCI (aMCI), and nonamnestic single and multiple domain MCI (nMCI). Western-blotting was used to validate iTRAQ data. Integrated function and protein interactions were explored using WEB based bioinformatics tools (DAVID v6.7 and STRING v9.0). RESULTS In at least two iTRAQ replicate experiments, 30 proteins were significantly dysregulated in MCI and AD plasma, relative to controls. These proteins included ApoA1, ApoB100, complement C3, C4b-binding protein, afamin, vitamin D-binding protein precursor, isoform 1 of Gelsolin actin regulator, Ig mμ chain C region (IGHM), histidine-rich glycoprotein and fibrinogen β and γ chains. Western-blotting confirmed that afamin was decreased and IGHM was increased in MCI and AD groups. Bioinformatics results indicated that these dysregulated proteins represented a diversity of biological processes, including acute inflammatory response, cholesterol transport and blood coagulation. CONCLUSION These findings demonstrate that expression level changes in multiple proteins are observed in MCI and AD plasma. Some of these, such as afamin and IGHM, may be candidate biomarkers for AD and the predementia condition of MCI.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anne Poljak
- Bioanalytical Mass Spectrometry Facility, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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Role of copper and cholesterol association in the neurodegenerative process. Int J Alzheimers Dis 2013; 2013:414817. [PMID: 24288650 PMCID: PMC3830777 DOI: 10.1155/2013/414817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2013] [Revised: 09/05/2013] [Accepted: 09/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Age is one of the main factors involved in the development of neurological illnesses, in particular, Alzheimer, and it is widely held that the rapid aging of the world population is accompanied by a rise in the prevalence and incidence of Alzheimer disease. However, evidence from recent decades indicates that Cu and Cho overload are emerging causative factors in neurodegeneration, a hypothesis that has been partially investigated in experimental models. The link between these two variables and the onset of Alzheimer disease has opened up interesting new possibilities requiring more in-depth analysis. The aim of the present study was therefore to investigate the effect of the association of Cu + Cho (CuCho) as a possible synergistic factor in the development of an Alzheimer-like pathology in Wistar rats. We measured total- and nonceruloplasmin-bound Cu and Cho (free and sterified) contents in plasma and brain zones (cortex and hippocampus), markers of oxidative stress damage, inflammation, and programmed cell death (caspase-3 and calpain isoforms). The ratio beta-amyloid (1-42)/(1-40) was determined in plasma and brain as neurodegenerative biomarker. An evaluation of visuospatial memory (Barnes maze test) was also performed. The results demonstrate the establishment of a prooxidative and proinflammatory environment after CuCho treatment, hallmarked by increased TBARS, protein carbonyls, and nitrite plus nitrate levels in plasma and brain zones (cortex and hippocampus) with a consequent increase in the activity of calpains and no significant changes in caspase-3. A simultaneous increase in the plasma Aβ1-42/Aβ1-40 ratio was found. Furthermore, a slight but noticeable change in visuospatial memory was observed in rats treated with CuCho. We conclude that our model could reflect an initial stage of neurodegeneration in which Cu and Cho interact with one another to exacerbate neurological damage.
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The Janus face of the heme oxygenase/biliverdin reductase system in Alzheimer disease: it's time for reconciliation. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 62:144-59. [PMID: 24095978 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2013.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia among the elderly and is characterized by progressive loss of memory and cognition. These clinical features are due in part to the increase of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species that mediate neurotoxic effects. The up-regulation of the heme oxygenase-1/biliverdin reductase-A (HO-1/BVR-A) system is one of the earlier events in the adaptive response to stress. HO-1/BVR-A reduces the intracellular levels of pro-oxidant heme and generates equimolar amounts of the free radical scavengers biliverdin-IX alpha (BV)/bilirubin-IX alpha (BR) as well as the pleiotropic gaseous neuromodulator carbon monoxide (CO) and ferrous iron. Two main and opposite hypotheses for a role of the HO-1/BVR-A system in AD propose that this system mediates neurotoxic and neuroprotective effects, respectively. This apparent controversy was mainly due to the fact that for over about 20years HO-1 was the only player on which all the analyses were focused, excluding the other important and essential component of the entire system, BVR. Following studies from the Butterfield laboratory that reported alterations in BVR activity along with decreased phosphorylation and increased oxidative/nitrosative post-translational modifications in the brain of subjects with AD and amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) subjects, a debate was opened on the real pathophysiological and clinical significance of BVR-A. In this paper we provide a review of the main discoveries about the HO/BVR system in AD and MCI, and propose a mechanism that reconciles these two hypotheses noted above of neurotoxic and the neuroprotective aspects of this important stress responsive system.
