51
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Guan J, Li J, Liang S, Li R, Li X, Shi X, Huang C, Zhang J, Pan J, Jia H, Zhang L, Chen X, Liao X. NeuroSeg: automated cell detection and segmentation for in vivo two-photon Ca 2+ imaging data. Brain Struct Funct 2017; 223:519-533. [PMID: 29124351 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-017-1545-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 10/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Two-photon Ca2+ imaging has become a popular approach for monitoring neuronal population activity with cellular or subcellular resolution in vivo. This approach allows for the recording of hundreds to thousands of neurons per animal and thus leads to a large amount of data to be processed. In particular, manually drawing regions of interest is the most time-consuming aspect of data analysis. However, the development of automated image analysis pipelines, which will be essential for dealing with the likely future deluge of imaging data, remains a major challenge. To address this issue, we developed NeuroSeg, an open-source MATLAB program that can facilitate the accurate and efficient segmentation of neurons in two-photon Ca2+ imaging data. We proposed an approach using a generalized Laplacian of Gaussian filter to detect cells and weighting-based segmentation to separate individual cells from the background. We tested this approach on an in vivo two-photon Ca2+ imaging dataset obtained from mouse cortical neurons with differently sized view fields. We show that this approach exhibits superior performance for cell detection and segmentation compared with the existing published tools. In addition, we integrated the previously reported, activity-based segmentation into our approach and found that this combined method was even more promising. The NeuroSeg software, including source code and graphical user interface, is freely available and will be a useful tool for in vivo brain activity mapping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangheng Guan
- Brain Research Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Jingcheng Li
- Brain Research Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Shanshan Liang
- Brain Research Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Ruijie Li
- Brain Research Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Xingyi Li
- Brain Research Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Xiaozhe Shi
- Brain Research Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China.,School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Ciyu Huang
- College of Computer and Information Science and College of Software, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Jianxiong Zhang
- Brain Research Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Junxia Pan
- Brain Research Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Hongbo Jia
- Brain Research Instrument Innovation Center, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, Jiangsu, China
| | - Le Zhang
- College of Computer and Information Science and College of Software, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Xiaowei Chen
- Brain Research Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China. .,CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China.
| | - Xiang Liao
- Brain Research Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China.
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52
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Voltage and Calcium Imaging of Brain Activity. Biophys J 2017; 113:2160-2167. [PMID: 29102396 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2017.09.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Revised: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Sensors for imaging brain activity have been under development for almost 50 years. The development of some of these tools is relatively mature, whereas qualitative improvements of others are needed and are actively pursued. In particular, genetically encoded voltage indicators are just now starting to be used to answer neurobiological questions and, at the same time, more than 10 laboratories are working to improve them. In this Biophysical Perspective, we attempt to discuss the present state of the art and indicate areas of active development.
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53
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Ferro M, Lamanna J, Ripamonti M, Racchetti G, Arena A, Spadini S, Montesano G, Cortese R, Zimarino V, Malgaroli A. Functional mapping of brain synapses by the enriching activity-marker SynaptoZip. Nat Commun 2017; 8:1229. [PMID: 29089485 PMCID: PMC5663910 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01335-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Ideally, elucidating the role of specific brain circuits in animal behavior would require the ability to measure activity at all involved synapses, possibly with unrestricted field of view, thus even at those boutons deeply located into the brain. Here, we introduce and validate an efficient scheme reporting synaptic vesicle cycling in vivo. This is based on SynaptoZip, a genetically encoded molecule deploying in the vesicular lumen a bait moiety designed to capture upon exocytosis a labeled alien peptide, Synbond. The resulting signal is cumulative and stores the number of cycling events occurring at individual synapses. Since this functional signal is enduring and measurable both online and ex post, SynaptoZip provides a unique method for the analysis of the history of synaptic activity in regions several millimeters below the brain surface. We show its broad applicability by reporting stimulus-evoked and spontaneous circuit activity in wide cortical fields, in anesthetized and freely moving animals. Visualization of synaptic activity in the living brain is challenging. This study devises a simple and efficient scheme that reports synaptic vesicle recycling in vivo using SynaptoZip, a genetically encoded sensor of past synaptic activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Ferro
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy.,Neurobiology of Learning Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy
| | - Jacopo Lamanna
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy.,Neurobiology of Learning Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy
| | - Maddalena Ripamonti
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy.,Neurobiology of Learning Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy
| | - Gabriella Racchetti
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy.,Psychiatry and Clinical Psychobiology Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy
| | - Alessandro Arena
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy.,Neurobiology of Learning Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy.,Department of Physiology, Institute of Basal Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0315, Norway
| | - Sara Spadini
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy.,Neurobiology of Learning Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy
| | - Giovanni Montesano
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy.,Neurobiology of Learning Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy.,Dipartimento Testa-Collo, San Paolo Hospital, University of Milan, Milan, 20122, Italy
| | | | - Vincenzo Zimarino
- Neurobiology of Learning Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy
| | - Antonio Malgaroli
- Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy. .,Neurobiology of Learning Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, 20132, Italy.
