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Siglec-9 is a novel leukocyte ligand for vascular adhesion protein-1 and can be used in PET imaging of inflammation and cancer. Blood 2011; 118:3725-33. [PMID: 21821708 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2010-09-311076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Leukocyte migration to sites of inflammation is regulated by several endothelial adhesion molecules. Vascular adhesion protein-1 (VAP-1) is unique among the homing-associated molecules as it is both an enzyme that oxidizes primary amines and an adhesin. Although granulocytes can bind to endothelium via a VAP-1-dependent manner, the counter-receptor(s) on this leukocyte population is(are) not known. Here we used a phage display approach and identified Siglec-9 as a candidate ligand on granulocytes. The binding between Siglec-9 and VAP-1 was confirmed by in vitro and ex vivo adhesion assays. The interaction sites between VAP-1 and Siglec-9 were identified by molecular modeling and confirmed by further binding assays with mutated proteins. Although the binding takes place in the enzymatic groove of VAP-1, it is only partially dependent on the enzymatic activity of VAP-1. In positron emission tomography, the ⁶⁸Gallium-labeled peptide of Siglec-9 specifically detected VAP-1 in vasculature at sites of inflammation and cancer. Thus, the peptide binding to the enzymatic groove of VAP-1 can be used for imaging conditions, such as inflammation and cancer.
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52
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Nordström T, Movert E, Olin AI, Ali SR, Nizet V, Varki A, Areschoug T. Human Siglec-5 inhibitory receptor and immunoglobulin A (IgA) have separate binding sites in streptococcal beta protein. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:33981-91. [PMID: 21795693 PMCID: PMC3190825 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.251728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-like lectins (Siglecs) are receptors believed to be important for regulation of cellular activation and inflammation. Several pathogenic microbes bind specific Siglecs via sialic acid-containing structures at the microbial surface, interactions that may result in modulation of host responses. Recently, it was shown that the group B Streptococcus (GBS) binds to human Siglec-5 (hSiglec-5), an inhibitory receptor expressed on macrophages and neutrophils, via the IgA-binding surface β protein, providing the first example of a protein/protein interaction between a pathogenic microbe and a Siglec. Here we show that the hSiglec-5-binding part of β resides in the N-terminal half of the protein, which also harbors the previously determined IgA-binding region. We constructed bacterial mutants expressing variants of the β protein with non-overlapping deletions in the N-terminal half of the protein. Using these mutants and recombinant β fragments, we showed that the hSiglec-5-binding site is located in the most N-terminal part of β (B6N region; amino acids 1–152) and that the hSiglec-5- and IgA-binding domains in β are completely separate. We showed with BIAcoreTM analysis that tandem variants of the hSiglec-5- and IgA-binding domains bind to their respective ligands with high affinity. Finally, we showed that the B6N region, but not the IgA-binding region of β, triggers recruitment of the tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2 to hSiglec-5 in U937 monocytes. Taken together, we have identified and isolated the first microbial non-sialic acid Siglec-binding region that can be used as a tool in studies of the β/hSiglec-5 interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Therése Nordström
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Medical Microbiology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 23, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
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53
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Pyburn TM, Bensing BA, Xiong YQ, Melancon BJ, Tomasiak TM, Ward NJ, Yankovskaya V, Oliver KM, Cecchini G, Sulikowski GA, Tyska MJ, Sullam PM, Iverson TM. A structural model for binding of the serine-rich repeat adhesin GspB to host carbohydrate receptors. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002112. [PMID: 21765814 PMCID: PMC3131266 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2011] [Accepted: 04/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
GspB is a serine-rich repeat (SRR) adhesin of Streptococcus gordonii that mediates binding of this organism to human platelets via its interaction with sialyl-T antigen on the receptor GPIbα. This interaction appears to be a major virulence determinant in the pathogenesis of infective endocarditis. To address the mechanism by which GspB recognizes its carbohydrate ligand, we determined the high-resolution x-ray crystal structure of the GspB binding region (GspB(BR)), both alone and in complex with a disaccharide precursor to sialyl-T antigen. Analysis of the GspB(BR) structure revealed that it is comprised of three independently folded subdomains or modules: 1) an Ig-fold resembling a CnaA domain from prokaryotic pathogens; 2) a second Ig-fold resembling the binding region of mammalian Siglecs; 3) a subdomain of unique fold. The disaccharide was found to bind in a pocket within the Siglec subdomain, but at a site distinct from that observed in mammalian Siglecs. Confirming the biological relevance of this binding pocket, we produced three isogenic variants of S. gordonii, each containing a single point mutation of a residue lining this binding pocket. These variants have reduced binding to carbohydrates of GPIbα. Further examination of purified GspB(BR)-R484E showed reduced binding to sialyl-T antigen while S. gordonii harboring this mutation did not efficiently bind platelets and showed a significant reduction in virulence, as measured by an animal model of endocarditis. Analysis of other SRR proteins revealed that the predicted binding regions of these adhesins also had a modular organization, with those known to bind carbohydrate receptors having modules homologous to the Siglec and Unique subdomains of GspB(BR). This suggests that the binding specificity of the SRR family of adhesins is determined by the type and organization of discrete modules within the binding domains, which may affect the tropism of organisms for different tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tasia M. Pyburn