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80
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Rembach A, Ryan TM, Roberts BR, Doecke JD, Wilson WJ, Watt AD, Barnham KJ, Masters CL. Progress towards a consensus on biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease: a review of peripheral analytes. Biomark Med 2013; 7:641-62. [DOI: 10.2217/bmm.13.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly population and attempts to develop therapies have been unsuccessful because there is no means to target an effective therapeutic window. CNS biomarkers are insightful but impractical for high-throughput population-based screening. Therefore, a peripheral, blood-based biomarker for AD would significantly improve early diagnosis, potentially enable presymptomatic detection and facilitate effective targeting of disease-modifying treatments. The various constituents of blood, including plasma, platelets and cellular fractions, are now being systematically explored as a pool of putative peripheral biomarkers for AD. In this review we cover some less known peripheral biomarkers and highlight the latest developments for their clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan Rembach
- The Mental Health Research Institute, The University of Melbourne, Kenneth Myer Building, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia.
| | - Tim M Ryan
- The Mental Health Research Institute, The University of Melbourne, Kenneth Myer Building, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Blaine R Roberts
- The Mental Health Research Institute, The University of Melbourne, Kenneth Myer Building, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - James D Doecke
- The Australian e-Health Research Centre, Herston, Queensland, 4029, Australia
- CSIRO Preventative Health National Research Flagship, North Ryde, New South Wales, 2113, Australia
| | - William J Wilson
- CSIRO Preventative Health National Research Flagship, North Ryde, New South Wales, 2113, Australia
| | - Andrew D Watt
- The Mental Health Research Institute, The University of Melbourne, Kenneth Myer Building, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Kevin J Barnham
- The Mental Health Research Institute, The University of Melbourne, Kenneth Myer Building, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Colin L Masters
- The Mental Health Research Institute, The University of Melbourne, Kenneth Myer Building, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
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81
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IJsselstijn L, Papma JM, Dekker LJM, Calame W, Stingl C, Koudstaal PJ, Prins ND, Sillevis Smitt PAE, Luider TM. Serum proteomics in amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Proteomics 2013; 13:2526-33. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201200190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2012] [Revised: 03/30/2013] [Accepted: 05/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Linda IJsselstijn
- Department of Neurology; Erasmus Medical Center; Rotterdam The Netherlands
| | - Janne M. Papma
- Department of Neurology; Erasmus Medical Center; Rotterdam The Netherlands
| | | | - Wim Calame
- StatistiCal BV; Wassenaar The Netherlands
| | - Christoph Stingl
- Department of Neurology; Erasmus Medical Center; Rotterdam The Netherlands
| | - Peter J. Koudstaal
- Department of Neurology; Erasmus Medical Center; Rotterdam The Netherlands
| | - Niels D. Prins
- Department of Neurology; Erasmus Medical Center; Rotterdam The Netherlands
- Alzheimer Center; VU University Medical Center; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | | | - Theo M. Luider
- Department of Neurology; Erasmus Medical Center; Rotterdam The Netherlands
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82
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Bennett S, Grant M, Creese AJ, Mangialasche F, Cecchetti R, Cooper HJ, Mecocci P, Aldred S. Plasma levels of complement 4a protein are increased in Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2013; 26:329-34. [PMID: 22052466 DOI: 10.1097/wad.0b013e318239dcbd] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder that has been predicted to affect 106.2 million people worldwide by 2050. Currently, definitive diagnosis for this disease is given post mortem, and there is a need for biomarker identification to enable earlier diagnosis of this disease. Biomarkers of AD would ideally represent early disease process and will be present in peripheral tissue before cognitive decline develops in this population. Proteomic technologies offer a strategy to undertake such work. In recent times, research in this field has moved away from classical 2-dimensional gel-based proteomics toward more sensitive, non-gel-based proteomic methodologies. In the study presented here, isobaric labeling for relative and absolute quantification was used to assess plasma protein expression in a small group of AD and control samples. Several proteins were identified as being differentially expressed between these 2 populations. Complement 4a plasma protein was identified as increased in AD by isobaric labeling for relative and absolute quantification, and this finding was further validated by Western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. These data suggest that inflammatory processes, which have been shown to be involved in AD pathology in the brain, are also present in plasma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Bennett
