A model of globin evolution

X-ray crystallographic structural characteristics of Arabidopsis hemoglobin I and their functional implications

Genome of the model dicot flowering plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, a popular tool for understanding molecular biology of plant physiology, encodes all three classes of plant hemoglobins that differ in their sequence, ligand binding and spectral properties. As such these globins are of considerable attention. Crystal structures of few members of plant class I nonsymbiotic hemoglobin have been described earlier. Here we report the crystal structure of Arabidopsis class I hemoglobin (AHb1) to 2.2Ǻ and compare its key features with the structures of similar nonsymbiotic hemoglobin from other species. Crystal structure of AHb1 is homologous to the related members with similar globin fold and heme pocket architecture. The structure is homodimeric in the asymmetric unit with both distal and proximal histidines coordinating to the heme iron atom. Residues lining the dimeric interface are also conserved in AHb1 with the exception of additional electrostatic interaction between H112 and E113 of each subunit and that involving Y119 through two water molecules. In addition, differences in heme pocket non-covalent interactions, a novel Ser residue at F7 position, Xe binding site variability, internal cavity topology differences, CD loop conformation and stability and other such properties might explain kinetic variability in AHb1. Detailed cavity analysis of AHb1 showed the presence of a novel long tunnel connecting the distal pockets of both the monomers. Presence of such tunnel, along with conformational heterogeneity observed in the two chains, might suggest cooperative ligand binding and support its role in NO scavenging. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Oxygen Binding and Sensing Proteins.

Functional and structural roles of the N-terminal extension in Methanosarcina acetivorans protoglobin

Functional and structural properties of protoglobin from Methanosarcina acetivorans, whose Cys(101)E20 residue was mutated to Ser (MaPgb*), and of mutants missing either the first 20 N-terminal amino acids (MaPgb*-ΔN20 mutant), or the first 33 N-terminal amino acids [N-terminal loop of 20 amino acids and a 13-residue Z-helix, preceding the globin fold A-helix; (MaPgb*-ΔN20Z mutant)] have been investigated. In keeping with the MaPgb*-ΔN20 mutant crystal structure, here reported at 2.0Å resolution, which shows an increased exposure of the haem propionates to the solvent, the analysis of ligand binding kinetics highlights high accessibility of ligands to the haem pocket in ferric MaPgb*-ΔN20. CO binding to ferrous MaPgb*-ΔN20 displays a marked biphasic behavior, with a fast binding process close to that observed in MaPgb* and a slow carbonylation process, characterized by a rate-limiting step. Conversely, removal of the first 33 residues induces a substantial perturbation of the overall MaPgb* structure, with loss of α-helical content and potential partial collapse of the protein chain. As such, ligand binding kinetics are characterized by very slow rates that are independent of ligand concentration, this being indicative of a high energy barrier for ligand access to the haem, possibly due to localized misfolding. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Oxygen Binding and Sensing Proteins.

Conservation of globin genes in the "living fossil" Latimeria chalumnae and reconstruction of the evolution of the vertebrate globin family

The (hemo-)globins are among the best-investigated proteins in biomedical sciences. These small heme-proteins play an important role in oxygen supply, but may also have other functions. In addition to well known hemoglobin and myoglobin, six other vertebrate globin types have been identified in recent years: neuroglobin, cytoglobin, globin E, globin X, globin Y, and androglobin. Analyses of the genome of the "living fossil" Latimeria chalumnae show that the coelacanth is the only known vertebrate that includes all eight globin types. Thus, Latimeria can also be considered as a "globin fossil". Analyses of gene synteny and phylogenetic reconstructions allow us to trace the evolution and the functional changes of the vertebrate globin family. Neuroglobin and globin X diverged from the other globin types before the separation of Protostomia and Deuterostomia. The cytoglobins, which are unlikely to be involved in O2 supply, form the earliest globin branch within the jawed vertebrates (Gnathostomata), but do not group with the agnathan hemoglobins, as it has been proposed before. There is strong evidence from phylogenetic reconstructions and gene synteny that the eye-specific globin E and muscle-specific myoglobin constitute a common clade, suggesting a similar role in intracellular O2 supply. Latimeria possesses two α- and two β-hemoglobin chains, of which one α-chain emerged prior to the divergence of Actinopterygii and Sarcopterygii, but has been retained only in the coelacanth. Notably, the embryonic hemoglobin α-chains of Gnathostomata derive from a common ancestor, while the embryonic β-chains - with the exception of a more complex pattern in the coelacanth and amphibians - display a clade-specific evolution. Globin Y is associated with the hemoglobin gene cluster, but its phylogenetic position is not resolved. Our data show an early divergence of distinct globin types in the vertebrate evolution before the emergence of tetrapods. The subsequent loss of globins in certain taxa may be associated with changes in the oxygen-dependent metabolism. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Oxygen Binding and Sensing Proteins.