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54
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ABLE: An Activity-Based Level Set Segmentation Algorithm for Two-Photon Calcium Imaging Data. eNeuro 2017; 4:eN-MNT-0012-17. [PMID: 29085906 PMCID: PMC5661356 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0012-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Revised: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We present an algorithm for detecting the location of cells from two-photon calcium imaging data. In our framework, multiple coupled active contours evolve, guided by a model-based cost function, to identify cell boundaries. An active contour seeks to partition a local region into two subregions, a cell interior and exterior, in which all pixels have maximally “similar” time courses. This simple, local model allows contours to be evolved predominantly independently. When contours are sufficiently close, their evolution is coupled, in a manner that permits overlap. We illustrate the ability of the proposed method to demix overlapping cells on real data. The proposed framework is flexible, incorporating no prior information regarding a cell’s morphology or stereotypical temporal activity, which enables the detection of cells with diverse properties. We demonstrate algorithm performance on a challenging mouse in vitro dataset, containing synchronously spiking cells, and a manually labelled mouse in vivo dataset, on which ABLE (the proposed method) achieves a 67.5% success rate.
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55
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Aghayee S, Winkowski DE, Bowen Z, Marshall EE, Harrington MJ, Kanold PO, Losert W. Particle Tracking Facilitates Real Time Capable Motion Correction in 2D or 3D Two-Photon Imaging of Neuronal Activity. Front Neural Circuits 2017; 11:56. [PMID: 28860973 PMCID: PMC5559509 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2017.00056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The application of 2-photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM) techniques to measure the dynamics of cellular calcium signals in populations of neurons is an extremely powerful technique for characterizing neural activity within the central nervous system. The use of TPLSM on awake and behaving subjects promises new insights into how neural circuit elements cooperatively interact to form sensory perceptions and generate behavior. A major challenge in imaging such preparations is unavoidable animal and tissue movement, which leads to shifts in the imaging location (jitter). The presence of image motion can lead to artifacts, especially since quantification of TPLSM images involves analysis of fluctuations in fluorescence intensities for each neuron, determined from small regions of interest (ROIs). Here, we validate a new motion correction approach to compensate for motion of TPLSM images in the superficial layers of auditory cortex of awake mice. We use a nominally uniform fluorescent signal as a secondary signal to complement the dynamic signals from genetically encoded calcium indicators. We tested motion correction for single plane time lapse imaging as well as multiplane (i.e., volume) time lapse imaging of cortical tissue. Our procedure of motion correction relies on locating the brightest neurons and tracking their positions over time using established techniques of particle finding and tracking. We show that our tracking based approach provides subpixel resolution without compromising speed. Unlike most established methods, our algorithm also captures deformations of the field of view and thus can compensate e.g., for rotations. Object tracking based motion correction thus offers an alternative approach for motion correction, one that is well suited for real time spike inference analysis and feedback control, and for correcting for tissue distortions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samira Aghayee
- Department of Physics, University of MarylandCollege Park, MD, United States.,Department of Biology, University of MarylandCollege Park, MD, United States
| | - Daniel E Winkowski
- Department of Biology, University of MarylandCollege Park, MD, United States
| | - Zachary Bowen
- Department of Physics, University of MarylandCollege Park, MD, United States.,Department of Biology, University of MarylandCollege Park, MD, United States
| | - Erin E Marshall
- Department of Physics, University of MarylandCollege Park, MD, United States
| | - Matt J Harrington
- Department of Physics, University of MarylandCollege Park, MD, United States
| | - Patrick O Kanold
- Department of Biology, University of MarylandCollege Park, MD, United States
| | - Wolfgang Losert
- Department of Physics, University of MarylandCollege Park, MD, United States
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56
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Toward Better Genetically Encoded Sensors of Membrane Potential. Trends Neurosci 2017; 39:277-289. [PMID: 27130905 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2016.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Revised: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Genetically encoded optical sensors of cell activity are powerful tools that can be targeted to specific cell types. This is especially important in neuroscience because individual brain regions can include a multitude of different cell types. Optical imaging allows for simultaneous recording from numerous neurons or brain regions. Optical signals of membrane potential are useful because membrane potential changes are a direct sign of both synaptic and action potentials. Here we describe recent improvements in the in vitro and in vivo signal size and kinetics of genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) and discuss their relationship to alternative sensors of neural activity.
