Beneficial effects of Panax ginseng for the treatment and prevention of neurodegenerative diseases: past findings and future directions

Anti-ulcerogenic effect of methanolic extract of Elaeagnus conferta Roxb. seeds in Wistar rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Elaeagnus conferta Roxb. (Elaeagnaceae) is a subtropical shrub mainly native to India, Vietnam, Malaysia and South China, whose various parts are used for treatment of diabetes, gastric ulcers, pain, oxidative stress and pulmonary disorders. Though the other parts of the plant have been reported for their ethnic use i.e. fruits as astringent locally and for cancer systemically, leaves for body pain and flowers for pain in chest and the seeds are mentioned as edible, there is no report per se on the medicinal use of seeds. Based on the fact that seeds of closely resembling species i.e. Elaeagnus rhamnoides has demonstrated significant anti-gastroulcerative property, the probability of the seeds of E. conferta possessing similar activity seemed quite significant.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Phytochemical investigation and assessment of pharmacological mechanism(s) involved in anti-ulcer effect of methanolic extract of the seeds of E. conferta.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bioactive phytoconstituents were isolated by column chromatography. These were identified by spectroscopic techniques including infrared (IR) spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectrometry. Methanolic extract (MEC) of the seeds was prepared by cold maceration and its anti-ulcerogenic potential was evaluated using indomethacin (50 mg/kg) and water immersion stress models in male rats. The animals were pre-treated with different doses of MEC (400 and 800 mg/kg) and the therapeutic effect was compared with standard drug i.e. ranitidine (RANT; 50 mg/kg). The ameliorative effects of MEC were investigated on gastric juice pH, total acidity, free acidity and ulcer index. The assays of malionaldehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH) and pro-inflammatory cytokines i.e. interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) were carried out to find out the possible mechanism(s) of protection. Further, histopathological changes were also studied.

RESULTS

Chromatography studies and further confirmation by spectroscopic techniques revealed the presence of four different compounds in MEC i.e oleic acid (1), stearic acid (2), ascorbic acid (3) and quercetin (4). MEC exhibited anti-ulcerogenic effect in dose dependent manner which may be attributed to suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α) and MDA (112.7%), and up-regulation of protective factors such as CAT (90.48%), SOD (92.77%) and GSH (90.01%). Ulcer inhibition, reduction in total and free acidity and increase in gastric juice pH were observed in MEC treated rats as compared to disease control animals. Histopathological findings confirmed decreased cell infiltration, less epithelial cell damage and regeneration of gastric mucosa in dose dependent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

The anti-ulcer effect of MEC may be attributed to its ability to scavenge free radicals and anti-inflammatory property via suppression of TNF-α and IL-6, thus offers a complete and holistic approach for management of peptic ulcer.

Anti‑angiogenic effect of mountain ginseng in vitro and in vivo: Comparison with farm‑cultivated ginseng

Mountain ginseng (Panax ginseng) has been used for cancer patient therapy in Northeast Asia. Although it is well known that cancer cells are able to induce angiogenesis, the effect of mountain ginseng on angiogenesis is still unknown. In the present study, we investigated whether ethanolic extract of mountain ginseng (MGE) could inhibit angiogenesis in in vitro and in vivo models. In comparison with farm‑cultivated ginseng extract (FGE), MGE more strongly inhibited cell migration and formation of capillary‑like network within non‑cytotoxic ranges in SVEC4‑10 cells. In addition, MGE dose‑dependently suppressed Transwell cell migration of the cells. Moreover, MGE reduced the phosphorylation and expression of VEGF‑R2 as well as the phosphorylation of FAK, Src, Akt and ERK, the intermediate proteins in the VEGF‑R2 signaling cascade, in the cells. As expected, MGE dramatically decreased hemoglobin content in Matrigel plugs in mice. In conclusion, MGE possesses stronger anti‑angiogenic properties than FGE in vascular endothelial cells. Such effect of MGE is correlated with inhibition of activation of the VEGF‑R2 signaling pathway. Therefore, the novel features of MGE may be helpful for understanding its anticancer mechanism for the treatment of cancer patients.

Inhibition of Angiotensin-I Converting Enzyme by Ginsenosides: Structure-Activity Relationships and Inhibitory Mechanism

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) extract has been reported to inhibit the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE); however, the possible inhibitory action of most of its constituents (ginsenosides) against ACE remains unknown. Thus, in this study, we investigated ginsenoside derivatives' inhibitory effect on ACE. We assessed the activities of 22 ginsenosides, most of which inhibited ACE significantly. Notably, protopanaxatriol, protopanaxadiol, and ginsenoside Rh2 exhibited the most potent ACE inhibitory potential, with IC₅₀ values of 1.57, 2.22, and 5.60 μM, respectively. Further, a kinetic study revealed different modes of inhibition against ACE. Molecular docking studies have confirmed that ginsenosides inhibit ACE via many hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions with catalytic residues and zinc ion of C- and N-domain ACE that block the catalytic activity of ACE. In addition, we found that the active ginsenosides stimulated glucose uptake in insulin-resistant C2C12 skeletal muscle cells in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, the most active ginsenosides' reactive oxygen species (ROS) and peroxynitrite (ONOO^-) scavenging properties were evaluated, in which IC₅₀ values ranged from 1.44-43.83 to 2.36-39.56 μM in ONOO^- and ROS, respectively. The results derived from these computational and in vitro experiments provide additional scientific support for the anecdotal use of ginseng in traditional medicine to treat cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension.

Pharmacological properties of ginsenosides in inflammation-derived cancers

Ginseng is commonly used as an herbal medicine for improvement of life quality. It is also used as a supplemental medication with anti-cancer drugs to enhance chemotherapy efficacy and shows some beneficial effects. Ginsenosides, also known as saponins, are the major active pharmacological compounds found in ginseng and have been extensively using in treatment of not only cancers but also the other inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, acute lung injury, cardiovascular, and infectious diseases. The anti-cancer activities of ginsengs and ginsenosides in different types of cancers have been well studied experimentally and clinically. The major anti-cancer mechanisms of ginseng compounds include inhibition of angiogenesis and metastasis as well as induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Herein, we review and summarize the current knowledge on the pharmacological effects of ginsengs and ginseng-derived compounds in the treatment of cancers. Moreover, the molecular and cellular mechanism(s) by which ginsengs and ginsenosides modulate the immune response in cancer diseases as well as ginsengs-drugs interaction are also discussed.

Transcriptome-Wide Analysis for Ginsenoside Rb3 Synthesis-Related Genes and Study on the Expression of Methyl Jasmonate Treatment in Panax ginseng

Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer is a kind of renascent herb that belongs to the genus Panax in the family Araliaceae. It is a traditional Chinese precious herbal medicine with a long history of medicinal use. Ginsenoside Rb3 is one of the important active ingredients in ginseng and has important physiological activity in the treatment of many diseases. In this study, we screened and systematically analyzed the candidate genes related to ginsenoside Rb3 synthesis through bioinformatics methods; discussed the functions, expression patterns, and interactions of the genes related to ginsenoside Rb3 synthesis; and finally, selected seven genes, mainly PgRb3, that directly contribute to the synthesis of ginsenoside Rb3. This study provides a reference for revealing the expression rules of ginsenoside Rb3 synthesis-related genes and elucidating the regulatory mechanism of methyl jasmonate, lays a theoretical foundation for the research of ginsenoside Rb3 synthesis, and provides theoretical and technical support for the factory production of ginsenoside monomer saponins.

