Associations between food neophobia and responsiveness to “warning” chemosensory sensations in food products in a large population sample

Arousal influences olfactory abilities in adults with different degree of food neophobia

Food neophobia, i.e., the aversion to novel foods, and olfaction are both factors strongly affecting food choices. Mounting evidence suggests a higher arousal towards food as a key factor underlying the reluctance to eat what is unfamiliar to us. As the role of olfaction behind this phenomenon is poorly understood, we explored the associations between food neophobia and trait anxiety, olfactory functions (odor threshold, discrimination and identification) and retronasal aroma release from a reference food in a healthy cohort of 83 adult volunteers. We grouped participants in Low-Neophobics or neophilics (n = 35), Medium-Neophobics (n = 32) and High-Neophobics (n = 16) according to the widely recognized Food Neophobia Scale. Participants with higher neophobic tendencies were found to have marginally higher trait anxiety levels than neophilics (p = 0.10). A lower global olfactory functioning and odor discrimination abilities characterized High-Neophobics, while Medium-Neophobics showed a higher odor sensitiveness than Low-Neophobics. Lastly, High-Neophobics showed a lower extent of retronasal aroma release, likely due to a shorter duration of oral processing and higher anxiety-related physiological responses (such as breathing rate). In summary, this study supports the assumption that the conflicting relationship that neophobics have with food may be led by higher levels of arousal toward foods, rather than different chemosensory functions.

Assessment of Lingual Tactile Sensitivity in Children and Adults: Methodological Suitability and Challenges

Few methodological approaches have been developed to measure lingual tactile sensitivity, and little information exists about the comparison between children and adults. The aims of the study were to: verify the cognitive and perceptive suitability of Von Frey filaments and a gratings orientation test in children of different ages; compare lingual tactile sensitivity between children and adults; investigate the relationships between lingual tactile sensitivity, preference and consumption of foods with different textures and level of food neophobia. One hundred and forty-seven children aged 6-13 years and their parents participated in the study, in addition to a separate sample of seventy adults. Participants filled in questionnaires, and lingual tactile sensitivity was evaluated through filaments and gratings. Results showed that gratings evaluation was more difficult than filaments assessment but enabled a better separation of participants according to their performance than filaments. R-indices from filaments were not correlated with those of gratings, suggesting that the tools measure different dimensions of lingual tactile sensitivity. No differences were found in lingual tactile sensitivity between children and adults, nor between children of different ages. Food neophobia was negatively associated with preferences of hard foods in children. Although a multifactor analysis concluded that neither texture preferences nor food consumption were strongly correlated with lingual tactile sensitivity, there was a weak but significant positive correlation between lingual tactile sensitivity to the finest Von Frey filament and food neophobia in the youngest age group, indicating that children with higher levels of food neophobia are more sensitive to oral tactile stimuli. Suitable child-friendly adaptations for the assessment of lingual sensitivity in children are discussed.

Comparison of manual and machine learning image processing approaches to determine fungiform papillae on the tongue

Human taste perception is associated with the papillae on the tongue as they contain a large proportion of chemoreceptors for basic tastes and other chemosensation. Especially the density of fungiform papillae (FP) is considered as an index for responsiveness to oral chemosensory stimuli. The standard procedure for FP counting involves visual identification and manual counting of specific parts of the tongue by trained operators. This is a tedious task and automated image analysis methods are desirable. In this paper a machine learning image processing method based on a convolutional neural network is presented. This automated method was compared with three standard manual FP counting procedures using tongue pictures from 132 subjects. Automated FP counts, within the selected areas and the whole tongue, significantly correlated with the manual counting methods (all ρs ≥ 0.76). When comparing the images for gender and PROP status, the density of FP predicted from automated analysis was in good agreement with data from the manual counting methods, especially in the case of gender. Moreover, the present results reinforce the idea that caution should be applied in considering the relationship between FP density and PROP responsiveness since this relationship can be an oversimplification of the complexity of phenomena arising at the central and peripherical levels. Indeed, no significant correlations were found between FP and PROP bitterness ratings using the automated method for selected areas or the whole tongue. Besides providing estimates of the number of FP, the machine learning approach used a tongue coordinate system that normalizes the size and shape of an individual tongue and generated a heat map of the FP position and normalized area they cover. The present study demonstrated that the machine learning approach could provide similar estimates of FP on the tongue as compared to manual counting methods and provide estimates of more difficult-to-measure parameters, such as the papillae's areas and shape.