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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83
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Ngounou Wetie AG, Sokolowska I, Wormwood K, Beglinger K, Michel TM, Thome J, Darie CC, Woods AG. Mass spectrometry for the detection of potential psychiatric biomarkers. J Mol Psychiatry 2013; 1:8. [PMID: 25408901 PMCID: PMC4223884 DOI: 10.1186/2049-9256-1-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 02/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The search for molecules that can act as potential biomarkers is increasing in the scientific community, including in the field of psychiatry. The field of proteomics is evolving and its indispensability for identifying biomarkers is clear. Among proteomic tools, mass spectrometry is the core technique for qualitative and quantitative identification of protein markers. While significant progress has been made in the understanding of biomarkers for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease, psychiatric disorders have not been as extensively investigated. Recent and successful applications of mass spectrometry-based proteomics in fields such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, infectious diseases and neurodegenerative disorders suggest a similar path for psychiatric disorders. In this brief review, we describe mass spectrometry and its use in psychiatric biomarker research and highlight some of the possible challenges of undertaking this type of work. Further, specific examples of candidate biomarkers are highlighted. A short comparison of proteomic with genomic methods for biomarker discovery research is presented. In summary, mass spectrometry-based techniques may greatly facilitate ongoing efforts to understand molecular mechanisms of psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armand G Ngounou Wetie
- Biochemistry and Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY 13699-5810 USA
| | - Izabela Sokolowska
- Biochemistry and Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY 13699-5810 USA
| | - Kelly Wormwood
- Biochemistry and Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY 13699-5810 USA
| | - Katherine Beglinger
- Biochemistry and Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY 13699-5810 USA
| | - Tanja Maria Michel
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rostock, Rostock, Gehlsheimer Straße 20, D-18147 Germany
| | - Johannes Thome
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rostock, Rostock, Gehlsheimer Straße 20, D-18147 Germany ; College of Medicine, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP UK
| | - Costel C Darie
- Biochemistry and Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY 13699-5810 USA
| | - Alisa G Woods
- Biochemistry and Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY 13699-5810 USA ; Neuropsychology Clinic and Psychoeducation Services, SUNY Plattsburgh, 101 Broad St, Plattsburgh, 12901 NY USA
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84
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Trushina E, Dutta T, Persson XMT, Mielke MM, Petersen RC. Identification of altered metabolic pathways in plasma and CSF in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease using metabolomics. PLoS One 2013; 8:e63644. [PMID: 23700429 PMCID: PMC3658985 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 306] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's Disease (AD) currently affects more than 5 million Americans, with numbers expected to grow dramatically as the population ages. The pathophysiological changes in AD patients begin decades before the onset of dementia, highlighting the urgent need for the development of early diagnostic methods. Compelling data demonstrate that increased levels of amyloid-beta compromise multiple cellular pathways; thus, the investigation of changes in various cellular networks is essential to advance our understanding of early disease mechanisms and to identify novel therapeutic targets. We applied a liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry-based non-targeted metabolomics approach to determine global metabolic changes in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the same individuals with different AD severity. Metabolic profiling detected a total of significantly altered 342 plasma and 351 CSF metabolites, of which 22% were identified. Based on the changes of >150 metabolites, we found 23 altered canonical pathways in plasma and 20 in CSF in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) vs. cognitively normal (CN) individuals with a false discovery rate <0.05. The number of affected pathways increased with disease severity in both fluids. Lysine metabolism in plasma and the Krebs cycle in CSF were significantly affected in MCI vs. CN. Cholesterol and sphingolipids transport was altered in both CSF and plasma of AD vs. CN. Other 30 canonical pathways significantly disturbed in MCI and AD patients included energy metabolism, Krebs cycle, mitochondrial function, neurotransmitter and amino acid metabolism, and lipid biosynthesis. Pathways in plasma that discriminated between all groups included polyamine, lysine, tryptophan metabolism, and aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis; and in CSF involved cortisone and prostaglandin 2 biosynthesis and metabolism. Our data suggest metabolomics could advance our understanding of the early disease mechanisms shared in progression from CN to MCI and to AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia Trushina
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA.