Herbal Resources to Combat a Progressive & Degenerative Nervous System Disorder- Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease is one of the most common adult-onset, a chronic disorder involving neurodegeneration, which progressively leads to deprivation of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra, causing a subsequent reduction of dopamine levels in the striatum resulting in tremor, myotonia, and dyskinesia. Genetics and environmental factors are believed to be responsible for the onset of Parkinson's disease. The exact pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease is quite complicated and the present anti-Parkinson's disease treatments appear to be clinically insufficient. Comprehensive researches have demonstrated the use of natural products such as ginseng, curcumin, ashwagandha, baicalein, etc. for the symptomatic treatment of this disease. The neuroprotective effects exhibited by these natural products are mainly due to their ability to increase dopamine levels in the striatum, manage oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, glutathione levels, clear the aggregation of α- synuclein, induce autophagy and decrease the pro-inflammatory cytokines and lipid peroxidation. This paper reviews various natural product studies conducted by scientists to establish the role of natural products (both metabolite extracts as well as pure metabolites) as adjunctive neuroprotective agents.

Protocol Optimization of Proteomic Analysis of Korean Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer)

The benefits of ginseng have been mainly attributed to its triterpenoids, called ginsenosides. Recent genome sequencing of the Panax ginseng has paved the way for in-depth proteomic studies of this medicinal plant. The current study was conducted to deepen the proteomic information on the root proteome of Korean ginseng. Proteomic workflow was optimized by testing two different strategies, characterized by the phenol extraction procedure, the presence or the absence of SDS-PAGE fractionation step, and nano-scale liquid chromatographic tandem mass spectrometry (nLC-MS/MS) analysis. The results highlighted an evident improvement of proteome extraction by the combination of phenol extraction with SDS-PAGE before the nLC-MS/MS analysis. In addition, a dramatic impact of the steaming process (the treatment to produce red ginseng from ginseng) on protein properties was observed. Overall, the analyses of Korean ginseng permitted the characterization of a total of 2412 proteins. A large number of identified proteins belonged to the functional categories of protein and carbon/energy metabolism (22.4% and 14.6%, respectively). The primary and secondary metabolisms are major metabolic pathways, which emerged from the proteomic analysis. In addition, a large number of proteins known to play an important role in response to (a)biotic stresses were also identified. The current proteomic study not only confirmed the previous transcriptomic and proteomic reports but also extended proteomic information, including the main metabolic pathways involved in Korean ginseng.

Sinomenine activation of Nrf2 signaling prevents inflammation and cerebral injury in a mouse model of ischemic stroke

Sinomenine (SINO), which is used clinically to treat rheumatoid arthritis and neuralgia, is derived from the root and stems of Sinomenium acutum. SINO has been reported to exert analgesic, sedative and anti-inflammatory effects, and provides a protective role against shock and organ damage. Studies have suggested that SINO primarily exerts it anti-inflammatory function by inhibiting NF-κB signaling. There is also evidence to indicate that SINO may regulate inflammation Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) signaling. The present study aimed to investigate whether the anti-inflammatory and cerebral protective effects of SINO were induced through Nrf2 both in vitro and in vivo. The results revealed that SINO significantly upregulated Nrf2 protein expression levels, increased Nrf2 nuclear translocation and the upregulated the protein expression levels of downstream factors. The treatment of a middle cerebral artery occlusion model mice with SINO effectively reduced cerebral damage and inflammation, and restored the balance in cerebral oxidative stress. In addition, SINO treatment also promoted Nrf2-dependent microglia M1/M2 polarization and inhibited the phosphorylation of IκBα as well as NF-κB nuclear translocation. This revealed an important upstream event that contributed to its anti-inflammatory and cerebral tissue protective effects. In conclusion, the findings of the present study identified a novel pathway through which SINO may exert its anti-inflammatory and cerebral protective functions, and provided a molecular basis for the potential applications of SINO in the treatment of cerebral inflammatory disorders.

Bioactive Compounds and Traditional Herbal Medicine: Promising Approaches for the Treatment of Dementia

Dementia is a term that encompasses a group of clinical symptoms affecting memory, thinking and social abilities, characterized by progressive impairment of memory performance and cognitive functions. There are several factors involved in the pathogenesis and progression of dementia, such as old age, brain ischemia, toxin exposure, and oxidative stress. There are extensive similarities between dementia and Alzheimer's disease (AD) either in clinical manifestations or experimental animal models. AD is the most dominant form of dementia, characterized by the accumulation of beta-amyloid protein and cholinergic neurotransmission deficits in the brain. Currently available medications for the treatment of dementia, such as choline esterase inhibitors, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonists (memantine), have short-term efficacy and only relieve symptoms rather than targeting the main underlying pathogenesis. Several animal studies and clinical trials are being conducted to provide a rational approach to these medicinal plants in the prevention or treatment of memory deficits. This review highlights the potential effects of medicinal plants and their derived lead molecules, and explains the related mechanisms and effects reviewed from published literature as major thrust aspects and hopeful strategies in the prevention or treatment of dementia.

Ginsenoside derivatives inhibit advanced glycation end-product formation and glucose-fructose mediated protein glycation in vitro via a specific structure-activity relationship

Ginseng (Panax ginseng and red ginseng) extract has been reported to inhibit the formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs); however, the potential inhibitory activity of its major constituents (ginsenosides) against AGE formation is still unknown. In the present study, we investigated the inhibitory effect of ginsenoside derivatives on AGE formation. Herein, we assessed the activity of 22 ginsenosides, most of which significantly inhibited fluorescent AGE formation. Notably, ginsenoside Rh2, ginsenoside Rh1, and compound K exhibited the most potent AGE inhibitory potential with IC₅₀ values of 3.38, 8.42, and 10.85 µM, respectively. The structure- activity relationship revealed that the presence of sugar moieties, hydroxyl groups, and their linkages, and the stereostructure of the ginsenoside skeleton played an important role in the inhibition of AGE formation. Furthermore, the inhibitory activity of the most active ginsenoside Rh2 on fructose-glucose-mediated protein glycation and oxidation of bovine serum albumin (BSA) was explored. Rh2 (0.1-12.5 µM) inhibited the formation of fluorescent AGE and non-fluorescent AGE, as well as the level of fructosamine and prevented protein oxidation by decreasing protein carbonyl formation and protein thiol group modification. Rh2 also suppressed the formation of the β-cross amyloid structure of BSA. Ginsenosides might be promising new anti-glycation agents for the prevention of diabetic complications via inhibition of AGE formation and oxidation-dependent protein damage.

Plasma and intracerebral pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics modeling for the acetylcholine releasing effect of ginsenoside Rg1 in mPFC of Aβ model rats

Ginsenoside Rg1 is a major bioactive component of ginseng. Limited information is available regarding Rg1 concentrations in the central neural system and the corresponding relationship of plasma/intracerebral concentrations, and intracerebral effects of Rg1. Awake Aβ model rats received a single subcutaneous administration of Rg1. Concentrations of unbound Rg1 and acetylcholine in the brain extracellular fluid and Rg1 in plasma were then determined. An E_max-two compartment pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) model without effect compartment was finally obtained by evaluating three mechanism-based models. The corresponding relationship between the plasma PK and PD of Rg1 can be described as E = 119.05•C/(73.42 + C).[Formula: see text].

Chinese nutraceuticals and physical activity; their role in neurodegenerative tauopathies

The onset of neurodegenerative disease has not only been a major cause of scientific worry, but of economic burden to the health system. This condition has been further attributed to mis-stability, deletion or mutation of tau protein, causing the onset of Corticobasal degeneration, Pick's diseases, Progressive supranuclear palsy, Argyrophilic grains disease, Alzheimer's diseases etc. as scientifically renowned. This is mainly related to dysregulation of translational machinery, upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines and inhibition of several essential cascades such as ERK signaling cascade, GSK3β, CREB, and PKA/PKB (Akt) signaling cascades that enhances protein processing, normal protein folding, cognitive function, and microtubule associated tau stability. Administration of some nutrients and/or bioactive compounds has a high tendency to impede tau mediated inflammation at neuronal level. Furthermore, prevention and neutralization of protein misfolding through modulation of microtubule tau stability and prevention of protein misfolding is by virtue few of the numerous beneficial effects of physical activity. Of utmost important in this study is the exploration of promising bioactivities of nutraceuticals found in china and the ameliorating potential of physical activity on tauopathies, while highlighting animal and in vitro studies that have been investigated for comprehensive understanding of its potential and an insight into the effects on human highly probable to tau mediated neurodegeneration.