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
- Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Barbara A. Bensing
- Department of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center and the University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Yan Q. Xiong
- Department of Medicine, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, United States of America
| | - Bruce J. Melancon
- Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Thomas M. Tomasiak
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
- Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Nicholas J. Ward
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Victoria Yankovskaya
- Molecular Biology Division, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Kevin M. Oliver
- Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Gary Cecchini
- Molecular Biology Division, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Gary A. Sulikowski
- Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Matthew J. Tyska
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Paul M. Sullam
- Department of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center and the University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - T. M. Iverson
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
- Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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54
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Mitra N, Banda K, Altheide TK, Schaffer L, Johnson-Pais TL, Beuten J, Leach RJ, Angata T, Varki N, Varki A. SIGLEC12, a human-specific segregating (pseudo)gene, encodes a signaling molecule expressed in prostate carcinomas. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:23003-11. [PMID: 21555517 PMCID: PMC3123068 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.244152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2011] [Revised: 05/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The primate SIGLEC12 gene encodes one of the CD33-related Siglec family of signaling molecules in immune cells. We had previously reported that this gene harbors a human-specific missense mutation of the codon for an Arg residue required for sialic acid recognition. Here we show that this R122C mutation of the Siglec-XII protein is fixed in the human population, i.e. it occurred prior to the origin of modern humans. Additional mutations have since completely inactivated the SIGLEC12 gene in some but not all humans. The most common inactivating mutation with a global allele frequency of 58% is a single nucleotide frameshift that markedly shortens the open reading frame. Unlike other CD33-related Siglecs that are primarily found on immune cells, we found that Siglec-XII protein is expressed not only on some macrophages but also on various epithelial cell surfaces in humans and chimpanzees. We also found expression on certain human prostate epithelial carcinomas and carcinoma cell lines. This expression correlates with the presence of the nonframeshifted, intact SIGLEC12 allele. Although SIGLEC12 allele status did not predict prostate carcinoma incidence, restoration of expression in a prostate carcinoma cell line homozygous for the frameshift mutation induced altered regulation of several genes associated with carcinoma progression. These stably transfected Siglec-XII-expressing prostate cancer cells also showed enhanced growth in nude mice. Finally, monoclonal antibodies against the protein were internalized by Siglec-XII-expressing prostate carcinoma cells, allowing targeting of a toxin to such cells. Polymorphic expression of Siglec-XII in humans thus has implications for prostate cancer biology and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nivedita Mitra
- From the Glycobiology Research and Training Center, Departments of Medicine, Pathology and Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Kalyan Banda
- From the Glycobiology Research and Training Center, Departments of Medicine, Pathology and Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Tasha K. Altheide
- From the Glycobiology Research and Training Center, Departments of Medicine, Pathology and Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Lana Schaffer
- the Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, and
| | - Teresa L. Johnson-Pais
- the Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78229
| | - Joke Beuten
- the Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78229
| | - Robin J. Leach
- the Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78229
| | - Takashi Angata
- From the Glycobiology Research and Training Center, Departments of Medicine, Pathology and Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Nissi Varki
- From the Glycobiology Research and Training Center, Departments of Medicine, Pathology and Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Ajit Varki
- From the Glycobiology Research and Training Center, Departments of Medicine, Pathology and Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
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55