The globins of cyanobacteria and algae

Approximately, 20 years ago, a haemoglobin gene was identified within the genome of the cyanobacterium Nostoc commune. Haemoglobins have now been confirmed in multiple species of photosynthetic microbes beyond N. commune, and the diversity of these proteins has recently come under increased scrutiny. This chapter summarizes the state of knowledge concerning the phylogeny, physiology and chemistry of globins in cyanobacteria and green algae. Sequence information is by far the best developed and the most rapidly expanding aspect of the field. Structural and ligand-binding properties have been described for just a few proteins. Physiological data are available for even fewer. Although activities such as nitric oxide dioxygenation and oxygen scavenging are strong candidates for cellular function, dedicated studies will be required to complete the story on this intriguing and ancient group of proteins.

Microbial eukaryote globins

A bioinformatics survey of about 120 protist and 240 fungal genomes and transcriptomes revealed a broad array of globins, representing five of the eight subfamilies identified in bacteria. Most conspicuous is the absence of protoglobins and globin-coupled sensors, except for a two-domain globin in Leishmanias, that comprises a nucleotidyl cyclase domain, and the virtual absence of truncated group 3 globins. In contrast to bacteria, co-occurrence of more than two globin subfamilies appears to be rare in protists. Although globins were lacking in the Apicomplexa and the Microsporidia intracellular pathogens, they occurred in the pathogenic Trypanosomatidae, Stramenopiles and certain fungi. Flavohaemoglobins (FHbs) and related single-domain globins occur across the protist groups. Fungi are unique in having FHbs co-occurring with sensor single-domain globins (SSDgbs). Obligately biotrophic fungi covered in our analysis lack globins. Furthermore, SSDgbs occur only in a heterolobosean amoeba, Naegleria and the stramenopile Hyphochytrium. Of the three subfamilies of truncated Mb-fold globins, TrHb1s appear to be the most widespread, occurring as multiple copies in chlorophyte and ciliophora genomes, many as multidomain proteins. Although the ciliates appear to have only TrHb1s, the chlorophytes have Mb-like globins and TrHb2s, both closely related to the corresponding plant globins. The presently available number of protist genomes is inadequate to provide a definitive census of their globins. Bayesian molecular analyses of single-domain 3/3 Mb-fold globins suggest a close relationship of chlorophyte and haptophyte globins, including choanoflagellate and Capsaspora globins to land plant symbiotic and non-symbiotic haemoglobins and to vertebrate neuroglobins.

Hemoglobin: a nitric-oxide dioxygenase

Members of the hemoglobin superfamily efficiently catalyze nitric-oxide dioxygenation, and when paired with native electron donors, function as NO dioxygenases (NODs). Indeed, the NOD function has emerged as a more common and ancient function than the well-known role in O2 transport-storage. Novel hemoglobins possessing a NOD function continue to be discovered in diverse life forms. Unique hemoglobin structures evolved, in part, for catalysis with different electron donors. The mechanism of NOD catalysis by representative single domain hemoglobins and multidomain flavohemoglobin occurs through a multistep mechanism involving O2 migration to the heme pocket, O2 binding-reduction, NO migration, radical-radical coupling, O-atom rearrangement, nitrate release, and heme iron re-reduction. Unraveling the physiological functions of multiple NODs with varying expression in organisms and the complexity of NO as both a poison and signaling molecule remain grand challenges for the NO field. NOD knockout organisms and cells expressing recombinant NODs are helping to advance our understanding of NO actions in microbial infection, plant senescence, cancer, mitochondrial function, iron metabolism, and tissue O2 homeostasis. NOD inhibitors are being pursued for therapeutic applications as antibiotics and antitumor agents. Transgenic NOD-expressing plants, fish, algae, and microbes are being developed for agriculture, aquaculture, and industry.