Exploring Consumer’s Propensity to Consume Insect-Based Foods. Empirical Evidence from a Study in Southern Italy

While admitting that neophobia and sociocultural factors negatively affect consumers’ propensity to consume insect-based foods, other aspects related to food values that consumers attach to these foods could have an influence on consuming decision. In order to identify the motivations and determinants that influence the propensity to consume insects and then to explore the drivers behind consumers’ willingness to consume insect-based foods, the data collected through the questionnaire were processed. After a descriptive analysis of the data, ANOVA was performed. Moreover, Student’s t test and pairwise correlation indices were estimated in order to determine statistically significant correlation. Our findings show that information about edible insects brought about an increase in food neophobia and appearance affected the expected liking levels. In addition, we have shown that respondents’ propensity to consume insect-based foods also depends on consumers’ subjective beliefs about food values such as healthiness, naturalness and environmental impact. We also found that respondents’ beliefs about food values associated with insect-based foods do not depend on the degree of information provided but are probably due to pre-existing prejudices about them.

Sensory Characteristics Contributing to Pleasantness of Oat Product Concepts by Finnish and Chinese Consumers

Oats are increasingly popular among consumers and the food industry. While data exist on sensory characteristics of oats as such, previous studies focusing on the pleasantness of oats, and especially investigations of a wide range of oat products by European and Asian consumers, are scarce. An online questionnaire was organized in Finland (n = 381; 83.7% Finnish) focusing on the liking and familiarity of oat products, followed by sensory tests in Finland (n = 65 and n = 73) and China (n = 103) using the Check-All-That-Apply method and hedonic ratings. A questionnaire revealed that the Finnish consumers rated the pleasantness and familiarity of several oat product categories, such as breads and porridges, higher compared to participants of other ethnicities. Sensory tests showed both similarities, e.g., porridges were described as “natural”, “healthy” and “oat-like”, and differences between countries, e.g., sweet biscuits, were described as “crispy” and “hard” by Finnish consumers and “strange” and “musty” by Chinese consumers. Sweet products were unanimously preferred. The ethnicity had an important role affecting the rating of pleasantness and familiarity of oat product categories, whereas food neophobia and health interest status also had an influence. The proved healthiness of oats was a crucial factor affecting the choices of consumers and their acceptance in both countries.

Winemaking Byproducts as Source of Antioxidant Components: Consumers' Acceptance and Expectations of Phenol-Enriched Plant-Based Food

One of the food industry's priorities is to recover byproducts and move towards more sustainable systems. Among wine-chain byproducts, unripe grapes represent a promising source of antioxidants. However, the development of new foods enriched using phenol-rich ingredients is challenging due to their sensory attributes. The aims of the present study were to (1) use phenol-rich extract from unripe grapes to enrich a model plant-based food (beetroot puree-BP); (2) evaluate consumers' acceptance and expectations for the beetroot purée samples. The effect of information about the sustainability and pro-health activity of value-added ingredients on consumers' responses was also investigated. Four beetroot purees with increasing concentrations of phenol extract (0-1.93 g/kg) added were evaluated by 101 participants in three tasting conditions (blind: only samples; expected: only information without tasting; real: both samples and information).Liking slightly decreased with increasing concentrations of phenol extract, even if all the samples were considered acceptable. The health and sustainability information increased the hedonic expectations, although it was not assimilated by all consumers involved. The development of new phenol-enriched foods using functional ingredients from unripe grapes is challenging. However, it is also promising, since all the samples were generally accepted by the consumers and they presented phenol levels that were stable over time and that could have positive health effects when consumed.

