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Lactobacillus crispatus inhibits the infectivity of Chlamydia trachomatis elementary bodies, in vitro study. Sci Rep 2016; 6:29024. [PMID: 27354249 PMCID: PMC4926251 DOI: 10.1038/srep29024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Lactobacillus species dominate the vaginal microbiota of healthy reproductive-age women and protect the genitourinary tract from the attack of several infectious agents. Chlamydia trachomatis, a leading cause of sexually transmitted disease worldwide, can induce severe sequelae, i.e. pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility and ectopic pregnancy. In the present study we investigated the interference of Lactobacillus crispatus, L. gasseri and L. vaginalis, known to be dominant species in the vaginal microbiome, with the infection process of C. trachomatis. Lactobacilli exerted a strong inhibitory effect on Chlamydia infectivity mainly through the action of secreted metabolites in a concentration/pH dependent mode. Short contact times were the most effective in the inhibition, suggesting a protective role of lactobacilli in the early steps of Chlamydia infection. The best anti-Chlamydia profile was shown by L. crispatus species. In order to delineate metabolic profiles related to anti-Chlamydia activity, Lactobacillus supernatants were analysed by 1H-NMR. Production of lactate and acidification of the vaginal environment seemed to be crucial for the activity, in addition to the consumption of the carbonate source represented by glucose. The main conclusion of this study is that high concentrations of L. crispatus inhibit infectivity of C. trachomatis in vitro.
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Lorenzen E, Agerholm JS, Grossi AB, Bojesen AM, Skytte C, Erneholm K, Follmann F, Jungersen G. Characterization of cytological changes, IgA, IgG and IL-8 levels and pH value in the vagina of prepubertal and sexually mature Ellegaard Göttingen minipigs during an estrous cycle. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 59:57-62. [PMID: 26801101 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2016.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The pig is increasingly used as an advanced animal model of the genital tract in women and knowledge on the genital immune system is therefore needed. In this study, evaluation of vaginal smears revealed that almost no neutrophils or other leukocytes were present in the vaginal mucosa of prepubertal minipigs (n = 10). In sexually mature minipigs (n = 10), evaluated through an estrous cycle, there was an increase in number of mucosal neutrophils and other leukocytes during estrus. The level of total IgA on the vaginal mucosa increased during diestrus. The level of total IgG showed no significant changes through the cycle. The vaginal IgA level in the prepubertal minipigs was similar to the low estrus level in sexually mature minipigs, and the IgG level in prepubertal was similar to the stable level in the sexually mature minipigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Lorenzen
- Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics, Department of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Dyrlægevej 68, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark; Chlamydia Vaccine Research, Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark.
| | - Jørgen Steen Agerholm
- Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics, Department of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Dyrlægevej 68, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Anette Blak Grossi
- Ellegaard Göttingen Minipigs A/S, Soroe Landevej 302, 4261 Dalmose, Denmark.
| | - Anders Miki Bojesen
- Veterinary Clinical Microbiology, Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Stigbøjlen 4, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Christina Skytte
- CiToxLab Scantox, Hestehavevej 36A, 4623 Lille Skensved, Denmark.
| | - Karin Erneholm
- Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics, Department of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Dyrlægevej 68, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark; Chlamydia Vaccine Research, Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark.
| | - Frank Follmann
- Chlamydia Vaccine Research, Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark.