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85
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Henry MS, Passmore AP, Todd S, McGuinness B, Craig D, Johnston JA. The development of effective biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease: a review. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2013; 28:331-40. [PMID: 22674539 DOI: 10.1002/gps.3829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2011] [Accepted: 04/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE There is a widely recognised need to develop effective Alzheimer's disease (AD) biomarkers to aid the development of disease-modifying treatments, to facilitate early diagnosis and to improve clinical care. This overview aims to summarise the utility of key neuroimaging and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers for AD, before focusing on the latest efforts to identify informative blood biomarkers. DESIGN A literature search was performed using PubMed up to September 2011 for reviews and primary research studies of neuroimaging (magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, positron emission tomography and amyloid imaging), CSF and blood-based (plasma, serum and platelet) biomarkers in AD and mild cognitive impairment. Citations within individual articles were examined to identify additional studies relevant to this review. RESULTS Evidence of AD biomarker potential was available for imaging techniques reflecting amyloid burden and neurodegeneration. Several CSF measures are promising, including 42 amino acid β-amyloid peptide (Aβ42 ); total tau (T-tau) protein, reflecting axonal damage; and phosphorylated tau (P-tau), reflecting neurofibrillary tangle pathology. Studies of plasma Aβ have produced inferior diagnostic discrimination. Alternative plasma and platelet measures are described, which represent potential avenues for future research. CONCLUSIONS Several imaging and CSF markers demonstrate utility in predicting AD progression and determining aetiology. These require standardisation before forming core elements of diagnostic criteria. The enormous potential available for identifying a minimally-invasive, easily-accessible blood measure as an effective AD biomarker currently remains unfulfilled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark S Henry
- Centre for Public Health, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK.
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86
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Lista S, Faltraco F, Prvulovic D, Hampel H. Blood and plasma-based proteomic biomarker research in Alzheimer's disease. Prog Neurobiol 2013; 101-102:1-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2011] [Revised: 03/28/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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87
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Bhamra MS, Ashton NJ. Finding a pathological diagnosis for Alzheimer's disease: Are inflammatory molecules the answer? Electrophoresis 2012; 33:3598-607. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201200161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Revised: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 07/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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88
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Cocciolo A, Di Domenico F, Coccia R, Fiorini A, Cai J, Pierce WM, Mecocci P, Butterfield DA, Perluigi M. Decreased expression and increased oxidation of plasma haptoglobin in Alzheimer disease: Insights from redox proteomics. Free Radic Biol Med 2012; 53:1868-76. [PMID: 23000119 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2012.08.596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Revised: 08/09/2012] [Accepted: 08/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer disease (AD) is one of the most disabling disorders of the elderly and the number of people worldwide facing dementia is expected to dramatically increase in the near future. Thus, one of the major concerns of modern society is to identify putative biomarkers that serve as a valuable early diagnostic tool to identify a subset of patients with increased risk to develop AD. An ideal biomarker should be present in blood before dementia is clinically confirmed, have high sensitivity and specificity, and be reproducible. Proteomics platforms offer a powerful strategy to reach these goals and recently have been demonstrated to be promising approaches. However, the high variability of technologies and studied populations has led to contrasting results. To increase specificity, we analyzed both protein expression profiles and oxidative modifications (carbonylation) of plasma proteins in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and AD subjects compared with age-matched controls. Most of the proteins found to have differential levels in MCI and AD confirmed results already obtained in other cohort studies. Interestingly, we applied for the first time in MCI a redox proteomics approach to specifically identify oxidized proteins. Among them, haptoglobin, one of the most abundantly secreted glycoproteins with chaperone function, was found to be either increasingly downregulated or increasingly oxidized in AD and MCI compared with controls. We also demonstrated that in vitro oxidation of haptoglobin affects the formation of amyloid-β fibrils, thus suggesting that oxidized haptoglobin is not able to act as an extracellular chaperone to prevent or slow formation of amyloid-β aggregates. Another chaperone protein, α2-macroglobulin, was found to be selectively oxidized in AD patients compared with controls. Our findings suggest that alterations in proteins acting as extracellular chaperones may contribute to exacerbating amyloid-β toxicity in the peripheral system and may be considered a putative marker of disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Cocciolo
- Department of Biochemical Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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89
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Woods AG, Sokolowska I, Taurines R, Gerlach M, Dudley E, Thome J, Darie CC. Potential biomarkers in psychiatry: focus on the cholesterol system. J Cell Mol Med 2012; 16:1184-95. [PMID: 22304330 PMCID: PMC3823072 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2012.01543.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Measuring biomarkers to identify and assess illness is a strategy growing in popularity and relevance. Although already in clinical use for treating and predicting cancer, no biological measurement is used clinically for any psychiatric disorder. Biomarkers could predict the course of a medical problem, and aid in determining how and when to treat. Several studies have indicated that of candidate psychiatric biomarkers detected using proteomic techniques, cholesterol and associated proteins, specifically apolipoproteins (Apos), may be of interest. Cholesterol is necessary for brain development and its synthesis continues at a lower rate in the adult brain. Apos are the protein component of lipoproteins responsible for lipid transport. There is extensive evidence that the levels of cholesterol and Apos may be disturbed in psychiatric disorders, including autistic spectrum disorders (ASD). Here, we describe putative serum biomarkers for psychiatric disorders, and the role of cholesterol and Apos in central nervous system (CNS) disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alisa G Woods
- Department of Chemistry & Biomolecular Science, Biochemistry & Proteomics Group, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA.