Ginsenoside extract from ginseng extends lifespan and health span in Caenorhabditis elegans

Nutrition intervention has become a potential strategy to improve healthspan and prolong lifespan. Ginseng has been used for thousands of years and developed as a functional food to provide various protective effects to humans. An extract of total ginsenosides (TGS), a mixture of the main active ginsenosides from ginseng, has wide biological activities and health benefits for age-related diseases, including antioxidation and improvements in mitochondrial function. However, the molecular mechanism of TGS for prolonging lifespan and improving fitness and how exactly this is achieved under normal and stress conditions remain largely unclear. In this study, wild-type and mutant C. elegans strains are used to investigate the role and molecular mechanism of TGS-mediated longevity, health benefits, and stress resistance. The results showed that treatment with TGS at 0.2 mg mL-1 from the stage of day four to death significantly extended the lifespan of worms by 14.02% without effects on bacterial metabolism and food intake. Furthermore, TGS treatment obviously improved age-associated mobility, muscle fiber organization, lipofuscin accumulation, and enhanced resistance under oxidative stress. Importantly, these effects of TGS were achieved by activating the signaling pathways of anti-oxidant regulation and longevity, including the NRF2/SKN-1, SIRT1/SIR 2.1, and FOXO/DAF-16 signaling pathways. Finally, it was found that Rg1, Re, and Rb1 were the major effective components of anti-oxidative activity and longevity. Collectively, the protective effect of ginsenoside extract in healthy aging and stress responses provides new insights for the development and practical application of ginseng functional products.

Korean Red Ginseng suppresses bisphenol A-induced expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and cellular migration of A549 human lung cancer cell through inhibition of reactive oxygen species

BACKGROUND

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a natural product with antiinflammatory and anticarcinogenic effects. We have previously reported that the endocrine-disrupting compound bisphenol A (BPA)-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) via nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase and promoted the migration of A549. Here, in this study, we assessed the protective effect of KRG on the BPA-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and expression of COX-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in A549 cells.

METHODS

The effects of KRG on the upregulation of ROS production and COX-2 and MMP-9 expression by BPA were evaluated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACs) analysis, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and western blotting. Antimigration ability by KRG was evaluated by migration assay in A549 cells.

RESULTS

KRG significantly suppressed the BPA-induced COX-2, the activity of NF-κB, the production of ROS, and the migration of A549 cells. These effects led to the downregulation of the expression of MMP-9.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our results suggest that KRG exerts an antiinflammatory effect on BPA-treated A549 cells via the suppression of ROS and downregulation of NF-κB activation and COX-2 expression which leads to a decrease in cellular migration and MMP-9 expression. These results provide a new possible therapeutic application of KRG to protect BPA-induced possible inflammatory disorders.

Panax japonicus and chikusetsusaponins: A review of diverse biological activities and pharmacology mechanism

Panax japonicus, which in the Tujia dialect is known as “Baisan Qi” and “Zhujieshen”, is a classic “qi” drug of Tujia ethnomedicine and it has unique effects on disease caused by “qi” stagnation and blood stasis. This paper serves as the basis of further scientific research and development of Panax japonicus. The pharmacology effects of molecular pharmacology were discussed and summarized. P. japonicus plays an important role on several diseases, such as rheumatic arthritis, cancer, cardiovascular agents, and this review provides new insights into P. japonicus as promising agents to substitute ginseng and notoginseng.

Ginsenoside Rg5/Rk1 ameliorated sleep via regulating the GABAergic/serotoninergic signaling pathway in a rodent model

As the most common sleep disorder, insomnia seriously affects people's everyday lives. Phytochemicals have been shown to have excellent sleep-promoting effects. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate whether Rg5 and Rk1 extracted from ginseng had sleep-promoting effects and to explore their potential mechanisms. The results showed that Rg5 and Rk1 could significantly lessen the locomotor activity of mice and promote the sleep quality index, including increasing the amount of sleep in a pentobarbital sodium experiment with a threshold dose. In parallel, Rg5 and Rk1 could significantly shorten the sleep latency of mice and prolong the sleep time of mice. Furthermore, Rg5 and Rk1 augmented the GABA/Glu ratio, up-regulating the expression of the GABAA receptor and the GABAB receptor, whereas the GABAA receptor antagonist picrotoxin could antagonize the sleep quality of Rg5/Rk1. In addition, 5-HTP, the precursor of 5-HT, could enhance the sleep effect of Rg5 and Rk1 in mice, and both Rg5 and Rk1 could up-regulate the expression of 5-HT1A. These results were also confirmed by the detection of GABA and 5-HT in mouse cecum content. In conclusion, ginsenoside Rg5/Rk1 can exert sedative and hypnotic effects by affecting the GABA nervous system and the serotonin nervous system.

Korean Red Ginseng alleviates dehydroepiandrosterone-induced polycystic ovarian syndrome in rats via its antiinflammatory and antioxidant activities

BACKGROUND

Beneficial effects of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) on polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) remains unclear.

METHODS

We examined whether pretreatment (daily from 2 hours before PCOS induction) with KRG extract in water (KRGE; 75 and 150 mg/kg/day, p.o.) could exert a favorable effect in a dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)-induced PCOS rat model.

RESULTS

Pretreatment with KRGE significantly inhibited the elevation of body and ovary weights, the increase in number and size of ovarian cysts, and the elevation of serum testosterone and estradiol levels induced by DHEA. Pretreatment with KRGE also inhibited macrophage infiltration and enhanced mRNA expression levels of chemokines [interleukin (IL)-8, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1), proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6), and inducible nitric oxide synthase in ovaries induced by DHEA. It also prevented the reduction in mRNA expression of growth factors (epidermal growth factor, transforming growth factor-beta (EGF, TGF-β)) related to inhibition of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cell pathway and stimulation of the nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-related factor 2 pathway. Interestingly, KRGE or representative ginsenosides (Rb1, Rg1, and Rg3(s)) inhibited the activity of inflammatory enzymes cyclooxygenase-2 and iNOS, cytosolic p-IkB, and nuclear p-nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264.7 cells, whereas they increased nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-related factor 2 nuclear translocation.

CONCLUSION

These results provide that KRGE could prevent DHEA-induced PCOS via antiinflammatory and antioxidant activities. Thus, KRGE may be used in preventive and therapeutic strategies for PCOS-like symptoms.

Panax ginseng clinical trials: Current status and future perspectives

Panax Ginseng has been widely used in Asian for thousand years. In order to evaluate the efficacy and safety of ginseng, more and more ginseng clinical trials (GCTs) have been conducted recently. However, there is a lack of an extensive review summarizing the current status for the quality and quantity of ginseng clinical researches until now. Therefore, clinical trials for ginseng were retrieved from International Clinical Trials Registration Platform and collected through the system retrieval method of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses in PubMed, the Web of Science, the Korean Studies Information Service System, and SCOPUS database. We summarized the clinical characteristics of 152 registered ginseng clinical trials (R-GCTs) and119 published ginseng clinical trials (P-GCTs), such as source register, recruitment status, primary purpose, duration, sample size, conditions, and outcomes. Among them, ginseng has mainly been studied in clinical trials in the single-center and less than 200 subjects. In the most GCTs, healthy subjects and patients with various conditions, such as cardiovascular and metabolic diseases are administrated with ginseng, ginsenosides or the prescriptions containing ginseng for less than 3 months to investigate the protective and therapeutic functions of ginseng. 95 (79.8 %) published articles showed that ginseng has plenty of positive effects. This review could assist the basic researchers and clinical doctors to understand current status and problem of ginseng clinical research, and perhaps could benefit for the reasonable and accurate design of future clinical studies.