| | - Gregers Jungersen
- Section for Immunology and Vaccinology, National Veterinary Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Bülowsvej 27, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Lactobacillus crispatus mediates anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 induction in response to Chlamydia trachomatis infection in vitro. Int J Med Microbiol 2015; 305:815-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2015.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
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Lorenzen E, Kudirkiene E, Gutman N, Grossi AB, Agerholm JS, Erneholm K, Skytte C, Dalgaard MD, Bojesen AM. The vaginal microbiome is stable in prepubertal and sexually mature Ellegaard Göttingen Minipigs throughout an estrous cycle. Vet Res 2015; 46:125. [PMID: 26510418 PMCID: PMC4625881 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-015-0274-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the pig has been introduced as an advanced animal model of genital tract infections in women, almost no knowledge exists on the porcine vaginal microbiota, especially in barrier-raised Göttingen Minipigs. In women, the vaginal microbiota plays a crucial role for a healthy vaginal environment and the fate of sexually transmitted infections such as Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Therefore, knowledge on the vaginal microbiota is urgently needed for the minipig model. The aim of this study was to characterize the microbiota of the anterior vagina by 16 s rRNA gene sequencing in prepubertal and sexually mature Göttingen Minipigs during an estrous cycle. The dominating phyla in the vaginal microbiota consisted of Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteriodetes and Tenericutes. The most abundant bacterial families were Enterobacteriaceae, unclassified families from Gammaproteobacteria, Clostridiales Family XI Incertae Sedis, Paenibacillaceae, Lactobacillaceae, Ruminococcaceae and Syntrophaceae. We found a higher abundance of Lactobacillaceae in the prepubertal Göttingen Minipigs compared to sexually mature non-pregnant Göttingen Minipigs. However, correlation tests and diversity parameters revealed a very stable vaginal microbiota in the Göttingen Minipigs, both before and after sexual maturity and on different days throughout an estrous cycle. The vaginal microbiota in Göttingen Minipigs was not dominated by lactobacilli, as it is in women and according to our results the minipig vaginal microbiota is very stable, in opposite to women. These differences should be considered when using the minipig as a model of the genital tract in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Lorenzen
- Section for Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics, Department of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
- Chlamydia Vaccine Research, Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Egle Kudirkiene
- Section for Veterinary Clinical Microbiology, Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Nicole Gutman
- Section for Veterinary Clinical Microbiology, Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | | | - Jørgen Steen Agerholm
- Section for Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics, Department of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Karin Erneholm
- Section for Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics, Department of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
- Chlamydia Vaccine Research, Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | | | - Marlene Danner Dalgaard
- DTU Multi-Assay Core, Department of Systems Biology, Center for Biological Sequence Analysis, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Anders Miki Bojesen
- Section for Veterinary Clinical Microbiology, Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Lorenzen E, Follmann F, Jungersen G, Agerholm JS. A review of the human vs. porcine female genital tract and associated immune system in the perspective of using minipigs as a model of human genital Chlamydia infection. Vet Res 2015; 46:116. [PMID: 26411309 PMCID: PMC4586017 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-015-0241-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Sexually transmitted diseases constitute major health issues and their prevention and treatment continue to challenge the health care systems worldwide. Animal models are essential for a deeper understanding of the diseases and the development of safe and protective vaccines. Currently a good predictive non-rodent model is needed for the study of genital chlamydia in women. The pig has become an increasingly popular model for human diseases due to its close similarities to humans. The aim of this review is to compare the porcine and human female genital tract and associated immune system in the perspective of genital Chlamydia infection. The comparison of women and sows has shown that despite some gross anatomical differences, the structures and proportion of layers undergoing cyclic alterations are very similar. Reproductive hormonal cycles are closely related, only showing a slight difference in cycle length and source of luteolysing hormone. The epithelium and functional layers of the endometrium show similar cyclic changes. The immune system in pigs is very similar to that of humans, even though pigs have a higher percentage of CD4(+)/CD8(+) double positive T cells. The genital immune system is also very similar in terms of the cyclic fluctuations in the mucosal antibody levels, but differs slightly regarding immune cell infiltration in the genital mucosa - predominantly due to the influx of neutrophils in the porcine endometrium during estrus. The vaginal flora in Göttingen Minipigs is not dominated by lactobacilli as in humans. The vaginal pH is around 7 in Göttingen Minipigs, compared to the more acidic vaginal pH around 3.5-5 in women. This review reveals important similarities between the human and porcine female reproductive tracts and proposes the pig as an advantageous supplementary model of human genital Chlamydia infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Lorenzen
- Section for Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics, Department of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
- Chlamydia Vaccine Research, Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Frank Follmann
- Chlamydia Vaccine Research, Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Gregers Jungersen
- Section for Immunology and Vaccinology, National Veterinary Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Jørgen S Agerholm