Gender, Age, Geographical Area, Food Neophobia and Their Relationships with the Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet: New Insights from a Large Population Cross-Sectional Study

The Mediterranean diet (MD) is associated with many health benefits. The association between the MD and food neophobia (FN) is still unexplored in adults. The present cross-sectional study was aimed to explore the relationships between adherence to the MD, FN, and sociodemographic variables in a large Italian cohort. Familiarity and frequency use (FFI) of prototypical and non-prototypical Mediterranean foods were used to calculate a new adherence index: the Italian Taste Mediterranean Index (ITMI). The FFI of all Mediterranean foods increased with age, while butter, soft drinks, red/cured meat, and sweets were more common in younger people. Accordingly, ITMI increased with age (F_2,2384 = 54.11; p < 0.0001). Women recorded a higher ITMI (6.70) than men (6.10). Individuals with high FN showed higher FFI for soft drinks and sweets and lower ones for most typical MD foods, than individuals with low FNs. A decrease of ITMI was recorded with the increase of the FN(F_2,2384 = 22.84; p < 0.0001). With ageing, ITMI increased even in individuals with a high FN. The results suggest that FN may negatively affect adherence to the MD, lowering its potential health benefits, in the adult population. Monitoring of food habits, dietary education, and anxiety management, may be valuable tools to control FN and support the adherence to the MD.

Factors related to sensory properties and consumer acceptance of vegetables

Many consumers perceive the bitter taste or other sensory characteristic of vegetables as unpleasant, posing a challenge to dietary recommendations aiming to increase vegetable consumption. Food experience is multisensory, with complex interactions between the senses and individual differences in sensory perception. This review focuses on the factors affecting sensory properties of vegetables and sensory perception of vegetables among adults. Topical examples of sensory quality and evaluation of vegetable samples are presented. Cultivar and growing conditions are related to the internal sensory quality of vegetables. The effects of different processing methods, such as freezing and cooking, on the sensory properties of vegetables are also reviewed. Flavor modification of vegetables with seasonings may be used to improve palatability and incorporating vegetables to meals may increase the intake of vegetables. Recently, external factors (e.g. visual and odor stimuli) have been tested in multisensory research in the context of vegetable perception and choice. These options to achieve better sensory quality, more palatable meals and pleasant eating context may be used to promote vegetable intake among adults.

Gender Differences in Fat-Rich Meat Choice: Influence of Personality and Attitudes

The innate liking of fats may be due to one or more orosensory, post-ingestive, and metabolic signals; however, individuals differ in their preference for fat in meat. One of the variables that mainly impacts eating behaviors and thus should be carefully analyzed is sex/gender, and while sex (female/male, in a binary approximation) refers only to biological characteristics, gender (woman/man, in a binary approximation) refers to cultural attitudes and behavior. This study aimed at exploring the role of gender, age, taste responsiveness (measured as sensitivity to the bitterness of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP)), personality traits, attitudes, and liking of and familiarity with meat on the choice of fat-rich meat products in 1208 women and men aged 18–66. Both a between- and a within-gender approach were adopted. Results showed that gender had a major impact on liking of and familiarity with meat and choice for fat-rich meat compared to age. A lower liking meat in general was found in women, independently of fat content. Women also reported a lower familiarity than men with fatty meat and cold meat and a lower choice of fat-rich meat. Genders differed in the influence of personality and attitudes about fat-rich meat choice. In both genders, the choice of meat higher in fat was associated with liking cold and fatty meat and with age and negatively with liking low-fat meat. Women were in general more interested in health than men, and this may explain the main difference in the choice of fat-rich meat between genders. However, when we look at each gender separately, general health interest was significantly correlated with a lower choice of fat-rich meat only in men. In addition, in men food neophobia was negatively correlated with choice of fat-rich meat. In women, the emotional dimension was found to play an important role, with sensitivity to disgust that was negatively associated with fat-rich meat choice and emotional eating that was positively associated with it. Thanks to the large sample and the gender-sensitive approach adopted, this study showed that different factors affect choice of fat-rich meat by gender, in addition to liking of and familiarity with fat-rich and cold meat and age. This suggests that strategies personalized by gender to reinforce or activate barriers to this type of consumption may be more effective at reducing fat intake, promoting the consumption of meat lower in fat.