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57
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Neuronal cell-type classification: challenges, opportunities and the path forward. Nat Rev Neurosci 2017; 18:530-546. [PMID: 28775344 DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2017.85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 476] [Impact Index Per Article: 68.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Neurons have diverse molecular, morphological, connectional and functional properties. We believe that the only realistic way to manage this complexity - and thereby pave the way for understanding the structure, function and development of brain circuits - is to group neurons into types, which can then be analysed systematically and reproducibly. However, neuronal classification has been challenging both technically and conceptually. New high-throughput methods have created opportunities to address the technical challenges associated with neuronal classification by collecting comprehensive information about individual cells. Nonetheless, conceptual difficulties persist. Borrowing from the field of species taxonomy, we propose principles to be followed in the cell-type classification effort, including the incorporation of multiple, quantitative features as criteria, the use of discontinuous variation to define types and the creation of a hierarchical system to represent relationships between cells. We review the progress of classifying cell types in the retina and cerebral cortex and propose a staged approach for moving forward with a systematic cell-type classification in the nervous system.
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58
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Reversible Disruption of Neuronal Mitochondria by Ischemic and Traumatic Injury Revealed by Quantitative Two-Photon Imaging in the Neocortex of Anesthetized Mice. J Neurosci 2017; 37:333-348. [PMID: 28077713 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1510-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Revised: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria play a variety of functional roles in cortical neurons, from metabolic support and neuroprotection to the release of cytokines that trigger apoptosis. In dendrites, mitochondrial structure is closely linked to their function, and fragmentation (fission) of the normally elongated mitochondria indicates loss of their function under pathological conditions, such as stroke and brain trauma. Using in vivo two-photon microscopy in mouse brain, we quantified mitochondrial fragmentation in a full spectrum of cortical injuries, ranging from severe to mild. Severe global ischemic injury was induced by bilateral common carotid artery occlusion, whereas severe focal stroke injury was induced by Rose Bengal photosensitization. The moderate and mild traumatic injury was inflicted by focal laser lesion and by mild photo-damage, respectively. Dendritic and mitochondrial structural changes were tracked longitudinally using transgenic mice expressing fluorescent proteins localized either in cytosol or in mitochondrial matrix. In response to severe injury, mitochondrial fragmentation developed in parallel with dendritic damage signified by dendritic beading. Reconstruction from serial section electron microscopy confirmed mitochondrial fragmentation. Unlike dendritic beading, fragmentation spread beyond the injury core in focal stroke and focal laser lesion models. In moderate and mild injury, mitochondrial fragmentation was reversible with full recovery of structural integrity after 1-2 weeks. The transient fragmentation observed in the mild photo-damage model was associated with changes in dendritic spine density without any signs of dendritic damage. Our findings indicate that alterations in neuronal mitochondria structure are very sensitive to the tissue damage and can be reversible in ischemic and traumatic injuries. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT During ischemic stroke or brain trauma, mitochondria can either protect neurons by supplying ATP and adsorbing excessive Ca2+, or kill neurons by releasing proapoptotic factors. Mitochondrial function is tightly linked to their morphology: healthy mitochondria are thin and long; dysfunctional mitochondria are thick (swollen) and short (fragmented). To date, fragmentation of mitochondria was studied either in dissociated cultured neurons or in brain slices, but not in the intact living brain. Using real-time in vivo two-photon microscopy, we quantified mitochondrial fragmentation during acute pathological conditions that mimic severe, moderate, and mild brain injury. We demonstrated that alterations in neuronal mitochondria structural integrity can be reversible in traumatic and ischemic injuries, highlighting mitochondria as a potential target for therapeutic interventions.