Heme orientation modulates histidine dissociation and ligand binding kinetics in the hexacoordinated human neuroglobin

Neuroglobin (Ngb) is a globin present in the brain and retina of mammals. This hexacoordinated hemoprotein binds small diatomic molecules, albeit with lower affinity compared with other globins. Another distinctive feature of most mammalian Ngb is their ability to form an internal disulfide bridge that increases ligand affinity. As often seen for prosthetic heme b containing proteins, human Ngb exhibits heme heterogeneity with two alternative heme orientations within the heme pocket. To date, no details are available on the impact of heme orientation on the binding properties of human Ngb and its interplay with the cysteine oxidation state. In this work, we used ¹H NMR spectroscopy to probe the cyanide binding properties of different Ngb species in solution, including wild-type Ngb and the single (C120S) and triple (C46G/C55S/C120S) mutants. We demonstrate that in the disulfide-containing wild-type protein cyanide ligation is fivefold faster for one of the two heme orientations (the A isomer) compared with the other isomer, which is attributed to the lower stability of the distal His64–iron bond and reduced steric hindrance at the bottom of the cavity for heme sliding in the A conformer. We also attribute the slower cyanide reactivity in the absence of a disulfide bridge to the tighter histidine–iron bond. More generally, enhanced internal mobility in the CD loop bearing the disulfide bridge hinders access of the ligand to heme iron by stabilizing the histidine–iron bond. The functional impact of heme disorder and cysteine oxidation state on the properties of the Ngb ligand is discussed.

Marked difference in the electronic structure of cyanide-ligated ferric protoglobins and myoglobin due to heme ruffling

Electron paramagnetic resonance experiments reveal a significant difference between the principal g values (and hence ligand-field parameters) of the ferric cyanide-ligated form of different variants of the protoglobin of Methanosarcina acetivorans (MaPgb) and of horse heart myoglobin (hhMb). The largest principal g value of the ferric cyanide-ligated MaPgb variants is found to be significantly lower than for any of the other globins reported so far. This is at least partially caused by the strong heme distortions as proven by the determination of the hyperfine interaction of the heme nitrogens and mesoprotons. Furthermore, the experiments confirm recent theoretical predictions [Forti, F.; Boechi, L., Bikiel, D., Martí, M.A.; Nardini, M.; Bolognesi, M.; Viappiani, C.; Estrin, D.; Luque, F. J. J. Phys. Chem. B 2011, 115, 13771-13780] that Phe(G8)145 plays a crucial role in the ligand modulation in MaPgb. Finally, the influence of the N-terminal 20 amino-acid chain on the heme pocket in these protoglobins is also proven.

Evolution of the globin gene family in deuterostomes: lineage-specific patterns of diversification and attrition