Anticancer Effect of Mountain Ginseng on Human Breast Cancer: Comparison with Farm-Cultivated Ginseng

Mountain ginseng has been used generally as a pharmacopuncture for cancer therapy in clinical practice in Northeast Asia. Nonetheless, there have been few scientific reports for the anticancer action of mountain ginseng. In this study, we investigated whether mountain ginseng extract (MGE) could inhibit the growth of breast cancer in in vitro and in vivo models. MGE showed stronger cytotoxicity than farm-cultivated ginseng extract (FGE) through promoting ROS generation. Also MGE dose-dependently brought about mitochondrial dysfunction in MCF-7 cells. In addition, MGE induced apoptosis through enhancing the activities of caspase-3/7 by regulation of expression of Bcl-2, Bax, cytochrome c, and cleaved caspase-3 in the MCF-7 cells. Consistent with the in vitro results, MGE significantly reduced tumor weights compared with FGE in mice transplanted with MCF-7 cells, and it regulated the expression of apoptosis-related proteins, such as Bcl-2, Bax, cytochrome c, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved PARP, in the tumor tissues. Additionally, MGE included higher total ginsenoside contents than FGE. In conclusion, MGE, which is richer in ginsenosides, exerts a stronger anticancer action than FGE in breast cancer. The anticancer action of MGE may be closely correlated with caspase-mediated apoptosis through upregulating ROS generation. Therefore, these findings may be helpful for a clinical understanding of the anticancer mechanism of MGE for breast cancer patients.

The Gintonin-Enriched Fraction of Ginseng Regulates Lipid Metabolism and Browning via the cAMP-Protein Kinase a Signaling Pathway in Mice White Adipocytes

Obesity is a major health concern and is becoming an increasingly serious societal problem worldwide. The browning of white adipocytes has received considerable attention because of its potential protective effect against obesity-related metabolic disease. The gintonin-enriched fraction (GEF) is a non-saponin, glycolipoprotein component of ginseng that is known to have neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the anti-obesity and browning effects of GEF have not been explored to date. Therefore, we aimed to determine whether GEF has a preventive effect against obesity. We differentiated 3T3-L1 cells and mouse primary subcutaneous adipocytes for 8 days in the presence or absence of GEF, and then measured the expression of intermediates in signaling pathways that regulate triglyceride (TG) synthesis and browning by Western blotting and immunofluorescence analysis. We found that GEF reduced lipid accumulation by reducing the expression of pro-adipogenic and lipogenic factors, and increased lipolysis and thermogenesis, which may be mediated by an increase in the phosphorylation of protein kinase A. These findings suggest that GEF may induce fat metabolism and energy expenditure in white adipocytes and therefore may represent a potential treatment for obesity.

Ginsenoside Compound K: Insights into Recent Studies on Pharmacokinetics and Health-Promoting Activities

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is an herb popular for its medicinal and health properties. Compound K (CK) is a secondary ginsenoside biotransformed from major ginsenosides. Compound K is more bioavailable and soluble than its parent ginsenosides and hence of immense importance. The review summarizes health-promoting in vitro and in vivo studies of CK between 2015 and 2020, including hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerosis, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, neuroprotective, anti-aging/skin protective, and others. Clinical trial data are minimal and are primarily based on CK-rich fermented ginseng. Besides, numerous preclinical and clinical studies indicating the pharmacokinetic behavior of CK, its parent compound (Rb1), and processed ginseng extracts are also summarized. With the limited evidence available from animal and clinical studies, it can be stated that CK is safe and well-tolerated. However, lower water solubility, membrane permeability, and efflux significantly diminish the efficacy of CK and restrict its clinical application. We found that the use of nanocarriers and cyclodextrin for CK delivery could overcome these limitations as well as improve the health benefits associated with them. However, these derivatives have not been clinically evaluated, thus requiring a safety assessment for human therapy application. Future studies should be aimed at investigating clinical evidence of CK.

Red Ginseng Inhibits Tau Aggregation and Promotes Tau Dissociation In Vitro

Tau, a microtubule-associated protein expressed in mature neurons, interacts with tubulin to promote the assembly and stabilization of microtubules. However, abnormally hyperphosphorylated tau dissociates from microtubules and self-aggregates. Tau aggregates, including paired helical filaments and neurofibrillary tangles, promote neuronal dysfunction and death and are the defining neuropathological feature of tauopathies. Therefore, suppressing tau aggregation or stimulating the dissociation of tau aggregates has been proposed as an effective strategy for treating neurodegenerative diseases associated with tau pathology such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and frontotemporal dementia. Interestingly, ginsenosides extracted from Panax ginseng reduced the hippocampal and cortical expression of phosphorylated tau in a rat model of AD. However, no studies have been conducted into the effect of red ginseng (RG) and its components on tau pathology. Here, we evaluated the effect of Korean red ginseng extract (KRGE) and its components on the aggregation and disassociation of tau. Using the thioflavin T assay, we monitored the change in fluorescence produced by the aggregation or disassociation of tau K18, an aggregation-prone fragment of tau₄₄₁ containing the microtubule-binding domain. Our analysis revealed that KRGE not only inhibited tau aggregation but also promoted the dissociation of tau aggregates. In addition, the KRGE fractions, such as saponin, nonsaponin, and nonsaponin fraction with rich polysaccharide, also inhibited tau aggregation and promoted the dissociation of tau aggregates. Our observations suggest that RG could be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases associated with tauopathy.

Genetic contributions to the etiology of anorexia nervosa: New perspectives in molecular diagnosis and treatment

Background

Anorexia nervosa is a multifactorial eating disorder that manifests with self‐starvation, extreme anxiety, hyperactivity, and amenorrhea. Long‐term effects include organ failure, disability, and in extreme cases, even death.

Methods

Through a literature search, here we summarize what is known about the molecular etiology of anorexia nervosa and propose genetic testing for this condition.

Results

Anorexia nervosa often has a familial background and shows strong heritability. Various genetic studies along with genome‐wide association studies have identified several genetic loci involved in molecular pathways that might lead to anorexia.

Conclusion

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder with a strong genetic component that contributes to its etiology. Various genetic approaches might help in the molecular diagnosis of this disease and in devising novel therapeutic options.

Anorexia nervosa is a multifactorial eating disorder with a strong genetic component that manifests with self‐starvation, extreme anxiety, hyperactivity, and amenorrhea. Through a literature search, here we summarize what is known about the molecular etiology of anorexia nervosa and propose genetic testing for this condition.

Pharmacological potential of ginseng and its major component ginsenosides

Ginseng has been used as a traditional herb in Asian countries for thousands of years. It contains a large number of active ingredients including steroidal saponins, protopanaxadiols, and protopanaxatriols, collectively known as ginsenosides. In the last few decades, the antioxidative and anticancer effects of ginseng, in addition to its effects on improving immunity, energy and sexuality, and combating cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, and neurological diseases, have been studied in both basic and clinical research. Ginseng could be a valuable resource for future drug development; however, further higher quality evidence is required. Moreover, ginseng may have drug interactions although the available evidence suggests it is a relatively safe product. This article reviews the bioactive compounds, global distribution, and therapeutic potential of plants in the genus Panax.