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59
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Chen TW, Li N, Daie K, Svoboda K. A Map of Anticipatory Activity in Mouse Motor Cortex. Neuron 2017; 94:866-879.e4. [PMID: 28521137 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Revised: 01/29/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Activity in the mouse anterior lateral motor cortex (ALM) instructs directional movements, often seconds before movement initiation. It is unknown whether this preparatory activity is localized to ALM or widely distributed within motor cortex. Here we imaged activity across motor cortex while mice performed a whisker-based object localization task with a delayed, directional licking response. During tactile sensation and the delay epoch, object location was represented in motor cortex areas that are medial and posterior relative to ALM, including vibrissal motor cortex. Preparatory activity appeared first in deep layers of ALM, seconds before the behavioral response, and remained localized to ALM until the behavioral response. Later, widely distributed neurons represented the outcome of the trial. Cortical area was more predictive of neuronal selectivity than laminar location or axonal projection target. Motor cortex therefore represents sensory, motor, and outcome information in a spatially organized manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsai-Wen Chen
- Janelia Research Campus, HHMI, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA; Institute of Neuroscience, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, 112 Taiwan
| | - Nuo Li
- Janelia Research Campus, HHMI, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
| | - Kayvon Daie
- Janelia Research Campus, HHMI, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
| | - Karel Svoboda
- Janelia Research Campus, HHMI, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA.
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60
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Romano SA, Pérez-Schuster V, Jouary A, Boulanger-Weill J, Candeo A, Pietri T, Sumbre G. An integrated calcium imaging processing toolbox for the analysis of neuronal population dynamics. PLoS Comput Biol 2017; 13:e1005526. [PMID: 28591182 PMCID: PMC5479595 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Revised: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of new imaging and optogenetics techniques to study the dynamics of large neuronal circuits is generating datasets of unprecedented volume and complexity, demanding the development of appropriate analysis tools. We present a comprehensive computational workflow for the analysis of neuronal population calcium dynamics. The toolbox includes newly developed algorithms and interactive tools for image pre-processing and segmentation, estimation of significant single-neuron single-trial signals, mapping event-related neuronal responses, detection of activity-correlated neuronal clusters, exploration of population dynamics, and analysis of clusters' features against surrogate control datasets. The modules are integrated in a modular and versatile processing pipeline, adaptable to different needs. The clustering module is capable of detecting flexible, dynamically activated neuronal assemblies, consistent with the distributed population coding of the brain. We demonstrate the suitability of the toolbox for a variety of calcium imaging datasets. The toolbox open-source code, a step-by-step tutorial and a case study dataset are available at https://github.com/zebrain-lab/Toolbox-Romano-et-al.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastián A. Romano
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, Inserm, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS, IBENS, Paris, France
- Instituto de Investigación en Biomedicina de Buenos Aires – CONICET – Partner Institute of the Max Planck Society, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Verónica Pérez-Schuster
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, Inserm, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS, IBENS, Paris, France
| | - Adrien Jouary
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, Inserm, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS, IBENS, Paris, France
| | - Jonathan Boulanger-Weill
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, Inserm, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS, IBENS, Paris, France
| | - Alessia Candeo
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, Inserm, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS, IBENS, Paris, France
| | - Thomas Pietri
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, Inserm, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS, IBENS, Paris, France
| | - Germán Sumbre
- Ecole Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, Inserm, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS, IBENS, Paris, France
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61
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Deán-Ben XL, Gottschalk S, Sela G, Shoham S, Razansky D. Functional optoacoustic neuro-tomography of calcium fluxes in adult zebrafish brain in vivo. OPTICS LETTERS 2017; 42:959-962. [PMID: 28248341 DOI: 10.1364/ol.42.000959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Genetically-encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) have revolutionized neuroimaging by enabling mapping of the activity of entire neuronal populations in vivo. Visualization of these powerful activity sensors has to date been limited to depth-restricted microscopic studies due to intense light scattering in the brain. We demonstrate, for the first time, in vivo real-time volumetric optoacoustic monitoring of calcium transients in adult transgenic zebrafish expressing the GCaMP5G calcium indicator. Fast changes in optoacoustic traces associated with GCaMP5G activity were detectable in the presence of other strongly absorbing endogenous chromophores, such as hemoglobin. The new functional optoacoustic neuroimaging method can visualize neural activity at penetration depths and spatio-temporal resolution scales not covered with the existing neuroimaging techniques.