In the Metazoa, globin proteins display an underlying unity in tertiary structure that belies an extraordinary diversity in primary structures, biochemical properties, and physiological functions. Phylogenetic reconstructions can reveal which of these functions represent novel, lineage-specific innovations, and which represent ancestral functions that are shared with homologous globin proteins in other eukaryotes and even prokaryotes. To date, our understanding of globin diversity in deuterostomes has been hindered by a dearth of genomic sequence data from the Ambulacraria (echinoderms + hemichordates), the sister group of chordates, and the phylum Xenacoelomorpha, which includes xenoturbellids, acoelomorphs, and nemertodermatids. Here, we report the results of a phylogenetic and comparative genomic analysis of the globin gene repertoire of deuterostomes. We first characterized the globin genes of the acorn worm, Saccoglossus kowalevskii, a representative of the phylum Hemichordata. We then integrated genomic sequence data from the acorn worm into a comprehensive analysis of conserved synteny and phylogenetic relationships among globin genes from representatives of the eight lineages that comprise the superphylum Deuterostomia. The primary aims were 1) to unravel the evolutionary history of the globin gene superfamily in deuterostomes and 2) to use the estimated phylogeny to gain insights into the functional evolution of deuterostome globins. Results of our analyses indicate that the deuterostome common ancestor possessed a repertoire of at least four distinct globin paralogs and that different subsets of these ancestral genes have been retained in each of the descendant organismal lineages. In each major deuterostome group, a different subset of ancestral precursor genes underwent lineage-specific expansions of functional diversity through repeated rounds of gene duplication and divergence. By integrating results of the phylogenetic analysis with available functional data, we discovered that circulating oxygen-transport hemoglobins evolved independently in several deuterostome lineages and that intracellular nerve globins evolved independently in chordates and acoelomorph worms.

Protection from nitrosative stress: a central role for microbial flavohemoglobin

Nitric oxide (NO) is an inevitable product of life in an oxygen- and nitrogen-rich environment. This reactive diatomic molecule exhibits microbial cytotoxicity, in large part by facilitating nitrosative stress and inhibiting heme-containing proteins within the aerobic respiratory chain. Metabolism of NO is therefore essential for microbial life. In many bacteria, fungi, and protozoa, the evolutionarily ancient flavohemoglobin (flavoHb) converts NO and O(2) to inert nitrate (NO(3)(-)) and undergoes catalytic regeneration via flavin-dependent reduction. Since its identification, widespread efforts have characterized roles for flavoHb in microbial nitrosative stress protection. Subsequent genomic studies focused on flavoHb have elucidated the transcriptional machinery necessary for inducible NO protection, such as NsrR in Escherichia coli, as well as additional proteins that constitute a nitrosative stress protection program. As an alternative strategy, flavoHb has been heterologously employed in higher eukaryotic organisms such as plants and human tumors to probe the function(s) of endogenous NO signaling. Such an approach may also provide a therapeutic route to in vivo NO depletion. Here we focus on the molecular features of flavoHb, the hitherto characterized NO-sensitive transcriptional machinery responsible for its induction, the roles of flavoHb in resisting mammalian host defense systems, and heterologous applications of flavoHb in plant/mammalian systems (including human tumors), as well as unresolved questions surrounding this paradigmatic NO-consuming enzyme.

Ligation tunes protein reactivity in an ancient haemoglobin: kinetic evidence for an allosteric mechanism in Methanosarcina acetivorans protoglobin

Protoglobin from Methanosarcina acetivorans (MaPgb) is a dimeric globin with peculiar structural properties such as a completely buried haem and two orthogonal tunnels connecting the distal cavity to the solvent. CO binding to and dissociation from MaPgb occur through a biphasic kinetics. We show that the heterogenous kinetics arises from binding to (and dissociation from) two tertiary conformations in ligation-dependent equilibrium. Ligation favours the species with high binding rate (and low dissociation rate). The equilibrium is shifted towards the species with low binding (and high dissociation) rates for the unliganded molecules. A quantitative model is proposed to describe the observed carbonylation kinetics.

A phylogenetic analysis of the globins in fungi

BACKGROUND

All globins belong to one of three families: the F (flavohemoglobin) and S (sensor) families that exhibit the canonical 3/3 α-helical fold, and the T (truncated 3/3 fold) globins characterized by a shortened 2/2 α-helical fold. All eukaryote 3/3 hemoglobins are related to the bacterial single domain F globins. It is known that Fungi contain flavohemoglobins and single domain S globins. Our aims are to provide a census of fungal globins and to examine their relationships to bacterial globins.