Non-polyphenolic natural inhibitors of amyloid aggregation

Protein misfolding diseases (PMDs) are chronic and progressive, with no effective therapy so far. Aggregation and misfolding of amyloidogenic proteins are closely associated with the onset and progression of PMDs, such as amyloid-β (Aβ) in Alzheimer's disease, α-Synuclein (α-Syn) in Parkinson's disease and human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) in type 2 diabetes. Inhibiting toxic aggregation of amyloidogenic proteins is regarded as a promising therapeutic approach in PMDs. The past decade has witnessed the rapid progresses of this field, dozens of inhibitors have been screened and verified in vitro and in vivo, demonstrating inhibitory effects against the aggregation and misfolding of amyloidogenic proteins, together with beneficial effects. Natural products are major sources of small molecule amyloid inhibitors, a number of natural derived compounds have been identified with great bioactivities and translational prospects. Here, we review the non-polyphenolic natural inhibitors that potentially applicable for PMDs treatment, along with their working mechanisms. Future directions are proposed for the development and clinical applications of these inhibitors.

Born to Protect: Leveraging BDNF Against Cognitive Deficit in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease is a chronic neurodegenerative devastating disorder affecting a high percentage of the population over 65 years of age and causing a relevant emotional, social, and economic burden. Clinically, it is characterized by a prominent cognitive deficit associated with language and behavioral impairments. The molecular pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease is multifaceted and involves changes in neurotransmitter levels together with alterations of inflammatory, oxidative, hormonal, and synaptic pathways, which may represent a drug target for both prevention and treatment; however, an effective treatment for Alzheimer's disease still represents an unmet goal. As neurotrophic factors participate in the modulation of the above-mentioned pathways, they have been highlighted as critical contributors of Alzheimer's disease etiology, whose modulation might be beneficial for Alzheimer's disease. We focused on the neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor, providing several lines of evidence pointing to brain-derived neurotrophic factor as a plausible endophenotype of cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's disease, illustrating some of the most recent possibilities to modulate the expression of this neurotrophin in the brain in an attempt to ameliorate cognition and delay the progression of Alzheimer's disease. This review shows that otherwise disparate pharmacologic or non-pharmacologic approaches converge on brain-derived neurotrophic factor, providing a means whereby apparently unrelated medical approaches may nevertheless produce similar synaptic and cognitive outcomes in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis, suggesting that brain-derived neurotrophic factor-based synaptic repair may represent a modifying strategy to ameliorate cognition in Alzheimer's disease.

Ginsenosides reduce body weight and ameliorate hepatic steatosis in high fat diet‑induced obese mice via endoplasmic reticulum stress and p‑STAT3/STAT3 signaling

Obesity has been increasing globally for over three decades. According to previous studies, dietary obesity is usually associated with endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) and STAT3 signaling, which result in interference with the homeostatic control of energy and lipid metabolism. Ginsenosides (GS) administered to mice will modulate adiposity and food intake; however, the mechanism of food inhibition is unknown. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether GS may inhibit ERS and regulate STAT3 phosphorylation in GT1‑7 cells (a mouse hypothalamus gonadotropin‑releasing hormone neuron cell line) and the hypothalamus in order to reduce the body weight and ameliorate hepatic steatosis in high fat diet (HFD)‑induced obese mice. In the present study, GS inhibited the appetite, reduced the body weight, visceral fat, body fat content and blood glucose, and ameliorated the glucose tolerance of the obese mice compared with HFD mice. In addition, the levels of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase, triglyceride (TG), leptin and insulin in the serum were reduced compared with HFD mice. There was less TG in the liver, but more in the feces compared with HFD mice. Using hematoxylin and eosin staining of HepG2 cells and liver tissues, GS were demonstrated to improve the non‑alcoholic fatty liver of the HFD‑induced obese mice and reduce the diameter of the fat cells compared with HFD mice. GS also increased oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide emissions in the metabolic cage data compared with HFD mice. In the GT1‑7 cells, GS alleviated the ERS induced by tunicamycin and enhanced the activation of the STAT3 phosphorylation pathway. Furthermore the ERS of the liver was relieved to achieve the aforementioned pharmacological effects. GS were used in the homeostatic control of the energy and lipid metabolism of a diet‑induced obesity model. In conclusion, present studies suggest that GS exert these effects by increasing STAT3 phosphorylation expression and reducing the ERS. Thus, GS reduce body weight and ameliorate hepatic steatosis in HFD‑induced obese mice.

Ginkgo biloba extract improves brain uptake of ginsenosides by increasing blood-brain barrier permeability via activating A1 adenosine receptor signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginkgo biloba leaves and Panax ginseng are Chinese medicine commonly used in combination for cerebral disease.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the effect of standard extract of Ginkgo biloba leaves (EGb) on facilitating brain uptake of ginsenoside and its underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The increasing uptake of ginsenosides in the brain of rats by EGb were detected by LC-MS/MS analysis. Evans blue and FITC-dextran leakage were determined to evaluate blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability in vivo. Transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) and Na-F penetration rate were measured with a co-culture of the human cerebral microvascular endothelial cell line (hCMEC/D3) and human normal glial cell line (HEB) in vitro BBB model. WB were used to analyzed the expression of BBB tight junctions (TJs) related protein (ZO-1, Occludin, Claudin-3, p-ERM, and p-MLC), ultrastructure of TJs was determined by transmission electron microscope.

RESULTS

LC-MS/MS analysis demonstrated that EGb could improve brain uptake of ginsenoside Rg1, Re, Rd and Rb1. In vivo study showed that, BBB permeability was significantly increased after EGb administration, evidenced by the markedly increased penetration of FITC-dextran and Evans Blue into the mice brain parenchyma. In the in vitro BBB model, reduced TEER and increased Na-F penetration rate was observed in EGb group, which was associated with alteration of TJs ultrastructure. Furthermore, the expression of p-ERM and p-MLC in hCMEC/D3 as well as mice brain microvessels were significantly upregulated, but no significant change on the expression of TJs proteins (ZO-1, Occludin and Claudin-3). Moreover, the effect of EGb on in vitro BBB permeability and ERM, MLC phosphorylation was counteracted by DPCPX, an A1 adenosine receptor (A1R) antagonist.

CONCLUSIONS

EGb might induce ERM/MLC phosphorylation and increase the cell-cell junction gaps to cause a reversible increase of the BBB permeability via A1R signaling pathway. Our results may contribute to better use of EGb in the treatment of brain diseases.

Regulatory roles of ginseng on inflammatory caspases, executioners of inflammasome activation

Inflammation is an immune response that protects against pathogens and cellular stress. The hallmark of inflammatory responses is inflammasome activation in response to various stimuli. This subsequently activates downstream effectors, that is, inflammatory caspases such as caspase-1, 4, 5, 11, and 12. Extensive efforts have been made on developing effective and safe anti-inflammatory therapeutics, and ginseng has long been traditionally used as efficacious and safe herbal medicine in treating various inflammatory and inflammation-mediated diseases. Many studies have successfully shown that ginseng plays an anti-inflammatory role by inhibiting inflammasomes and inflammasome-activated inflammatory caspases. This review discusses the regulatory roles of ginseng on inflammatory caspases in inflammatory responses and also suggests new research areas on the anti-inflammatory function of ginseng, which provides a novel insight into the development of ginseng as an effective and safe anti-inflammatory herbal medicine.