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Zeng Y, Rademacher C, Nycholat CM, Futakawa S, Lemme K, Ernst B, Paulson JC. High affinity sialoside ligands of myelin associated glycoprotein. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:5045-9. [PMID: 21561770 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.04.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2011] [Revised: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Myelin associated glycoprotein (Siglec-4) is a myelin adhesion receptor, that is, well established for its role as an inhibitor of axonal outgrowth in nerve injury, mediated by binding to sialic acid containing ligands on the axonal membrane. Because disruption of myelin-ligand interactions promotes axon outgrowth, we have sought to develop potent ligand based inhibitors using natural ligands as scaffolds. Although natural ligands of MAG are glycolipids terminating in the sequence NeuAcα2-3Galβ1-3(±NeuAcα2-6)GalNAcβ-R, we previously established that synthetic O-linked glycoprotein glycans with the same sequence α-linked to Thr exhibited ∼1000-fold increased affinity (∼1μM). Attempts to increase potency by introducing a benzoylamide substituent at C-9 of the α2-3 sialic acid afforded only a two-fold increase, instead of increases of >100-fold observed for other sialoside ligands of MAG. Surprisingly, however, introduction of a 9-N-fluoro-benzoyl substituent on the α2-6 sialic acid increased affinity 80-fold, resulting in a potent inhibitor with a K(d) of 15nM. Docking this ligand to a model of MAG based on known crystal structures of other siglecs suggests that the Thr positions the glycan such that aryl substitution of the α2-3 sialic acid produces a steric clash with the GalNAc, while attaching an aryl substituent to the other sialic acid positions the substituent near a hydrophobic pocket that accounts to the increase in affinity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zeng
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, United States
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56
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Crystal structure of human natural cytotoxicity receptor NKp30 and identification of its ligand binding site. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:6223-8. [PMID: 21444796 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1100622108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are a group of innate immune cells that carry out continuous surveillance for the presence of virally infected or cancerous cells. The natural cytotoxicity receptor (NCR) NKp30 is critical for the elimination of a large group of tumor cell types. Although several ligands have been proposed for NKp30, the lack of a conserved structural feature among these ligands and their uncertain physiological relevance has contributed to confusion in the field and hampered a full understanding of the receptor. To gain insights into NKp30 ligand recognition, we have determined the crystal structure of the extracellular domain of human NKp30. The structure displays an I-type Ig-like fold structurally distinct from the other natural cytotoxicity receptors NKp44 and NKp46. Using cytolytic killing assays against a range of tumor cell lines and subsequent peptide epitope mapping of a NKp30 blocking antibody, we have identified a critical ligand binding region on NKp30 involving its F strand. Using different solution binding studies, we show that the N-terminal domain of B7-H6 is sufficient for NKp30 recognition. Mutations on NKp30 further confirm that residues in the vicinity of the F strand, including part of the C strand and the CD loop, affect binding to B7-H6. The structural comparison of NKp30 with CD28 family receptor and ligand complexes also supports the identified ligand binding site. This study provides insights into NKp30 ligand recognition and a framework for a potential family of unidentified ligands.
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57
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Otto DME, Campanero-Rhodes MA, Karamanska R, Powell AK, Bovin N, Turnbull JE, Field RA, Blackburn J, Feizi T, Crocker PR. An expression system for screening of proteins for glycan and protein interactions. Anal Biochem 2011; 411:261-70. [PMID: 21211507 PMCID: PMC3740237 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2010.12.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2010] [Revised: 12/22/2010] [Accepted: 12/30/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Here we describe a versatile high-throughput expression system that permits genome-wide screening of type 1 membrane and secreted proteins for interactions with glycans and proteins using both cell-expressed and soluble forms of the expressed proteins. Based on Gateway cloning methodology, we have engineered a destination vector that directs expression of enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-tagged proteins at the cell surface via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol tail. The EGFP fusion proteins can then be cleaved with PreScission protease to release soluble forms of proteins that can be optionally biotinylated. We demonstrate the utility of this cloning and expression system for selected low-affinity membrane lectins from the siglec family of sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-like lectins, for the glycosaminoglycan-binding proteins FGF-1 and BACE, and for the heterotypic adhesion molecules JAM-B and JAM-C. Cell-expressed proteins can be evaluated for glycan interactions using polyvalent soluble glycan probes and for protein interactions using either cells or soluble proteins. Following cleavage from the cell surface, proteins were complexed in solution and sufficient avidity was achieved to measure weak protein–glycan and weak protein–protein interactions using glycan arrays and surface plasmon resonance, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana M E Otto
- Division of Cell Biology and Immunology, Wellcome Trust Biocentre, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
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58
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Hanashima S, Sato KI, Naito Y, Takematsu H, Kozutsumi Y, Ito Y, Yamaguchi Y. Synthesis and binding analysis of unique AG2 pentasaccharide to human Siglec-2 using NMR techniques. Bioorg Med Chem 2010; 18:3720-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2010.03.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2010] [Revised: 03/19/2010] [Accepted: 03/25/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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59