RESULTS

Examination of 165 genomes revealed that globins are present in >90% of Ascomycota and ~60% of Basidiomycota genomes. The S globins occur in Blastocladiomycota and Chytridiomycota in addition to the phyla that have FHbs. Unexpectedly, group 1 T globins were found in one Blastocladiomycota and one Chytridiomycota genome. Phylogenetic analyses were carried out on the fungal globins, alone and aligned with representative bacterial globins. The Saccharomycetes and Sordariomycetes with two FHbs form two widely divergent clusters separated by the remaining fungal sequences. One of the Saccharomycete groups represents a new subfamily of FHbs, comprising a previously unknown N-terminal and a FHb missing the C-terminal moiety of its reductase domain. The two Saccharomycete groups also form two clusters in the presence of bacterial FHbs; the surrounding bacterial sequences are dominated by Proteobacteria and Bacilli (Firmicutes). The remaining fungal FHbs cluster with Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria. The Sgbs cluster separately from their bacterial counterparts, except for the intercalation of two Planctomycetes and a Proteobacterium between the Fungi incertae sedis and the Blastocladiomycota and Chytridiomycota.

CONCLUSION

Our results are compatible with a model of globin evolution put forward earlier, which proposed that eukaryote F, S and T globins originated via horizontal gene transfer of their bacterial counterparts to the eukaryote ancestor, resulting from the endosymbiotic events responsible for the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts.

Analysis of raphidophyte assimilatory nitrate reductase reveals unique domain architecture incorporating a 2/2 hemoglobin

Eukaryotic assimilatory nitrate reductase (NR) is a multi-domain protein that catalyzes the rate-limiting step in nitrate assimilation. This protein is highly conserved and has been extensively characterized in plants and algae. Here, we report hybrid NRs (NR2-2/2HbN) identified in two microalgal species, Heterosigma akashiwo and Chattonella subsalsa, with a 2/2 hemoglobin (2/2Hb) inserted into the hinge 2 region of a prototypical NR. 2/2Hbs are a class of single-domain heme proteins found in bacteria, ciliates, algae and plants. Sequence analysis indicates that the C-terminal FAD/NADH reductase domain of NR2-2/2HbN retains identity with eukaryotic NR, suggesting that the 2/2Hb domain was inserted interior to the existing NR domain architecture. Phylogenetic analysis supports the placement of the 2/2Hb domain of NR2-2/2HbN within group I (N-type) 2/2Hbs with high similarity to mycobacterial 2/2HbNs, known to convert nitric oxide to nitrate. Experimental data confirms that H. akashiwo is capable of metabolizing nitric oxide and shows that HaNR2-2/2HbN expression increases in response to nitric oxide addition. Here, we propose a mechanism for the dual function of NR2-2/2HbN in which nitrate reduction and nitric oxide dioxygenase reactions are cooperative, such that conversion of nitric oxide to nitrate is followed by reduction of nitrate for assimilation as cellular nitrogen.

What are the origins and phylogeny of plant hemoglobins?

Land plants and algae are now represented by about 40 genomes. Although most are incomplete, putative globins appear to be present in all the ca. 30 land plant genomes and in all except one algal genomes. The globins have either the canonical 3/3 α-helical fold characteristic of vertebrate myoglobin (Mb) or 2/2 α-helical folds, characteristic of bacterial globins with a truncated Mb-fold. In view of the fairly complete picture of the globin superfamily that is now available from analyses of over 1,000 bacterial genomes and >200 other eukaryote genomes, it is now possible to seek answers to the following twin questions: what is the phylogenetic relationship of plant and algal globins to those of other eukaryotes and what is their likely bacterial origin? We summarize below the available results. Molecular phylogenetic analyses indicate that plant and algal 3/3 globins are related to bacterial flavohemoglobins and vertebrate neuroglobins. Furthermore, they also suggest that plant and algal 3/3 and group 1 2/2 Hbs originated from the horizontal gene transfers that accompanied the two generally accepted endosymbioses of a proteobacterium and a cyanobacterium with a eukaryote ancestor. In contrast, the origin of the group 2 2/2 Hbs unexpectedly appears to involve horizontal gene transfer from a bacterium ancestral to Chloroflexi, Deinococcales, Bacillli and Actinomycetes. We present additional results which indicate that the shared ancestry is likely to be with the Chloroflexi alone.