Selection and validation of reference genes desirable for gene expression analysis by qRT-PCR in MeJA-treated ginseng hairy roots

Ginseng is a valuable herb of traditional Chinese medicine and ginsenosides, the main bioactive components of ginseng, have been proven to have multiple functions in human therapies and health. Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) is an elicitor that has been demonstrated to have a vital influence on ginsenoside biosynthesis. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) has been widely used in quantification of gene expressions. Here, we report the selection and validation of reference genes desirable for normalization of gene expressions quantified by qRT-PCR in ginseng hairy roots treated with MeJA. Twelve reference genes were selected as candidate genes, and their expressions were quantified by qRT-PCR, and analyzed by geNorm, NormFinder and BestKeeper. CYP and EF-1α were shown to be the most stable reference genes in geNorm, CYP was the most stable reference gene in NormFinder, and 18S was the most stable reference gene in BestKeeper. On this basis, we further quantified the relative expression levels of four genes encoding key enzymes that are involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis using CYP and 18S as the reference genes, respectively. Moreover, correlation analysis was performed between the quantified expressions of four genes and the ginsenoside content in MeJA-treated ginseng hairy roots. The results of relative expressions of the four genes quantified using CYP as the reference gene and their significant correlations with the ginsenoside content were better than those using 18S as the reference gene. The CYP gene, hence, was concluded as the most desirable reference gene for quantification of the expressions of genes in MeJA-treated ginseng hairy roots. This finding, therefore, provides information useful for gene research in ginseng, particularly in MeJA-treated ginseng hairy roots, which includes identification and characterization of genes involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis.

The Protective Effect of Korean Red Ginseng Against Rotenone-Induced Parkinson's Disease in Rat Model: Modulation of Nuclear Factor-κβ and Caspase-3

OBJECTIVE

Korean red ginseng was reported to have many biological effects like the antioxidant and the anti-inflammatory activities. Oxidative stress and neuro-inflammation play major roles in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). The current study aimed to investigate the protective effects of ginseng on rotenone-induced PD in rats.

METHODS

Rats were randomly allocated into 4 groups: normal rats, rotenone control, ginseng+rotenone and ginseng only treated rats. The severity of PD was evaluated through locomotor activity perceived in the open field test, histological examination and immunohistochemical detection of amyloid-β in brain tissues, in addition to the biochemical assessment of tyrosine hydroxylase activity in brain tissues. Moreover, the following parameters were investigated for studying the possible mechanisms of ginseng neuroprotective effect: nuclear factor-κβ (NF-κβ), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), caspase- 3, lipid peroxides and reduced glutathione (GSH).

RESULTS

Ginseng exhibited potent neuroprotective effect that was reflected upon the histopathological examination, marked improvement in the locomotor activity and through its ability to suppress the amyloid- β deposition in the cortex and striatum along with significant increase in the tyrosine hydroxylase activity. Ginseng successfully inhibited the NF-κβ inflammatory pathway in brain tissues beside the inhibition of other oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, it exhibited antiapoptotic effect via the inhibition of caspase-3 expression.

CONCLUSION

Ginseng could be a promising treatment in PD. It can suppress dopaminergic neuron degeneration through variable mechanisms mainly via inhibition of NF-κβ pathway in addition to inhibition of oxidative stress and apoptosis.

Antiepileptic and anti-neuroinflammatory effects of red ginseng in an intrahippocampal kainic acid model of temporal lobe epilepsy demonstrated by electroencephalography

Background

Chronic inflammation can lower the seizure threshold and have influence on epileptogenesis. The components of red ginseng (RG) have anti-inflammatory effects. The abundance of peripherally derived immune cells in resected epileptic tissue suggests that the immune system is a potential target for anti-epileptogenic therapies. The present study used continuous electroencephalography (EEG) to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of RG in intrahippocampal kainic acid (IHKA) animal model of temporal lobe epilepsy.

Methods

Prolonged status epilepticus (SE) was induced in 7-week-old C57BL/6J mice via stereotaxic injection of kainic acid (KA, 150 nL; 1 mg/mL) into the right CA3/dorsal hippocampus. The animals were implanted electrodes and monitored for spontaneous seizures. Following the IHKA injections, one group received treatments of RG (250 mg/kg/day) for 4 weeks (RG group, n=7) while another group received valproic acid (VPA, 30 mg/kg/day) (VPA group, n=7). Laboratory findings and pathological results were assessed at D29 and continuous (24 h/week) EEG monitoring was used to evaluate high-voltage sharp waves on D7, D14, D21, and D28.

Results

At D29, there were no differences between the groups in liver function test but RG group had higher blood urea nitrogen levels. Immunohistochemistry analyses revealed that RG reduced the infiltration of immune cells into the brain and EEG analyses showed that it had anticonvulsant effects.

Conclusion

Repeated treatments with RG after IHKA-induced SE decreased immune cell infiltration into the brain and resulted in a marked decrease in electrographic seizures. RG had anticonvulsant effects that were similar to those of VPA without serious side effects.

Bar-HRM: a reliable and fast method for species identification of ginseng (Panax ginseng, Panax notoginseng, Talinum paniculatum and Phytolacca Americana)

Background

Korean ginseng has long been famous and is one of the most well known forms of ginseng. The root of plants in the genus Panax is commonly recognized as ginseng. Different Panax species of ginseng root have been used as treatments. Although many other herbs are called ginseng, they do not contain the active compounds of ginsenosides. In Thailand, we have Thai ginseng which is of course not one of Panax species. Thai ginseng is the root from Talinum paniculatum and, due to its morphological root similarity, it is almost impossible to differentiate between them. Also, another plant species, Phytollacca americana, has significantly similar root morphology to real ginseng but its seeds and root are poisonous. Misunderstanding what true ginseng is compared to others could endanger lives and cause financial loss by buying inferior products.

Methods

DNA barcoding combination with High Resolution Melting (called Bar-HRM) was used for species discrimination of the Panax ginseng and others. Five regions included ITS2, matK, psbA-trnH and rbcL were evaluated in the analyses.

Results

The ITS2 region was found to be the most suitable primers for the analysis. The melting profile from the HRM analyses using the chosen ITS2 primers showed that Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng) could be discriminated from other Penax species. Also, other ginseng species with morphological similarity could be easily distinguished from the true ginseng. The developed Bar-HRM method poses a great potential in ginseng species discrimination and thus could be also useful in ginseng authentication.

Neuroprotective Effects of Ginseng Phytochemicals: Recent Perspectives

As our global population ages, the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases is critical to our society. In recent years, researchers have begun to study the role of biologically active chemicals from plants and herbs to gain new inspiration and develop new therapeutic drugs. Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Mey.) is a famous Chinese herbal medicine with a variety of pharmacological activities. It has been used to treat various diseases since ancient times. Extensive research over the years has shown that ginseng has potential as a neuroprotective drug, and its neuroprotective effects can be used to treat and prevent neurological damage or pathologically related diseases (such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, depression symptoms, and strokes). Moreover, evidence for the medicinal and health benefits of ginsenoside, its main active ingredient, in the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases is increasing, and current clinical results have not reported any serious adverse reactions to ginseng. Therefore, we briefly review the recent research and development on the beneficial effects and mechanisms of ginseng and its main active ingredient, ginsenoside, in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, hoping to provide some ideas for the discovery and identification of ginseng neuroprotection.

Ginseng increases Klotho expression by FoxO3-mediated manganese superoxide dismutase in a mouse model of tacrolimus-induced renal injury

The antioxidant function of Klotho is well-documented as a regulatory factor implicated in countering the aging process. This study investigated whether ginseng upregulates Klotho and its antiaging signaling in a setting of calcineurin inhibitor-induced oxidative stress. Although tacrolimus treatment reduced Klotho level in the serum and kidney, ginseng treatment was found to reverse the levels. Tacrolimus-induced oxidative stress was reduced by ginseng treatment, with functional and histological improvements. Effect of ginseng on Klotho-induced manganese superoxide dismutase signaling pathway during tacrolimus treatment in mice revealed that ginseng suppressed phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/serine-threonine kinase Akt-mediated phosphorylation of forkhead box protein O3a and promoted the binding of forkhead box protein O3a to manganese superoxide dismutase promoter. In the mitochondria, ginseng reduced mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production, mitochondrial membrane potential, and oxygen consumption rate, whereas blocking phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activity with LY294002 enhanced them. These findings together suggested that ginseng attenuated tacrolimus-induced oxidative stress via signaling between Klotho and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/serine-threonine kinase Akt/forkhead box protein O3a-related antioxidant pathway.