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90
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Zabel M, Schrag M, Mueller C, Zhou W, Crofton A, Petersen F, Dickson A, Kirsch WM. Assessing candidate serum biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease: a longitudinal study. J Alzheimers Dis 2012; 30:311-21. [PMID: 22426016 DOI: 10.3233/jad-2012-112012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Because of the growing impact of late onset cognitive loss, considerable effort has been directed toward the development of improved diagnostic techniques for Alzheimer's disease (AD) that may pave the way for earlier (and more effective) therapeutic efforts. Serum-based biomarkers are the least expensive and invasive modality for screening and routine monitoring. We systematically reviewed the literature to assemble a list of serum biomarkers relevant to AD. In parallel, we conducted a proteomic LC-MS/MS analysis of serum collected from neurologically normal subjects and subjects with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and early AD (n = 6 in all). Complement C3 and alpha-2-macroglobulin were identified from both the literature review and our proteomic screen for further validation. For these two candidates, ELISA was performed on serum collected from a small independent cohort of subjects for longitudinal analysis. Serum was serially collected from neurologically normal subjects (n = 5) and subjects with MCI who were subsequently followed for a period of two years (n = 5) and regrouped into stable MCI and progressive MCI or AD (n = 6). The ability of each marker to predict which subjects with MCI would progress to dementia and which would remain cognitively stable was assessed. Patients with probable cerebral amyloid angiopathy were also identified (n = 3). This preliminary analysis tested the most-promising serum protein biomarkers for AD and we concluded that none are yet ready for use in the clinical diagnosis and management of dementia. However, a more thorough assessment in longitudinal studies with higher statistical power is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Zabel
- Neurosurgery Center for Research, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA
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91
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Shi M, Sui YT, Peskind ER, Li G, Hwang H, Devic I, Ginghina C, Edgar JS, Pan C, Goodlett DR, Furay AR, Gonzalez-Cuyar LF, Zhang J. Salivary tau species are potential biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2012; 27:299-305. [PMID: 21841250 DOI: 10.3233/jad-2011-110731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Phosphorylation of tau protein is a critical event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Increased phosphorylated tau and total tau levels, combined with reduced concentrations of amyloid-β 1-42 (Aβ42) in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), but not in plasma or serum, have been generally accepted as sensitive AD diagnostic markers. However, obtaining CSF is a relatively invasive procedure that requires participation of specially trained medical professionals, i.e., CSF is not an ideal sample source for screening or early diagnosis of AD, which is essential to current and future neuroprotective treatments for the disease. Here, we identified tau, but not Aβ species, with mass spectrometry in human saliva, a body fluid that is much more accessible compared to CSF or even blood. Quantitative assessment of salivary levels of total tau, phosphorylated tau, and Aβ42 using highly sensitive Luminex assays revealed that, while Aβ42 was not detectable, the phosphorylated tau/tau ratio significantly increased in patients with AD compared to healthy controls. These results suggest that salivary tau species could be ideal biomarkers for AD diagnosis, especially at early stages of the disease or even screening asymptomatic subjects, allowing for a much larger therapeutic window for AD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Shi
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
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92
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Lowe CR. The future: biomarkers, biosensors, neuroinformatics, and e-neuropsychiatry. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2012; 101:375-400. [PMID: 22050860 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-387718-5.00015-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of molecular biomarkers for psychological, psychiatric, and neurodegenerative disorders is beginning to change current diagnostic paradigms for this debilitating family of mental illnesses. The development of new genomic, proteomic, and metabolomic tools has created the prospect of sensitive and specific biochemical tests to replace traditional pen-and-paper questionnaires. In the future, the realization of biosensor technologies, point-of-care testing, and the fusion of clinical biomarker data, electroencephalogram, and MRI data with the patient's past medical history, biopatterns, and prognosis may create personalized bioprofiles or fingerprints for brain disorders. Further, the application of mobile communications technology and grid computing to support data-, computation- and knowledge-based tasks will assist disease prediction, diagnosis, prognosis, and compliance monitoring. It is anticipated that, ultimately, mobile devices could become the next generation of personalized pharmacies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R Lowe