Bacterial flavohemoglobin: a molecular tool to probe mammalian nitric oxide biology

A wide range of mammalian signaling and stress pathways are mediated by nitric oxide (NO), which is synthesized in vivo by the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) family of enzymes. Experimental manipulations of NO are frequently achieved by either inhibition or activation of endogenous NOS or via providing exogenous NO sources. On the contrary, many microbes consume NO via flavohemoglobin (FlavoHb), a highly efficient NO-dioxygenase that protects from nitrosative stress. Here we report a novel resource for studying NO in mammalian cells by heterologously expressing Escherichia coli FlavoHb within a lentiviral delivery system. This technique boosts endogenous cellular consumption of NO, thus providing a simple and efficacious approach to studying mammalian NO biology that can be employed as both a primary experimental and confirmatory tool.

Phylogenetic diversification of the globin gene superfamily in chordates

Phylogenetic reconstructions provide a means of inferring the branching relationships among members of multigene families that have diversified via successive rounds of gene duplication and divergence. Such reconstructions can illuminate the pathways by which particular expression patterns and protein functions evolved. For example, phylogenetic analyses can reveal cases in which similar expression patterns or functional properties evolved independently in different lineages, either through convergence, parallelism, or evolutionary reversals. The purpose of this article is to provide a robust phylogenetic framework for interpreting experimental data and for generating hypotheses about the functional evolution of globin proteins in chordate animals. To do this, we present a consensus phylogeny of the chordate globin gene superfamily. We document the relative roles of gene duplication and whole-genome duplication in fueling the functional diversification of vertebrate globins, and we unravel patterns of shared ancestry among globin genes from representatives of the three chordate subphyla (Craniata, Urochordata, and Cephalochordata). Our results demonstrate the value of integrating phylogenetic analyses with genomic analyses of conserved synteny to infer the duplicative origins and evolutionary histories of globin genes. We also discuss a number of case studies that illustrate the importance of phylogenetic information when making inferences about the evolution of globin gene expression and protein function. Finally, we discuss why the globin gene superfamily presents special challenges for phylogenetic analysis, and we describe methodological approaches that can be used to meet those challenges.

Regulation of nonsymbiotic and truncated hemoglobin genes of Lotus japonicus in plant organs and in response to nitric oxide and hormones

• In legumes, symbiotic leghemoglobins facilitate oxygen diffusion to the bacteroids, but the roles of nonsymbiotic and truncated hemoglobins are largely unknown. Here the five hemoglobin genes of Lotus japonicus have been functionally characterized to gain insight into their regulatory mechanisms. • Plants were exposed to nitric oxide donors, stressful conditions, and hormones. Gene expression profiling was determined by quantitative PCR, and gene activities were localized using in situ hybridization and promoter-reporter gene fusions. • The LjGLB1-1, LjGLB2, and LjGLB3-1 mRNA expression levels were very high in nodules relative to other plant organs. The expression of these genes was localized in the vascular bundles, cortex, and infected tissue. LjGLB1-1 was the only gene induced by nitric oxide. Cytokinins caused nearly complete inactivation of LjGLB2 and LjGLB3-1 in nodules and induction of LjGLB1-1 in roots. Abscisic acid induced LjGLB1-1 in nodules and LjGLB1-2 and LjGLB2 in roots, whereas polyamines and jasmonic acid induced LjGLB1-1 only in roots. • The enhanced expression of the three types of hemoglobins in nodules, the colocalization of gene activities in nodule and root tissues with high metabolic rates, and their distinct regulatory mechanisms point out complementary roles of hemoglobins and strongly support the hypothesis that LjGLB1-1, LjGLB2, and LjGLB3-1 are required for symbiosis.