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62
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Mano O, Clark DA. Graphics Processing Unit-Accelerated Code for Computing Second-Order Wiener Kernels and Spike-Triggered Covariance. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0169842. [PMID: 28068420 PMCID: PMC5222505 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensory neuroscience seeks to understand and predict how sensory neurons respond to stimuli. Nonlinear components of neural responses are frequently characterized by the second-order Wiener kernel and the closely-related spike-triggered covariance (STC). Recent advances in data acquisition have made it increasingly common and computationally intensive to compute second-order Wiener kernels/STC matrices. In order to speed up this sort of analysis, we developed a graphics processing unit (GPU)-accelerated module that computes the second-order Wiener kernel of a system's response to a stimulus. The generated kernel can be easily transformed for use in standard STC analyses. Our code speeds up such analyses by factors of over 100 relative to current methods that utilize central processing units (CPUs). It works on any modern GPU and may be integrated into many data analysis workflows. This module accelerates data analysis so that more time can be spent exploring parameter space and interpreting data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omer Mano
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Damon A. Clark
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Department of Physics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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63
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O'Shea DJ, Trautmann E, Chandrasekaran C, Stavisky S, Kao JC, Sahani M, Ryu S, Deisseroth K, Shenoy KV. The need for calcium imaging in nonhuman primates: New motor neuroscience and brain-machine interfaces. Exp Neurol 2017; 287:437-451. [PMID: 27511294 PMCID: PMC5154795 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Revised: 06/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A central goal of neuroscience is to understand how populations of neurons coordinate and cooperate in order to give rise to perception, cognition, and action. Nonhuman primates (NHPs) are an attractive model with which to understand these mechanisms in humans, primarily due to the strong homology of their brains and the cognitively sophisticated behaviors they can be trained to perform. Using electrode recordings, the activity of one to a few hundred individual neurons may be measured electrically, which has enabled many scientific findings and the development of brain-machine interfaces. Despite these successes, electrophysiology samples sparsely from neural populations and provides little information about the genetic identity and spatial micro-organization of recorded neurons. These limitations have spurred the development of all-optical methods for neural circuit interrogation. Fluorescent calcium signals serve as a reporter of neuronal responses, and when combined with post-mortem optical clearing techniques such as CLARITY, provide dense recordings of neuronal populations, spatially organized and annotated with genetic and anatomical information. Here, we advocate that this methodology, which has been of tremendous utility in smaller animal models, can and should be developed for use with NHPs. We review here several of the key opportunities and challenges for calcium-based optical imaging in NHPs. We focus on motor neuroscience and brain-machine interface design as representative domains of opportunity within the larger field of NHP neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J O'Shea
- Neurosciences Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | - Eric Trautmann
- Neurosciences Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | | | - Sergey Stavisky
- Neurosciences Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | - Jonathan C Kao
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | - Maneesh Sahani
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States; Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, University College London, London W1T 4JG, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Ryu
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States; Department of Neurosurgery, Palo Alto Medical Foundation, Palo Alto, CA 94301, United States
| | - Karl Deisseroth
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | - Krishna V Shenoy
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States; Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States; Deparment of Neurobiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States.