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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93
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Lukiw WJ, Alexandrov PN. Regulation of complement factor H (CFH) by multiple miRNAs in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain. Mol Neurobiol 2012; 46:11-9. [PMID: 22302353 PMCID: PMC3703615 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-012-8234-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2011] [Accepted: 01/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Human brain cells rely on a specific subset of microRNAs (miRNAs or miRs) to shape their gene expression patterns, and this is mediated through microRNA effects on messenger RNA (mRNA) speciation and complexity. In recent studies (a) in short post-mortem interval Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain tissues versus age-matched controls, and (b) in pro-inflammatory cytokine- and Aβ42 peptide-stressed human neuronal-glial (HNG) cells in primary culture, we have identified several brain-abundant miRNA species found to be significantly up-regulated, including miR-125b and miR-146a. Both of these nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB)-activated, 22 nucleotide small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) target the mRNA of the key, innate-immune- and inflammation-related regulatory protein, complement factor-H (CFH; chr 1q32), resulting in significant decreases in CFH expression (p < 0.01, ANOVA). Our results further indicate that HNG cells respond to IL-1β + Aβ42-peptide-induced stress by significant NF-κB-modulated up-regulation of miRNA-125b- and miRNA-146a. The complex interactive signaling of NF-κB, miR-125b, miR-146a, and perhaps other miRNAs, further illustrate interplay between inducible transcription factors and multiple pro-inflammatory sncRNAs that regulate CFH expression. The novel concept of miRNA actions involving mRNA target convergence and divergence are proposed and discussed. The combinatorial use of NF-кB inhibitors with anti-miRNAs (AMs; antagomirs) may have potential against CFH-driven pathogenic signaling in neurodegenerative disease, and may redirect our therapeutic perspectives to novel treatment strategies that have not yet been considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter J Lukiw
- LSU Neuroscience Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 2020 Gravier Street, New Orleans, LA 7011-2272, USA.
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94
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Abstract
Here, we synthesize research behind the emerging hypothesis that inflammation--which can result, for example, from viral infections--can initiate and propagate chronic neuronal dysfunction, an event that precedes the clinical onset of many neurodegenerative diseases. Therapeutic approaches that target immunological pathways in the prodromal phase of diseases might decrease the incidence of neurodegenerative disorders and increase the therapeutic window for neuroprotection.
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95
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Ooi L, Sidhu K, Poljak A, Sutherland G, O'Connor MD, Sachdev P, Münch G. Induced pluripotent stem cells as tools for disease modelling and drug discovery in Alzheimer's disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2012; 120:103-11. [PMID: 22695755 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-012-0839-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2012] [Accepted: 05/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative brain disorder that leads to a progressive decline in a person's memory and ability to communicate and carry out daily activities. The brain pathology in AD is characterized by extensive neuronal loss, particularly of cholinergic neurons, intracellular neurofibrillary tangles composed of the tau protein (NFTs) and extracellular deposition of plaques composed of β-amyloid (Aβ), a cleavage product of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). These two insoluble protein aggregates are accompanied by a chronic inflammatory response and extensive oxidative damage. Whereas dys-regulation of APP expression or processing appears to be important for the familial, early-onset form of AD, controversy exists between the "Baptists" (in favour of Aβ) and the "Tauists" (in favour of tau) as to which of these two protein dysfunctions occur at the earliest stages or are the most important contributors to the disease process in sporadic AD. However, more and more "non-amyloid" and "non-tau" causes have been proposed, including, glycation, inflammation, oxidative stress and dys-regulation of the cell cycle. However, to get an insight into the ultimate cause of AD, and to prove that any drug target is valuable in AD, disease-relevant models giving insight into the pathogenic processes in AD are urgently needed. In the absence of a good animal model for sporadic AD, we propose in this review that induced pluripotent stem cells, derived from dermal fibroblasts of AD patients, and differentiated into cholinergic neurons, might be a promising novel tool for disease modelling and drug discovery for the sporadic form of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lezanne Ooi
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Western Sydney, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South DC, 1797, Australia
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96