Panax ginseng is superior to vitamin E as a hepatoprotector against cyclophosphamide-induced liver damage

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Cyclophosphamide (CPh) is a frequently used drug, in human and animals for its immunosuppressive and anticancer potential. However, it is metabolized by the liver yielding damaging toxicants (to the liver itself and other non-target vital organs) via oxidative stress, apoptosis induction and finally necrosis. Since there is no escaping of using such harmful medications, we focused on alleviating its side-effects. Panax ginseng Meyer is a potent candidate, and we still lack adequate information on its hepatoprotective role against cyclophosphamide-induced liver-damage.

METHODS

Here, we used P. ginseng (Korean Red Ginseng) compared to vitamin-E (natural antioxidant) in combating CPh-induced liver damage. Forty-eight albino rats were divided into 6 groups, Control, Ginseng, Vitamin E, Cyclophosphamide (CPh), CPh + Ginseng or CPh + Vitamin-E. Blood samples were taken for biochemical analyses and liver samples were collected for histopathology, oxidative stress evaluation, and gene expression analyses.

RESULTS

In CPh group, typical CPh-liver damage was evident (higher levels of AST, ALT, ALP; lower albumin and total proteins levels; lower liver tissue concentrations of SOD, GPX and CAT and higher MDA; injured liver histopathological picture; and finally increased TNF-α, IL-1β and Caspase3 and decreased BCL-2 genes expression). All these were abolished with either P. ginseng or vitamin-E administration. However, P. ginseng was overall superior to vitamin-E, especially in restoring blood biochemical findings and damaged histopathological picture.

CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, P. ginseng is a potent hepatoprotector (vitamin-E to a lesser extent) and should be considered where liver damage is expected secondary to damaging medications; as cyclophosphamide.

Nrf2 Plays an Essential Role in Long-Term Brain Damage and Neuroprotection of Korean Red Ginseng in a Permanent Cerebral Ischemia Model

Cerebral ischemia is a devastating disease with a high incidence of death and disability; however, effective therapeutics remain limited. The transcriptional factor Nrf2 has been shown to play a pivotal role in the endogenous defense against brain oxidative stress and inflammation, and therefore represents a promising target for stroke intervention. However, the long-term effects of Nrf2 and the standardized Korean red ginseng (ginseng), a potent Nrf2 natural inducer, on permanent cerebral ischemic damage have not yet been reported. Wildtype (WT) and Nrf2^-/- adult mice were pretreated with either vehicle or ginseng, and were subjected to permanent distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (pdMCAO). The infarct volume, the reactive astrocytes and microglia, and the water regulatory protein aquaporin 4 (AQP4) were examined at 28 days after stroke. When compared with the WT matched controls, the Nrf2 disruption significantly enlarged the infarct volume (40.4 ± 10.1%) and exacerbated the progression of reactive gliosis and AQP4 protein levels after pdMCAO. In contrast, ginseng significantly reduced the infarct volume and attenuated the reactive gliosis and AQP4 in the ischemic WT mice (47.3 ± 6.9%), but not in the Nrf2^-/- mice (25.5 ± 5.6%). In conclusion, Nrf2 plays an important role in the long-term recovery of permanent cerebral ischemic damage and the neuroprotection of ginseng.

Chlorogenic acid-rich Solanum melongena extract has protective potential against rotenone-induced neurotoxicity in PC-12 cells

Neurodegenerative diseases are major threats to human health. Here, through fluorescence, colorimetric, immunoblotting, spectroscopy, and laser scanning confocal microscopic techniques, we investigated the neuroprotective properties of chlorogenic acid-rich Solanum melongena extracts (SM extract) in rotenone-induced PC-12 cell death. The results showed that rotenone caused apoptosis to PC-12 cells by elevating Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and increasing caspase-3 activity. Rotenone also increased ROS in cells while suppressing SOD and catalase activities. This resulted in the depletion of ATP in cells by blocking mitochondria complex I activity. Pretreatment of the cells with SM extract at concentrations of 100, 250, and 500 μg/ml before incubation for 24 hr with rotenone significantly prevented apoptosis, decreased ROS, and increased ATP production in the cells. SM extract upregulated SOD and catalase activities in the cells. These results unveil evidence that SM extract content neuroprotective properties that can be exploited to prevent and treat neurodegenerative diseases. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Solanum melongena eggplant is a popular ingredient in many traditional recipes and is well known in Asia for its medicinal benefits. Despite numerous scientific reports of the potential health benefits of this plant, reports on its effects in neurodegenerative diseases is still lacking. This pilot study demonstrates that S. melongena eggplant can protect against neurotoxicity in neurodegenerative diseases. The results of this research serves as a base for further research on eggplant that will result in its usage on a larger scale as functional food materials.

Panax ginseng: a candidate herbal medicine for autoimmune disease

Panax ginseng Meyer (P. ginseng; Korean ginseng) is well known for its medicinal properties. It can alleviate pathological symptoms, promote health, and prevent potential diseases via its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, homeostatic, and other positive effects on biological metabolism. Although many studies have determined effects of P. ginseng on various diseases, such as cardiovascular, neurological, and immunological diseases, little is known about the effect of P. ginseng on autoimmune diseases. Here, we review a few reports about effects of P. ginseng on autoimmune diseases (e.g., multiple sclerosis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, atopic dermatitis, and rheumatoid arthritis) and suggest the possibility of P. ginseng as a candidate herbal medicine to prevent and treat autoimmune diseases as well as the need to study it.

Red Ginseng Attenuates Aβ-Induced Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Aβ-mediated Pathology in an Animal Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease and is characterized by neurodegeneration and cognitive deficits. Amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide is known to be a major cause of AD pathogenesis. However, recent studies have clarified that mitochondrial deficiency is also a mediator or trigger for AD development. Interestingly, red ginseng (RG) has been demonstrated to have beneficial effects on AD pathology. However, there is no evidence showing whether RG extract (RGE) can inhibit the mitochondrial deficit-mediated pathology in the experimental models of AD. The effects of RGE on Aβ-mediated mitochondrial deficiency were investigated in both HT22 mouse hippocampal neuronal cells and the brains of 5XFAD Aβ-overexpressing transgenic mice. To examine whether RGE can affect mitochondria-related pathology, we used immunohistostaining to study the effects of RGE on Aβ accumulation, neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and impaired adult hippocampal neurogenesis in hippocampal formation of 5XFAD mice. In vitro and in vivo findings indicated that RGE significantly improves Aβ-induced mitochondrial pathology. In addition, RGE significantly ameliorated AD-related pathology, such as Aβ deposition, gliosis, and neuronal loss, and deficits in adult hippocampal neurogenesis in brains with AD. Our results suggest that RGE may be a mitochondria-targeting agent for the treatment of AD.

Ginsenoside Rh2 attenuates microglial activation against toxoplasmic encephalitis via TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

Background

Ginsenoside Rh2 (GRh2) is a characterized component in red ginseng widely used in Korea and China. GRh2 exhibits a wide range of pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. However, its effects on Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection have not been clarified yet.