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64
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Sofroniew NJ, Flickinger D, King J, Svoboda K. A large field of view two-photon mesoscope with subcellular resolution for in vivo imaging. eLife 2016; 5:e14472. [PMID: 27300105 PMCID: PMC4951199 DOI: 10.7554/elife.14472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 361] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Imaging is used to map activity across populations of neurons. Microscopes with cellular resolution have small (.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel Flickinger
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | | | - Karel Svoboda
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
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65
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Dana H, Mohar B, Sun Y, Narayan S, Gordus A, Hasseman JP, Tsegaye G, Holt GT, Hu A, Walpita D, Patel R, Macklin JJ, Bargmann CI, Ahrens MB, Schreiter ER, Jayaraman V, Looger LL, Svoboda K, Kim DS. Sensitive red protein calcium indicators for imaging neural activity. eLife 2016; 5:e12727. [PMID: 27011354 PMCID: PMC4846379 DOI: 10.7554/elife.12727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 609] [Impact Index Per Article: 76.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) allow measurement of activity in large populations of neurons and in small neuronal compartments, over times of milliseconds to months. Although GFP-based GECIs are widely used for in vivo neurophysiology, GECIs with red-shifted excitation and emission spectra have advantages for in vivo imaging because of reduced scattering and absorption in tissue, and a consequent reduction in phototoxicity. However, current red GECIs are inferior to the state-of-the-art GFP-based GCaMP6 indicators for detecting and quantifying neural activity. Here we present improved red GECIs based on mRuby (jRCaMP1a, b) and mApple (jRGECO1a), with sensitivity comparable to GCaMP6. We characterized the performance of the new red GECIs in cultured neurons and in mouse, Drosophila, zebrafish and C. elegans in vivo. Red GECIs facilitate deep-tissue imaging, dual-color imaging together with GFP-based reporters, and the use of optogenetics in combination with calcium imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hod Dana
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Boaz Mohar
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
- Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yi Sun
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Sujatha Narayan
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Andrew Gordus
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, United States
| | - Jeremy P Hasseman
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Getahun Tsegaye
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Graham T Holt
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Amy Hu
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Deepika Walpita
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Ronak Patel
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - John J Macklin
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Cornelia I Bargmann
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, United States
| | - Misha B Ahrens
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Eric R Schreiter
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Vivek Jayaraman
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Loren L Looger
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Karel Svoboda
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Douglas S Kim
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
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66
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Dana H, Mohar B, Sun Y, Narayan S, Gordus A, Hasseman JP, Tsegaye G, Holt GT, Hu A, Walpita D, Patel R, Macklin JJ, Bargmann CI, Ahrens MB, Schreiter ER, Jayaraman V, Looger LL, Svoboda K, Kim DS. Sensitive red protein calcium indicators for imaging neural activity. eLife 2016; 5:e12727. [PMID: 27011354 DOI: 10.7554/elife.1272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) allow measurement of activity in large populations of neurons and in small neuronal compartments, over times of milliseconds to months. Although GFP-based GECIs are widely used for in vivo neurophysiology, GECIs with red-shifted excitation and emission spectra have advantages for in vivo imaging because of reduced scattering and absorption in tissue, and a consequent reduction in phototoxicity. However, current red GECIs are inferior to the state-of-the-art GFP-based GCaMP6 indicators for detecting and quantifying neural activity. Here we present improved red GECIs based on mRuby (jRCaMP1a, b) and mApple (jRGECO1a), with sensitivity comparable to GCaMP6. We characterized the performance of the new red GECIs in cultured neurons and in mouse, Drosophila, zebrafish and C. elegans in vivo. Red GECIs facilitate deep-tissue imaging, dual-color imaging together with GFP-based reporters, and the use of optogenetics in combination with calcium imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hod Dana
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Boaz Mohar
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
- Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yi Sun
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Sujatha Narayan
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Andrew Gordus
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, United States
| | - Jeremy P Hasseman
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Getahun Tsegaye
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Graham T Holt