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Yang MH, Yang YH, Lu CY, Jong SB, Chen LJ, Lin YF, Wu SJ, Chu PY, Chung TW, Tyan YC. Activity-dependent neuroprotector homeobox protein: A candidate protein identified in serum as diagnostic biomarker for Alzheimer's disease. J Proteomics 2012; 75:3617-29. [PMID: 22554909 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2012.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2012] [Revised: 04/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia of late life. To enhance our understanding of AD proteome, the serum proteins were analyzed using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) combined with nano-high performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (nano-HPLC-ESI-MS/MS) followed by peptide fragmentation patterning. In this study, six protein spots with differential expression were identified. Five up-regulated proteins were identified as actin, apolipoprotein A-IV (Apo A-IV), inter-alpha-trypsin inhibitor heavy chain H4 (ITIH4), alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT), and antithrombin-III (AT-III); one protein, activity-dependent neuroprotector homeobox protein (ADNP) was down-regulated in AD patients. These proteins with differential expression in the serum may serve as potential indicators of AD. Our results suggested that ADNP may play an important role in slowing the progression of clinical symptoms of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Hui Yang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Yunlin, Taiwan
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97
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Thambisetty M, An Y, Kinsey A, Koka D, Saleem M, Gϋntert A, Kraut M, Ferrucci L, Davatzikos C, Lovestone S, Resnick SM. Plasma clusterin concentration is associated with longitudinal brain atrophy in mild cognitive impairment. Neuroimage 2012; 59:212-7. [PMID: 21824521 PMCID: PMC3425349 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.07.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2011] [Revised: 06/18/2011] [Accepted: 07/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent genetic and proteomic studies demonstrate that clusterin/apolipoprotein-J is associated with risk, pathology, and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Our main aim was to examine associations between plasma clusterin concentration and longitudinal changes in brain volume in normal aging and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). A secondary objective was to examine associations between peripheral concentration of clusterin and its concentration in the brain within regions that undergo neuropathological changes in AD. Non-demented individuals (N=139; mean baseline age 70.5 years) received annual volumetric MRI (912 MRI scans in total) over a mean six-year interval. Sixteen participants (92 MRI scans in total) were diagnosed during the course of the study with amnestic MCI. Clusterin concentration was assayed by ELISA in plasma samples collected within a year of the baseline MRI. Mixed effects regression models investigated whether plasma clusterin concentration was associated with rates of brain atrophy for control and MCI groups and whether these associations differed between groups. In a separate autopsy sample of individuals with AD (N=17) and healthy controls (N=4), we examined the association between antemortem clusterin concentration in plasma and postmortem levels in the superior temporal gyrus, hippocampus and cerebellum. The associations of plasma clusterin concentration with rates of change in brain volume were significantly different between MCI and control groups in several volumes including whole brain, ventricular CSF, temporal gray matter as well as parahippocampal, superior temporal and cingulate gyri. Within the MCI but not control group, higher baseline concentration of plasma clusterin was associated with slower rates of brain atrophy in these regions. In the combined autopsy sample of AD and control cases, representing a range of severity in AD pathology, we observed a significant association between clusterin concentration in the plasma and that in the superior temporal gyrus. Our findings suggest that clusterin, a plasma protein with roles in amyloid clearance, complement inhibition and apoptosis, is associated with rate of brain atrophy in MCI. Furthermore, peripheral concentration of clusterin also appears to reflect its concentration within brain regions vulnerable to AD pathology. These findings in combination suggest an influence of this multi-functional protein on early stages of progression in AD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhav Thambisetty
- Laboratory of Personality and Cognition, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yang An
- Laboratory of Personality and Cognition, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Deepthi Koka
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine
| | | | | | - Michael Kraut
- Department of Radiology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore
| | - Luigi Ferrucci
- Longitudinal Studies Section, Clinical Research Branch, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Susan M. Resnick