- Section for Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics, Department of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Petrova MI, Lievens E, Malik S, Imholz N, Lebeer S. Lactobacillus species as biomarkers and agents that can promote various aspects of vaginal health. Front Physiol 2015; 6:81. [PMID: 25859220 PMCID: PMC4373506 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2015.00081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 270] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The human body is colonized by a vast number of microorganisms collectively referred to as the human microbiota. One of the main microbiota body sites is the female genital tract, commonly dominated by Lactobacillus spp., in approximately 70% of women. Each individual species can constitute approximately 99% of the ribotypes observed in any individual woman. The most frequently isolated species are Lactobacillus crispatus, Lactobacillus gasseri, Lactobacillus jensenii and Lactobacillus iners. Residing at the port of entry of bacterial and viral pathogens, the vaginal Lactobacillus species can create a barrier against pathogen invasion since mainly products of their metabolism secreted in the cervicovaginal fluid can play an important role in the inhibition of bacterial and viral infections. Therefore, a Lactobacillus-dominated microbiota appears to be a good biomarker for a healthy vaginal ecosystem. This balance can be rapidly altered during processes such as menstruation, sexual activity, pregnancy and various infections. An abnormal vaginal microbiota is characterized by an increased diversity of microbial species, leading to a condition known as bacterial vaginosis. Information on the vaginal microbiota can be gathered from the analysis of cervicovaginal fluid, by using the Nugent scoring or the Amsel's criteria, or at the molecular level by investigating the number and type of Lactobacillus species. However, when translating this to the clinical setting, it should be noted that the absence of a Lactobacillus-dominated microbiota does not appear to directly imply a diseased condition or dysbiosis. Nevertheless, the widely documented beneficial role of vaginal Lactobacillus species demonstrates the potential of data on the composition and activity of lactobacilli as biomarkers for vaginal health. The substantiation and further validation of such biomarkers will allow the design of better targeted probiotic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariya I Petrova
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp Antwerp, Belgium ; Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | - Elke Lievens
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp Antwerp, Belgium ; Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | - Shweta Malik
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp Antwerp, Belgium ; Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nicole Imholz
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp Antwerp, Belgium ; Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sarah Lebeer
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp Antwerp, Belgium ; Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
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Effects of Mentha suaveolens essential oil on Chlamydia trachomatis. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:508071. [PMID: 25685793 PMCID: PMC4320923 DOI: 10.1155/2015/508071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis, the most common cause of sexually transmitted bacterial infection worldwide, has a unique biphasic developmental cycle alternating between the infectious elementary body and the replicative reticulate body. C. trachomatis is responsible for severe reproductive complications including pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy, and obstructive infertility. The aim of our study was to evaluate whether Mentha suaveolens essential oil (EOMS) can be considered as a promising candidate for preventing C. trachomatis infection. Specifically, we investigated the in vitro effects of EOMS towards C. trachomatis analysing the different phases of chlamydial developmental cycle. Our results demonstrated that EOMS was effective towards C. trachomatis, whereby it not only inactivated infectious elementary bodies but also inhibited chlamydial replication. Our study also revealed the effectiveness of EOMS, in combination with erythromycin, towards C. trachomatis with a substantial reduction in the minimum effect dose of antibiotic. In conclusion, EOMS treatment may represent a preventative strategy since it may reduce C. trachomatis transmission in the population and, thereby, reduce the number of new chlamydial infections and risk of developing of severe sequelae.
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58
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Gong Z, Luna Y, Yu P, Fan H. Lactobacilli inactivate Chlamydia trachomatis through lactic acid but not H2O2. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107758. [PMID: 25215504 PMCID: PMC4162611 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Lactobacillus species dominate the microbiome in the lower genital tract of most reproductive-age women. Producing lactic acid and H2O2, lactobacilli are believed to play an important role in prevention of colonization by and growth of pathogens. However, to date, there have been no reported studies characterizing how lactobacilli interact with Chlamydia trachomatis, a leading sexually transmitted bacterium. In this report, we demonstrate inactivation of C. trachomatis infectivity by culture media conditioned by Lactobacillus crispatus, L. gasseri and L. jensenii, known to be dominating organisms in the human vaginal microbiome. Lactobacillus still cultures produced lactic acid, leading to time- and concentration-dependent killing of C. trachomatis. Neutralization of the acidic media completely reversed chlamydia killing. Addition of lactic acid into Lactobacillus-unconditioned growth medium recapitulated the chlamydiacidal activity of conditioned media. The H2O2 concentrations in the still cultures were found to be comparable to those reported for the cervicovaginal fluid, but insufficient to inactivate chlamydiae. Aeration of Lactobacillus cultures by shaking markedly induced H2O2 production, but strongly inhibited Lactobacillus growth and lactic acid production, and thus severely affected acidification, leading to significantly reduced chlamydiacidal efficiency. These observations indicate lactobacilli inactivate chlamydiae primarily through maintaining acidity in a relatively hypoxic environment in the vaginal lumen with limited H2O2, which is consistent with the notion that women with higher vaginal pH are more prone to sexually transmitted C. trachomatis infection. In addition to lactic acid, formic acid and acetic acid also exhibited potent chlamydiacidal activities. Taken together, our findings imply that lowering the vaginal pH through engineering of the vaginal microbiome and other means will make women less susceptible to C. trachomatis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Gong
- Department of Pharmacology, Rutgers University Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- Department of Immunology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yesmin Luna
- Department of Pharmacology, Rutgers University Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Ping Yu
- Department of Immunology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Huizhou Fan
- Department of Pharmacology, Rutgers University Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
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