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Amy Hu
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Deepika Walpita
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Ronak Patel
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - John J Macklin
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Cornelia I Bargmann
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, United States
| | - Misha B Ahrens
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Eric R Schreiter
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Vivek Jayaraman
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Loren L Looger
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Karel Svoboda
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Douglas S Kim
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
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67
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Dana H, Mohar B, Sun Y, Narayan S, Gordus A, Hasseman JP, Tsegaye G, Holt GT, Hu A, Walpita D, Patel R, Macklin JJ, Bargmann CI, Ahrens MB, Schreiter ER, Jayaraman V, Looger LL, Svoboda K, Kim DS. Sensitive red protein calcium indicators for imaging neural activity. eLife 2016; 5. [PMID: 27011354 DOI: 10.7554/elife.12727.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) allow measurement of activity in large populations of neurons and in small neuronal compartments, over times of milliseconds to months. Although GFP-based GECIs are widely used for in vivo neurophysiology, GECIs with red-shifted excitation and emission spectra have advantages for in vivo imaging because of reduced scattering and absorption in tissue, and a consequent reduction in phototoxicity. However, current red GECIs are inferior to the state-of-the-art GFP-based GCaMP6 indicators for detecting and quantifying neural activity. Here we present improved red GECIs based on mRuby (jRCaMP1a, b) and mApple (jRGECO1a), with sensitivity comparable to GCaMP6. We characterized the performance of the new red GECIs in cultured neurons and in mouse, Drosophila, zebrafish and C. elegans in vivo. Red GECIs facilitate deep-tissue imaging, dual-color imaging together with GFP-based reporters, and the use of optogenetics in combination with calcium imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hod Dana
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Boaz Mohar
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
- Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yi Sun
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Sujatha Narayan
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Andrew Gordus
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, United States
| | - Jeremy P Hasseman
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Getahun Tsegaye
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Graham T Holt
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Amy Hu
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Deepika Walpita
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Ronak Patel
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - John J Macklin
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Cornelia I Bargmann
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, United States
| | - Misha B Ahrens
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Eric R Schreiter
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Vivek Jayaraman
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Loren L Looger
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Karel Svoboda
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Douglas S Kim
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
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68
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Zheng Z, Caraguel F, Liao YY, Andraud C, van der Sanden B, Bretonnière Y. Photostable far-red emitting pluronic silicate nanoparticles: perfect blood pool fluorophores for biphotonic in vivo imaging of the leaky tumour vasculature. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra17438h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A new non-diffusible fluorescent probe for two photon microscopy, comprising a hydrophobic push-pull dye in the apolar core of Pluronic F127–silica nanoparticles, shows intense red emission (Φf 39% at 650 nm) and two-photon absorption properties in the NIR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Zheng
- Univ Lyon
- ENS de Lyon
- CNRS UMR 5182
- Université Lyon 1
- Laboratoire de Chimie
| | - Flavien Caraguel
- PF of Intravital Microscopy France Life Imaging & CEA-INSERM-Grenoble Alps University
- UMR S 1036
- Biology of Cancer and Infection
- Grenoble
- France
| | - Yuan-Yuan Liao
- Univ Lyon
- ENS de Lyon
- CNRS UMR 5182
- Université Lyon 1
- Laboratoire de Chimie
| | - Chantal Andraud
- Univ Lyon
- ENS de Lyon
- CNRS UMR 5182
- Université Lyon 1
- Laboratoire de Chimie
| | - Boudewijn van der Sanden
- PF of Intravital Microscopy France Life Imaging & CEA-INSERM-Grenoble Alps University
- UMR S 1036
- Biology of Cancer and Infection
- Grenoble
- France
| | - Yann Bretonnière
- Univ Lyon
- ENS de Lyon
- CNRS UMR 5182
- Université Lyon 1
- Laboratoire de Chimie
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69