- Laboratory of Personality and Cognition, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Obasi CN, Cruickshanks KJ, Nondahl DM, Klein BEK, Klein R, Nieto FJ, Shankar A, Fischer ME, Tsai MY, Chappell R. Association of Biomarkers for Inflammation, Endothelial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress with Cognitive Impairment. The Epidemiology of Hearing Loss Study (EHLS). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 1:169-173. [PMID: 23814681 DOI: 10.5455/oams.031212.br.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Individual biomarkers of inflammation, endothelial dysfunction and oxidative stress have been associated with cognitive impairment. This study explored whether a combination of biomarkers could prospectively identify those who developed cognitive decline. METHODS Biomarkers were obtained during the baseline examination of the Beaver Dam Eye Study (1988-90), and cognitive status was assessed during the 5-year follow-up examination of the Epidemiology of Hearing Loss Study (1998-2000). Cognitive impairment was defined as a score of < 24 points on the Mini-Mental State Examination or self- or proxy report of Alzheimer Disease or dementia. Among those with cognitive data, interleukin-6, isoprostanes, protein carbonyl, soluble inter-cellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 were available for 950 participants and 2,336 had high sensitivity C-reactive protein. RESULTS Biomarkers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction were not associated with cognitive impairment. There was a weak inverse association between higher levels of protein carbonyl content and cognitive impairment (OR, 0.8 per quartile of protein carbonyl content, p=0.045 unadjusted for multiple comparisons). This was not significant on multiple testing and may have been a chance finding. CONCLUSION We found that many markers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction were not associated with cognitive impairment. An inverse association with carbonyl protein, a marker of oxidative stress needs further confirmation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chidi N Obasi
- Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI USA
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Humpel C, Hochstrasser T. Cerebrospinal fluid and blood biomarkers in Alzheimer’s disease. World J Psychiatry 2011; 1:8-18. [PMID: 24175162 PMCID: PMC3782169 DOI: 10.5498/wjp.v1.i1.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2011] [Revised: 10/14/2011] [Accepted: 12/26/2011] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to an ever aging society and growing prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the challenge to meet social and health care system needs will become increasingly difficult. Unfortunately, a definite ante mortem diagnosis is not possible. Thus, an early diagnosis and identification of AD patients is critical for promising, early pharmacological interventions as well as addressing health care needs. The most advanced and most reliable markers are β-amyloid, total tau and phosphorylated tau in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). In blood, no single biomarker has been identified despite an intense search over the last decade. The most promising approaches consist of a combination of several blood-based markers increasing the reliability, sensitivity and specificity of the AD diagnosis. However, contradictory data make standardized testing methods in longitudinal and multi-center studies extremely difficult. In this review, we summarize a range of the most promising CSF and blood biomarkers for diagnosing AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Humpel
- Christian Humpel, Tanja Hochstrasser, Laboratory for Psychiatry and Experimental Alzheimer's Research, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Innsbruck Medical University, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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100
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Association between IgM anti-herpes simplex virus and plasma amyloid-beta levels. PLoS One 2011; 6:e29480. [PMID: 22216291 PMCID: PMC3247269 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2011] [Accepted: 11/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Herpes simplex virus (HSV) reactivation has been identified as a possible risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and plasma amyloid-beta (Aβ) levels might be considered as possible biomarkers of the risk of AD. The aim of our study was to investigate the association between anti-HSV antibodies and plasma Aβ levels. Methods The study sample consisted of 1222 subjects (73.9 y in mean) from the Three-City cohort. IgM and IgG anti-HSV antibodies were quantified using an ELISA kit, and plasma levels of Aβ1–40 and Aβ1–42 were measured using an xMAP-based assay technology. Cross-sectional analyses of the associations between anti-HSV antibodies and plasma Aβ levels were performed by multi-linear regression. Results After adjustment for study center, age, sex, education, and apolipoprotein E-e4 polymorphism, plasma Aβ1–42 and Aβ1–40 levels were specifically inversely associated with anti-HSV IgM levels (β = −20.7, P = 0.001 and β = −92.4, P = 0.007, respectively). In a sub-sample with information on CLU- and CR1-linked SNPs genotyping (n = 754), additional adjustment for CR1 or CLU markers did not modify these associations (adjustment for CR1 rs6656401, β = −25.6, P = 0.002 for Aβ1–42 and β = −132.7, P = 0.002 for Aβ1–40; adjustment for CLU rs2279590, β = −25.6, P = 0.002 for Aβ1–42 and β = −134.8, P = 0.002 for Aβ1–40). No association between the plasma Aβ1–42-to-Aβ1–40 ratio and anti-HSV IgM or IgG were evidenced. Conclusion High anti-HSV IgM levels, markers of HSV reactivation, are associated with lower plasma Aβ1–40 and Aβ1–42 levels, which suggest a possible involvement of the virus in the alterations of the APP processing and potentially in the pathogenesis of AD in human.
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