Gene cooption and convergent evolution of oxygen transport hemoglobins in jawed and jawless vertebrates

Natural selection often promotes evolutionary innovation by coopting preexisting genes for new functions, and this process may be greatly facilitated by gene duplication. Here we report an example of cooptive convergence where paralogous members of the globin gene superfamily independently evolved a specialized O(2) transport function in the two deepest branches of the vertebrate family tree. Specifically, phylogenetic evidence demonstrates that erythroid-specific O(2) transport hemoglobins evolved independently from different ancestral precursor proteins in jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes) and jawless fish (cyclostomes, represented by lamprey and hagfish). A comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the vertebrate globin gene superfamily revealed that the erythroid hemoglobins of cyclostomes are orthologous to the cytoglobin protein of gnathostome vertebrates, a hexacoordinate globin that has no O(2) transport function and that is predominantly expressed in fibroblasts and related cell types. The phylogeny reconstruction also revealed that vertebrate-specific globins are grouped into four main clades: (i) cyclostome hemoglobin + cytoglobin, (ii) myoglobin + globin E, (iii) globin Y, and (iv) the alpha- and beta-chain hemoglobins of gnathostomes. In the hemoglobins of gnathostomes and cyclostomes, multisubunit quaternary structures provide the basis for cooperative O(2) binding and allosteric regulation by coupling the effects of ligand binding at individual subunits with interactions between subunits. However, differences in numerous structural details belie their independent origins. This example of convergent evolution of protein function provides an impressive demonstration of the ability of natural selection to cobble together complex design solutions by tinkering with different variations of the same basic protein scaffold.

An oxygen-sensing diguanylate cyclase and phosphodiesterase couple for c-di-GMP control

A commonly observed coupling of sensory domains to GGDEF-class diguanylate cyclases and EAL-class phosphodiesterases has long suggested that c-di-GMP synthesizing and degrading enzymes sense environmental signals. Nevertheless, relatively few signal ligands have been identified for these sensors, and even fewer instances of in vitro switching by ligand have been demonstrated. Here we describe an Escherichia coli two-gene operon, dosCP, for control of c-di-GMP by oxygen. In this operon, the gene encoding the oxygen-sensing c-di-GMP phosphodiesterase Ec Dos (here renamed Ec DosP) follows and is translationally coupled to a gene encoding a diguanylate cyclase, here designated DosC. We present the first characterizations of DosC and a detailed study of the ligand-dose response of DosP. Our results show that DosC is a globin-coupled sensor with an apolar but accessible heme pocket that binds oxygen with a K(d) of 20 microM. The response of DosP activation to increasing oxygen concentration is a complex function of its ligand saturation such that over 80% of the activation occurs in solutions that exceed 30% of air saturation (oxygen >75 microM). Finally, we find that DosP and DosC associate into a functional complex. We conclude that the dosCP operon encodes two oxygen sensors that cooperate in the controlled production and removal of c-di-GMP.

HisE11 and HisF8 provide bis-histidyl heme hexa-coordination in the globin domain of Geobacter sulfurreducens globin-coupled sensor

Among heme-based sensors, recent phylogenomic and sequence analyses have identified 34 globin coupled sensors (GCS), to which an aerotactic or gene-regulating function has been tentatively ascribed. Here, the structural and biochemical characterization of the globin domain of the GCS from Geobacter sulfurreducens (GsGCS(162)) is reported. A combination of X-ray crystallography (crystal structure at 1.5 A resolution), UV-vis and resonance Raman spectroscopy reveals the ferric GsGCS(162) as an example of bis-histidyl hexa-coordinated GCS. In contrast to the known hexa-coordinated globins, the distal heme-coordination in ferric GsGCS(162) is provided by a His residue unexpectedly located at the E11 topological site. Furthermore, UV-vis and resonance Raman spectroscopy indicated that ferrous deoxygenated GsGCS(162) is a penta-/hexa-coordinated mixture, and the heme hexa-to-penta-coordination transition does not represent a rate-limiting step for carbonylation kinetics. Lastly, electron paramagnetic resonance indicates that ferrous nitrosylated GsGCS(162) is a penta-coordinated species, where the proximal HisF8-Fe bond is severed.

Structure and function evolution in the superfamily of globins

The superfamily of globins has emerged some 4000 Myr from a common ancestor, which was among the basic protein components required for life. Globins are present in the three kingdoms of life. From a structure point of view, these molecules are defined by the presence of a characteristic protein fold, rich in alpha-helix, surrounding a heme group. Depending on the species or organs, they may be physiologically active as monomers, tetramers or large size polymers. Their function varies from the classical reversible binding of oxygen for transport and storage to cytoprotection against reactive oxygen species, NO scavenging, signaling in oxygen dependent metabolic pathways, or possibly other specific properties involving ligand or electron transfer. All these aspects are discussed in this review.