Taste sensitivity and lifestyle are associated with food preferences and BMI in children

Oral food perception together with lifestyle may affect food preferences and choices, influencing weight gain and obesity development. The present study was designed to evaluate the association of biological (taste sensitivity) and lifestyle variables with children food preferences, assessing whether all these variables contribute to explain BMI percentile. After anthropometric evaluation, 387 children were classified for bitter and sweet taste sensitivities. Socioeconomic/lifestyle aspects and hedonics for 36 foods were collected. Watching TV during meals associate with lower preference for several vegetables, as well as being sweet taste low sensitive, in the case of girls. Moreover, regression analysis showed that bitter taste sensitivity is one of the variables contributing to explain high BMI percentiles. These results present evidences that both biological and socioeconomic and the attention that is given to food (eating in the presence or absence of distractors) are aspects that should be considered in children nutrition to prevent obesity.

Ethnic Food Consumption in Italy: The Role of Food Neophobia and Openness to Different Cultures

While the ethnic food market has become increasingly important in Italy, the effects of the hybridization of consumption patterns have been slowed by a consolidated culinary tradition. This study investigates the relationships among ethnic food consumption, food neophobia, and openness to different cultures with sociodemographic characteristics. A sample of 1317 Italian consumers responded to an online survey. The sociodemographic profile of the neophobic consumer appears to substantially differ from that of the consumer with an attitude of openness. Neophobic respondents are males, are older than 55 years of age, are less educated, have children, are retired, have difficulty meeting their financial responsibilities, and do not eat ethnic food. Respondents who are more open to different cultures are young adults, are highly educated, have no children, are employed, and are consumers of ethnic food. The relationship between food neophobia and openness to different cultures is confirmed to be the relationship between these variables and ethnic food consumption. The measurement of these characteristics could serve as a crucial indicator for analyzing the willingness to accept elements of novelty in an increasingly multicultural society. Additionally, consumers with the neophobic trait and who are less open to different cultures might have a less varied diet that is essential to good health.

Measuring consumer emotional response and acceptance to sustainable food products

With current global challenges such as population growth, climate change and water scarcity, it is critical to develop sustainable strategies to achieve food security. One way to tackle this is by developing new products that use alternative and more sustainable ingredients. Bambara groundnut is a low-impact African legume as it can be grown on marginal soils and is resistant to high temperatures. The aim of this study was to investigate UK consumer acceptability and emotional response to snack products containing Bambara groundnut flour as an alternative sustainable ingredient. A key objective was to understand the contribution that measuring emotional response would reveal. Additionally the impact of extrinsic information on consumer acceptability and emotional response to snack products was investigated by sharing information concerning Bambara groundnut's sustainability and nutritional credentials. 100 UK participants were recruited to evaluate two biscotti and two cracker products. For each category a standard product made from standard ingredients sourced commercially, and one made replacing some of standard flour with Bambara flour were obtained. For each sample, participants were asked to rate their overall liking and emotional response based on sensory properties of the product (the blind condition). Participants were invited back for a second session, where they were informed about global resource challenges, and the sustainable features and nutritional value of Bambara, and which products contained this as an ingredient (informed condition). Under the blind condition, no significant differences in overall liking were observed between standard and Bambara products, indicating UK consumers accept the sensory properties of products that contain Bambara flour. Interestingly, the extrinsic information shifted consumer emotional response towards more positive emotions and less negative emotions when consuming products containing Bambara flour. It also made them felt less guilty when consuming the Bambara products, suggesting consumers engage with the idea of sustainable ingredients, and that this sustainable ingredient has potential for future new product development. It also highlighted the value of measuring emotional response for novel products to understand what may drive purchase behaviour when products are matched for liking. Food neophobia status did not impact product acceptability and emotional response between Bambara and standard products, however overall a lower emotional response was found for medium neophobic consumers in general who are more likely to evade novel products.