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Rich RL, Myszka DG. Grading the commercial optical biosensor literature-Class of 2008: 'The Mighty Binders'. J Mol Recognit 2010; 23:1-64. [PMID: 20017116 DOI: 10.1002/jmr.1004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Optical biosensor technology continues to be the method of choice for label-free, real-time interaction analysis. But when it comes to improving the quality of the biosensor literature, education should be fundamental. Of the 1413 articles published in 2008, less than 30% would pass the requirements for high-school chemistry. To teach by example, we spotlight 10 papers that illustrate how to implement the technology properly. Then we grade every paper published in 2008 on a scale from A to F and outline what features make a biosensor article fabulous, middling or abysmal. To help improve the quality of published data, we focus on a few experimental, analysis and presentation mistakes that are alarmingly common. With the literature as a guide, we want to ensure that no user is left behind.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L Rich
- Center for Biomolecular Interaction Analysis, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
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60
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Garnett JA, Liu Y, Leon E, Allman SA, Friedrich N, Saouros S, Curry S, Soldati-Favre D, Davis BG, Feizi T, Matthews S. Detailed insights from microarray and crystallographic studies into carbohydrate recognition by microneme protein 1 (MIC1) of Toxoplasma gondii. Protein Sci 2009; 18:1935-47. [PMID: 19593815 DOI: 10.1002/pro.204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The intracellular protozoan Toxoplasma gondii is among the most widespread parasites. The broad host cell range of the parasite can be explained by carbohydrate microarray screening analyses that have demonstrated the ability of the T. gondii adhesive protein, TgMIC1, to bind to a wide spectrum of sialyl oligosaccharide ligands. Here, we investigate by further microarray analyses in a dose-response format the differential binding of TgMIC1 to 2-3- and 2-6-linked sialyl carbohydrates. Interestingly, two novel synthetic fluorinated analogs of 3'SiaLacNAc(1-4) and 3'SiaLacNAc(1-3) were identified as highly potent ligands. To understand the structural basis of the carbohydrate binding specificity of TgMIC1, we have determined the crystal structures of TgMIC1 micronemal adhesive repeat (MAR)-region (TgMIC1-MARR) in complex with five sialyl-N-acetyllactosamine analogs. These crystal structures have revealed a specific, water-mediated hydrogen bond network that accounts for the preferential binding of TgMIC1-MARR to arrayed 2-3-linked sialyl oligosaccharides and the high potency of the fluorinated analogs. Furthermore, we provide strong evidence for the first observation of a C--F...H--O hydrogen bond within a lectin-carbohydrate complex. Finally, detailed comparison with other oligosaccharide-protein complexes in the Protein Data Bank (PDB) reveals a new family of sialic-acid binding sites from lectins in parasites, bacteria, and viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Garnett
- Division of Molecular Biosciences, Centre for Structural Biology, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London SW72AZ, United Kingdom
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61
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Abstract
Leukocytes migrate from the blood into areas of inflammation by interacting with various adhesion molecules on endothelial cells. Vascular adhesion protein-1 (VAP-1) is a glycoprotein expressed on inflamed endothelium where it plays a dual role: it is both an enzyme that oxidizes primary amines and an adhesin that is involved in leukocyte trafficking to sites of inflammation. Although VAP-1 was identified more than 15 years ago, the counterreceptor(s) for VAP-1 on leukocytes has remained unknown. Here we have identified Siglec-10 as a leukocyte ligand for VAP-1 using phage display screenings. The binding between Siglec-10 and VAP-1 was verified by different adhesion assays, and this interaction was also consistent with molecular modeling. Moreover, the interaction between Siglec-10 and VAP-1 led to increased hydrogen peroxide production, indicating that Siglec-10 serves as a substrate for VAP-1. Thus, the Siglec-10-VAP-1 interaction seems to mediate lymphocyte adhesion to endothelium and has the potential to modify the inflammatory microenvironment via the enzymatic end products.
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62
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von Itzstein M. Disease-associated carbohydrate-recognising proteins and structure-based inhibitor design. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2008; 18:558-66. [PMID: 18706999 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2008.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Revised: 07/28/2008] [Accepted: 07/31/2008] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The role of carbohydrate-related pathways in a wide range of clinically significant diseases has provided great impetus for researchers to characterise key proteins as targets for drug discovery. Carbohydrate-recognising proteins essential in the lifecycles of high health impact pathogens and diseases such as diabetes, cancer, autoimmunity, inflammation and in-born errors of metabolism continue to stimulate much interest in both structure elucidation and structure-based drug design. For example, advances in structure-based inhibitor design against the mycobacterial enzyme UDP-galactopyranose mutase offer new hope in next generation anti-tuberculosis chemotherapeutics. The appearance of H5N1 avian influenza virus has re-stimulated much research on influenza virus haemagglutinin and sialidase. These latest developments on influenza virus sialidase have provided new opportunity for the development of Group 1-specific anti-influenza drugs. The role of siglecs and galectins in a range of disease processes such as inflammation, apoptosis and cancer progression has also inspired significant structure-based inhibitor design research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark von Itzstein
- Institute for Glycomics, Gold Coast Campus, Griffith University, Queensland 4222, Australia.
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