Methods

The effect of GRh2 against T. gondii was assessed under in vitro and in vivo experiments. The BV2 cells were infected with tachyzoites of T. gondii RH strain, and the effects of GRh2 were evaluated by MTT assay, morphological observations, immunofluorescence staining, a trypan blue exclusion assay, reverse transcription PCR, and Western blot analyses. The in vivo experiment was conducted with BALB/c mice inoculated with lethal amounts of tachyzoites with or without GRh2 treatment.

Results and conclusion

The GRh2 treatment significantly inhibited the proliferation of T. gondii under in vitro and in vivo studies. Furthermore, GRh2 blocked the activation of microglia and specifically decreased the release of inflammatory mediators in response to T. gondii infection through TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. In mice, GRh2 conferred modest protection from a lethal dose of T. gondii. After the treatment, the proliferation of tachyzoites in the peritoneal cavity of infected mice markedly decreased. Moreover, GRh2 also significantly decreased the T. gondii burden in mouse brain tissues. These findings indicate that GRh2 exhibits an anti–T. gondii effect and inhibits the microglial activation through TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway, providing the basic pharmacological basis for the development of new drugs to treat toxoplasmic encephalitis.

Effects of gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics of protopanaxadiol ginsenosides Rd, Rg3, F2, and compound K in healthy volunteers treated orally with red ginseng

Background

It is well recognized that gut microbiota is involved in the biotransformation of ginsenosides by converting the polar ginsenosides to nonpolar bioactive ginsenosides. However, the roles of the gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides in humans have not yet been fully elucidated.

Methods

Red ginseng (RG) or fermented red ginseng was orally administered to 34 healthy Korean volunteers, and the serum concentrations of the ginsenosides were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In addition, the fecal ginsenoside Rd- and compound K (CK)-forming activities were measured. Then, the correlations between the pharmacokinetic profiles of the ginsenosides and the fecal ginsenoside-metabolizing activities were investigated.

Results

For the RG group, the area under the serum concentration-time curve values of ginsenosides Rd, F2, Rg3, and CK were 8.20 ± 11.95 ng·h/mL, 4.54 ± 3.70 ng·h/mL, 36.40 ± 19.68 ng·h/mL, and 40.30 ± 29.83 ng·h/mL, respectively. For the fermented red ginseng group, the the area under curve from zero to infinity (AUC_∞) values of ginsenosides Rd, F2, Rg3, and CK were 187.90 ± 95.87 ng·h/mL, 30.24 ± 41.87 ng·h/mL, 28.68 ± 14.27 ng·h/mL, and 137.01 ± 96.16 ng·h/mL, respectively. The fecal CK-forming activities of the healthy volunteers were generally proportional to their ginsenoside Rd-forming activities. The area under the serum concentration-time curve value of CK exhibited an obvious positive correlation (r = 0.566, p < 0.01) with the fecal CK-forming activity.

Conclusion

The gut microbiota may play an important role in the bioavailability of the nonpolar RG ginsenosides by affecting the biotransformation of the ginsenosides.

Efficacy and Mechanism of Panax Ginseng in Experimental Stroke

Stroke is one of the leading causes of death and long-term disability worldwide. However, effective therapeutic approaches are still limited. The disruption of blood supply triggers complicated temporal and spatial events involving hemodynamic, biochemical, and neurophysiologic changes, eventually leading to pathological disturbance and diverse clinical symptoms. Ginseng (Panax ginseng), a popular herb distributed in East Asia, has been extensively used as medicinal and nutritional supplements for a variety of disorders worldwide. In recent years, ginseng has displayed attractive beneficial effects in distinct neurological disorders including stroke, involving multiple protective mechanisms. In this article, we reviewed the literature on ginseng studies in the experimental stroke field, particularly focusing on the in vivo evidence on the preventive or therapeutic efficacy and mechanisms of ginseng and ginsenosides in various stroke models of mice and rats. We also summarized the efficacy and underlying mechanisms of ginseng and ginsenosides on short- and long-term stroke outcomes.

Herb Target Prediction Based on Representation Learning of Symptom related Heterogeneous Network

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has received increasing attention as a complementary approach or alternative to modern medicine. However, experimental methods for identifying novel targets of TCM herbs heavily relied on the current available herb-compound-target relationships. In this work, we present an Herb-Target Interaction Network (HTINet) approach, a novel network integration pipeline for herb-target prediction mainly relying on the symptom related associations. HTINet focuses on capturing the low-dimensional feature vectors for both herbs and proteins by network embedding, which incorporate the topological properties of nodes across multi-layered heterogeneous network, and then performs supervised learning based on these low-dimensional feature representations. HTINet obtains performance improvement over a well-established random walk based herb-target prediction method. Furthermore, we have manually validated several predicted herb-target interactions from independent literatures. These results indicate that HTINet can be used to integrate heterogeneous information to predict novel herb-target interactions.

Panaxadiol inhibits synaptic dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease and targets the Fyn protein in APP/PS1 mice and APP-SH-SY5Y cells

AIM

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative disease, is characterized by memory loss and synaptic damage. Up to now, there are limited drugs to cure or delay the state of this illness. Recently, the Fyn tyrosine kinase is implicated in AD pathology triggered by synaptic damage. Thus, Fyn inhibition may prevent or delay the AD progression. Therefore, in this paper, we investigated whether Panaxadiol could decrease synaptic damage in AD and the underlying mechanism.

MAIN METHODS

The ability of learning and memory of mice has detected by Morris Water Maze. The pathological changes detected by H&E staining and Nissl staining. The percentage of cell apoptosis and the calcium concentration were detected by Flow Cytometry in vitro. The amount of synaptic protein and related proteins in the Fyn/GluN2B/CaMKIIα signaling pathway were detected by Western Blot.

KEY FINDINGS

In the present article, Panaxadiol could significantly improve the ability of learning and memory of mice and reduce its synaptic dysfunction. Panaxadiol could down-regulate GluN2B's phosphorylation level by inhibition Fyn kinase activity, Subsequently, decrease Ca²⁺-mediated synaptic damage, reducing LDH leakage, inhibiting apoptosis in AD, resulting in facilitating the cells survival. For the underlying molecular mechanism, we used PP2 to block the Fyn/GluN2B/CaMKIIα signaling pathway. The results from WB showed that the expression of related proteins in the Fyn signaling pathway decreased with PP2 treated.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our results indicate that Panaxadiol could decrease synaptic damage, which will cause AD via inhibition of the Fyn/GluN2B/CaMKIIα signaling pathway. Thus, the Panaxadiol is a best promising candidate to test as a potential therapy for AD.

Therapeutic potential of Panax ginseng and its constituents, ginsenosides and gintonin, in neurological and neurodegenerative disorders: a patent review

INTRODUCTION

Ginseng, Panax ginseng, has been used for various diseases and proven its great efficacy in managing central nervous system diseases.

AREAS COVERED

This article covers the therapeutic potential of patents on ginseng and its active constituents to develop therapies for neurodegenerative and neurological disorders, since 2010. The literature review was provided using multiple search engines including Google Patent, Espacenet and US Patent in the field of neurodegenerative diseases, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, cognitive, and neurological disorders.

EXPERT OPINION

The gathered data represented outstanding merits of ginseng in treatment of neurodegenerative and neurological disorders. These effects have been mediated by neurogenesis, anti-apoptotic and antioxidant properties, inhibition of mitochondrial dysfunction, receptor-operated Ca²⁺ channels, amyloid beta aggregation, and microglial activation as well as neurotransmitters modulation. However, these compounds have limited clinical application of for the prevention or treatment of neurodegenerative and neurological disorders. This might be due to incomplete data on their clinical pharmacokinetic and toxicity properties, and limited economic investments. There is an increasing trend in use of herbal medicines instead of chemical drugs, so it is time to make more attention to the application of ginseng, the grandfather of medicinal plants, from basic sciences to patients' bed.