Effect of Vitamin D2 Fortification Using Pleurotus ostreatus in a Whole-Grain Cereal Product on Child Acceptability

Vitamin D₂ deficiency is one of the most common micronutrient insufficiencies among children. Few foods, mainly those derived from animal sources, naturally contain this vitamin. The basidiomycete mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus could be used as an innovative and sustainable ingredient for food fortification with vitamin D₂. This study was aimed at exploring children’s acceptance of a whole-cereal-based product (breadsticks) combined with increasing concentrations of P. ostreatus powder rich in vitamin D₂. The food neophobia trait (fear of trying unfamiliar and new food) on sample acceptability was also investigated. One hundred and three children (47 girls and 56 boys, aged 9–11 years) were recruited, and breadstick-liking was studied in relation to gender and neophobic traits. Results showed that the samples enriched in vitamin D₂ were well accepted by children even if liking decreased with increasing concentration of mushroom powder. Generally, neophilic subjects gave higher liking scores compared with the neophobic ones, especially for the modified samples. New, well-accepted fortified products could be developed using an adequate concentration of mushroom powder to deal with the increasing vitamin D₂ deficiency among children.

Acceptance of a New Food Enriched in β-Glucans among Adolescents: Effects of Food Technology Neophobia and Healthy Food Habits

The aim of the present study was to evaluate adolescents’ acceptability of a novel flat bread modified by substituting a part of the wheat flour content with a Pleurotus ostreatus powder rich in β-glucans, which can potentially provide health benefits. The effects of food technology neophobia and adolescents’ food habits on hedonic perception of the developed product was also investigated. Two hundred and two adolescents (age range: 13–18 years; girls: 49.5%; boys: 50.5%) evaluated their liking of two flat breads, one with mushroom powder added and one control sample with only wheat flour. Sample acceptance was studied in relation to age, gender, neophobic traits and healthy food habits. The results showed that, even if the sample with mushroom powder added was generally well accepted, there were different hedonic responses among adolescents according to their food technology neophobia level and healthy habits. In particular, adolescents with a low food technology neophobia level and healthy eating behavior mostly appreciated the sample with mushroom powder added, whereas subjects with neophobic and unhealthy eating behavior gave comparable hedonic scores to the two samples. Moreover, a negative correlation was found between food technology neophobia level and healthy food habits. In conclusion, it is possible to develop a β-glucan-enriched product appreciated by adolescents using a sustainable ingredient. The developed product may be used to achieve the daily recommended intake of β-glucans by adolescents.

Taste perception and oral microbiota are associated with obesity in children and adolescents

Obesity in childhood and adolescence is considered the most prevalent nutritional disorder, in which eating behaviours represent one important factors of influence. Many aspects influence eating behaviours, but taste is considered the main predictor. However, data concerning correlations of obesity, taste sensitivity and behavioural attitudes, such as food neophobia, in children and adolescents are inconsistent. Moreover, it has been suggested that oral bacteria could have a possible role in obesity development and, also, in taste perception. In this context, the present study focused on host related factors with a proposed link to weight gain. To this purpose, taste sensitivity, salivary microbiota composition and food neophobia were compared between children and adolescents with and without obesity in a cross-sectional study. Results showed that children with obesity presented a significantly lower ability in correctly identifying taste qualities and were characterized by a lesser number of Fungiform Papillae (reported as FP/cm2) compared to normal-weight subjects. Differences in the ecological indexes of microbial alpha-diversity was found between subjects with obesity and normal-weight ones. Moreover, independently from nutritional status, some bacterial genera seemed to differ between subjects with different sensitivity. The potentiality of this multidisciplinary approach could help to better understand and deepen the sensory-driven and microbiological factors related to weight gain.

Influences of Psychological Traits and PROP Taster Status on Familiarity with and Choice of Phenol-Rich Foods and Beverages