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Sofroniew NJ, Vlasov YA, Hires SA, Freeman J, Svoboda K. Neural coding in barrel cortex during whisker-guided locomotion. eLife 2015; 4. [PMID: 26701910 PMCID: PMC4764557 DOI: 10.7554/elife.12559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals seek out relevant information by moving through a dynamic world, but sensory systems are usually studied under highly constrained and passive conditions that may not probe important dimensions of the neural code. Here, we explored neural coding in the barrel cortex of head-fixed mice that tracked walls with their whiskers in tactile virtual reality. Optogenetic manipulations revealed that barrel cortex plays a role in wall-tracking. Closed-loop optogenetic control of layer 4 neurons can substitute for whisker-object contact to guide behavior resembling wall tracking. We measured neural activity using two-photon calcium imaging and extracellular recordings. Neurons were tuned to the distance between the animal snout and the contralateral wall, with monotonic, unimodal, and multimodal tuning curves. This rich representation of object location in the barrel cortex could not be predicted based on simple stimulus-response relationships involving individual whiskers and likely emerges within cortical circuits. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.12559.001 Mice are primarily nocturnal animals that rely on their whiskers to navigate dark underground burrows and winding corridors. When a whisker touches an object, cells called neurons at the base of the whiskers produce electrical signals that are relayed to other neurons in an area of the brain called the barrel cortex. However, it is not clear how information is encoded in these electrical signals, in part, because it is technically challenging to collect data about neuron activity and behavior while the mice move around. To overcome these difficulties, Sofroniew, Vlasov et al. used a touch-based (or 'tactile') virtual reality system to study how mice navigate along corridors. The system simulated the contact the whiskers would have with the walls of a winding corridor. This was achieved by moving the walls with motors while holding the mouse still enough to be able to measure the activity of neurons in the barrel cortex and observe the behavior of the animal. The experiments show that the electrical signals in the barrel cortex encode information about motion as well as the distance between the mouse and the wall. For example, some neurons in the barrel cortex were only activated when a mouse was a particular distance from the walls. The experiments suggest that the barrel cortex processes signals received from several whiskers to build an overall picture of the locations and shapes of objects. Sofroniew, Vlasov et al. also used a technique called optogenetics to deliberately activate particular neurons in a manner that mimics their activity patterns during interactions with walls. In the absence of walls, the optogenetic stimuli guided the behavior of the mice so that they tracked along the paths of 'illusory' corridors. Together, these findings reveal the neural code in the barrel cortex that allows mice to navigate by touch. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.12559.002
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yurii A Vlasov
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States.,IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, New York, United States
| | - Samuel Andrew Hires
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Jeremy Freeman
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Karel Svoboda
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
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70
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Tóth E, Fabó D, Entz L, Ulbert I, Erőss L. Intracranial neuronal ensemble recordings and analysis in epilepsy. J Neurosci Methods 2015; 260:261-9. [PMID: 26453987 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2015.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Revised: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Pathological neuronal firing was demonstrated 50 years ago as the hallmark of epileptically transformed cortex with the use of implanted microelectrodes. Since then, microelectrodes remained only experimental tools in humans to detect unitary neuronal activity to reveal physiological and pathological brain functions. This recording technique has evolved substantially in the past few decades; however, based on recent human data implying their usefulness as diagnostic tools, we expect a substantial increase in the development of microelectrodes in the near future. Here, we review the technological background and history of microelectrode array development for human examinations in epilepsy, including discussions on of wire-based and microelectrode arrays fabricated using micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) techniques and novel future techniques to record neuronal ensemble. We give an overview of clinical and surgical considerations, and try to provide a list of probes on the market with their availability for human recording. Then finally, we briefly review the literature on modulation of single neuron for the treatment of epilepsy, and highlight the current topics under examination that can be background for the future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emília Tóth
- Epilepsy Centrum, National Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Budapest, Hungary; Faculty of Information Technology and Bionics, Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Dániel Fabó
- Epilepsy Centrum, National Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - László Entz
- Department of Functional Neurosurgery, National Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - István Ulbert
- Faculty of Information Technology and Bionics, Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Budapest, Hungary; Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Loránd Erőss
- Department of Functional Neurosurgery, National Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Budapest, Hungary
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