A phylogenomic profile of hemerythrins, the nonheme diiron binding respiratory proteins

BACKGROUND

Hemerythrins, are the non-heme, diiron binding respiratory proteins of brachiopods, priapulids and sipunculans; they are also found in annelids and bacteria, where their functions have not been fully elucidated.

RESULTS

A search for putative Hrs in the genomes of 43 archaea, 444 bacteria and 135 eukaryotes, revealed their presence in 3 archaea, 118 bacteria, several fungi, one apicomplexan, a heterolobosan, a cnidarian and several annelids. About a fourth of the Hr sequences were identified as N- or C-terminal domains of chimeric, chemotactic gene regulators. The function of the remaining single domain bacterial Hrs remains to be determined. In addition to oxygen transport, the possible functions in annelids have been proposed to include cadmium-binding, antibacterial action and immunoprotection. A Bayesian phylogenetic tree revealed a split into two clades, one encompassing archaea, bacteria and fungi, and the other comprising the remaining eukaryotes. The annelid and sipunculan Hrs share the same intron-exon structure, different from that of the cnidarian Hr.

CONCLUSION

The phylogenomic profile of Hrs demonstrated a limited occurrence in bacteria and archaea and a marked absence in the vast majority of multicellular organisms. Among the metazoa, Hrs have survived in a cnidarian and in a few protostome groups; hence, it appears that in metazoans the Hr gene was lost in deuterostome ancestor(s) after the radiata/bilateria split. Signal peptide sequences in several Hirudinea Hrs suggest for the first time, the possibility of extracellular localization. Since the alpha-helical bundle is likely to have been among the earliest protein folds, Hrs represent an ancient family of iron-binding proteins, whose primary function in bacteria may have been that of an oxygen sensor, enabling aerophilic or aerophobic responses. Although Hrs evolved to function as O2 transporters in brachiopods, priapulids and sipunculans, their function in annelids remains to be elucidated. Overall Hrs exhibit a considerable lack of evolutionary success in metazoans.

Commingling regulatory systems following acquisition of virulence plasmids by Bacillus anthracis

The conversion of a bacterium from a non-pathogenic to a pathogenic existence is usually associated with the acquisition of virulence factors, the genes of which gain entry through bacteriophage infection, transposable elements or plasmid transfer. Pathogenesis research is mostly focused on how these factors enable the bacterium to infect the host or evade the repertoire of host defenses. Less effort is expended on understanding how the invading genes are affected by the complex regulatory circuits of the bacterium and how virulence is the result of converting these regulatory circuits to make them complicit with pathogenesis. An example of such a conversion is seen in Bacillus anthracis, and how acquired plasmid regulatory functions affect the activity of the regulatory processes of the bacterium, and vice versa, is now being revealed.

Archaeal protoglobin structure indicates new ligand diffusion paths and modulation of haem-reactivity

The structural adaptability of the globin fold has been highlighted by the recent discovery of the 2-on-2 haemoglobins, of neuroglobin and cytoglobin. Protoglobin from Methanosarcina acetivorans C2A-a strictly anaerobic methanogenic Archaea-is, to the best of our knowledge, the latest entry adding new variability and functional complexity to the haemoglobin (Hb) superfamily. Here, we report the 1.3 A crystal structure of oxygenated M. acetivorans protoglobin, together with the first insight into its ligand-binding properties. We show that, contrary to all known globins, protoglobin-specific loops and an amino-terminal extension completely bury the haem within the protein matrix. Access of O(2), CO and NO to the haem is granted by the protoglobin-specific apolar tunnels reaching the haem distal site from locations at the B/G and B/E helix interfaces. Functionally, M. acetivorans dimeric protoglobin shows a selectivity ratio for O(2)/CO binding to the haem that favours O(2) ligation and anticooperativity in ligand binding. Both properties are exceptional within the Hb superfamily.