Plant phenolics are powerful antioxidants and free radical scavengers that can contribute to the healthy functional properties of plant-based food and beverages. Thus, dietary behaviours rich in plant-based food and beverages are encouraged. However, it is well-known that the bitter taste and other low-appealing sensory properties that characterize vegetables and some other plant-based foods act as an innate barrier for their acceptance. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of psychological traits and PROP status (the responsiveness to bitter taste of 6-n- propylthiouracil) on the choice of and familiarity with phenol-rich vegetables and beverages varying in recalled level of bitterness and astringency. Study 1 aimed at assessing the variations of the sensory properties of vegetable and coffee/tea items with two check-all-that-apply (CATA) questionnaires (n = 201 and n = 188 individuals, respectively). Study 2 aimed at investigating how sensitivity to punishment, to reward, and to disgust, food neophobia, private body consciousness, alexithymia, and PROP responsiveness affect choice and familiarity with phenol-rich foods (n = 1200 individuals). A Choice Index was calculated for vegetables (CV) and coffee/tea (CC) as a mean of the choices of the more bitter/astringent option of the pairs and four Familiarity Indices were computed for vegetables (FV) and coffee/tea (FC), higher (+) or lower (-) in bitterness and astringency. Subjects higher in food neophobia, sensitivity to punishment or sensitivity to disgust reported significantly lower choice indices than individuals lower in these traits, meaning that they systematically opted for the least bitter/astringent option within the pairs. Familiarity with vegetables was lower in individuals high in sensitivity to punishment, in food neophobia and in alexithymia, irrespective of their sensory properties. The Familiarity Index with coffee/tea characterized by higher bitterness and astringency was lower in individuals high in food neophobia, sensitivity to disgust, and alexithymia. No significant effect of PROP was found on any indices. The proposed approach based on product grouping according to differences in bitterness and astringency allowed the investigation of the role of individual differences in chemosensory perception and of psychological traits as modulators of phenol-rich foods preference and consumption.

New insights into the relationship between taste perception and oral microbiota composition

Fairly poor data are available on the relationship between taste perception, food preferences and oral microbiota. In the present study, we investigated the hypothesis that subjects with higher responsiveness to 6-n-propylthiuracil (PROP) might be characterized by a different taste sensitivity and tongue microbiota composition. Indeed, the bacterial metabolism may modulate/enhance the concentration of tastants near the taste receptors, modifying taste perception through a sensorial adaptation mechanism or by a broad range of microbial metabolic pathways. The detection thresholds of sweet, sour, salty and bitter, the Fungiform Papillae Density (FPD) and the composition of bacteria lining the tongue were determined in Supertasters (high PROP responsiveness, ST) and Non-tasters (low PROP responsiveness, NT). An important inter-individual variability was found for all taste stimuli and FPD between the two groups, with NT subjects showing significant higher threshold values and a lower FPD than with STs. We found five bacterial genera whose relative abundances were significantly higher in STs than NTs. This study opens new avenues of research by highlighting associations between parameters usually studied independently.

A bitter taste in the mouth: The role of 6-n-propylthiouracil taster status and sex in food disgust sensitivity

We investigated the relationship between perceived bitterness, food disgust sensitivity, and sex. Participants completed the 8-item Food Disgust Scale and a 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) taster test and were categorised as PROP non-tasters, medium-tasters, or supertasters. An analysis of variance of between-subject factors sex and PROP taster status was conducted with disgust sensitivity as the dependent variable. We found a significant interaction of sex and PROP taster status on disgust sensitivity and an association between disgust sensitivity and PROP taster status in males but not in females. Our study provided new evidence on sex differences in food disgust and PROP taste sensitivity.

Health Innovation in Patty Products. The Role of Food Neophobia in Consumers' Non-Hypothetical Willingness to Pay, Purchase Intention and Hedonic Evaluation

Consumers’ personality traits are key factors in understanding consumers’ choice and acceptance for health innovations in food products, in particular, food neophobia (FN). The patty product as a traditional pork product (TPP) with two innovative traditional pork products (ITPP) from the untapped pig breed (Porc Negre Mallorquí) in Spain were analysed. Patties were enriched with Porcini (Boletus edulis) using the claim “enriched with a natural source of dietary fiber Beta glucans that may contribute to improve our defence system” (ITPP1) and enriched with blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum) using the claim “enriched with a natural source of antioxidant that may help to prevent cardiovascular diseases” (ITPP2). Two non-hypothetical discrete choice experiments were applied to investigate the importance of FN in consumers’ purchase intention (PI) and willingness to pay (WTP) before and after tasting the products. Results showed that the TPP and the ITPP2 received higher than expected PI and WTP. However, after tasting the products, consumers exhibited lower WTP for all ITPP showing the prevalence of the sensory experience on health innovation. The FN was highly related to WTP before the hedonic evaluation. However, it turned out to be non-significant, showing a homogenising role of the sensory experience in reducing the FN impact.