Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by the COVID-19 pandemic in Cox's Bazar, the longest natural beach in the world

Amassing the Covid-19 driven PPE wastes in the dwelling environment of Chittagong Metropolis and associated implications

This study investigates the Covid-19 driven indiscriminate disposal of PPE wastes (mostly face mask and medical wastes) in Chittagong metropolitan area (CMA), Bangladesh. Based on the field monitoring, the mean PPE density (PPE/m²± SD) was calculated to be 0.0226 ± 0.0145, 0.0164 ± 0.0122, and 0.0110 ± 0.00863 for July, August, and September 2021, respectively (during the peak time of Covid-19 in Bangladesh). Moreover, gross information on PPE waste generation in the city was calculated using several parameters such as population density, face mask acceptance rate by urban population, total Covid-19 confirmed cases, quarantined and isolated patients, corresponding medical waste generation rate (kg/bed/day), etc. Moreover, the waste generated due to face mask and other PPEs in the CMA during the whole Covid-19 period (April 4, 2020 to September 5, 2021) were calculated to be 64183.03 and 128695.75 tons, respectively. It has been observed that the negligence of general people, lack of awareness about environmental pollution, and poor municipal waste management practices are the root causes for the contamination of the dwelling environment by PPE wastes. As a result, new challenges have emerged in solid waste management, which necessitates the development of an appropriate waste management strategy. The ultimate policies and strategies may help to achieve the SDG goals 3, 6, 11, 12, 13, and 15, and increase public perception on the use and subsequent disposal of PPEs, especially face masks.

Occurrence, spatial distribution, and risk assessment of microplastics in surface water and sediments of Saint Martin Island in the Bay of Bengal

Microplastics (MPs) are emerging contaminants in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and have caused substantial concern worldwide. This study surveyed the presence of MPs in surface water and sediments across the coastal area of Saint Martin Island in the Bay of Bengal. MPs were collected following the standard protocol and identified as various types like expanded polystyrene, foam, filaments, fragments, lines, fibres, and paint flakes. Total MPs pollution in beach sediment was 317 particles/kg across 14 sampling sites, varied from 11 to 10589 particles/m² of dry sediment and 0.95 particles/m³, having ~2 to 19 particles/30 min trawl in coastal surface water samples. Most of the frequent MPs in beach sediments ranged from 1.0 to 2.0 mm, whereas the fragments were predominant in sediment and surface water samples. MPs distribution revealed that different shapes were dominant at different sites within the Island. The calculated pollution risk index due to the presence of MPs indicated that the sediment and surface water samples were under the low-risk category. However, polymeric risk assessment and contamination factors suggest that the coastline is significantly polluted, as high pollution load indices (PLI >1) were observed for sediments and coastal surface water samples. This work provides the detailed MPs data in the coastal environment of Saint Martin Island for the first time; hence it may be helpful to develop proper strategies to deal with environmental problems.

Spatial distribution and risk assessments due to the microplastics pollution in sediments of Karnaphuli River Estuary, Bangladesh

Microplastics (MPs) have become an emerging global pollutant due to their widespread dispersion and potential threats to marine ecosystems. However, studies on MPs in estuarine and coastal ecosystems of Bangladesh are very limited. Here, we conducted the first study on abundance, distribution, characteristics, and risk assessment of microplastics in the sediment of Karnaphuli River estuary, Bangladesh. Microplastic particles were extracted from sediments of 30 stations along the estuary by density separation and then enumerated and characterized using a stereomicroscope and Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. In the collected sediment of the Karnaphuli River estuary, the number of MPs varied from 22.29 to 59.5 items kg^-1 of dry weight. The mean abundance was higher in the downstream and left banks of the estuary, whereas the predominant shape, colour, and size of MPs were films (35%), and white (19%), and 1-5 mm (30.38%), respectively. Major polymer types were polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene, polyethylene, cellulose, and nylon. MPs were found to pose risks (low to high) in the sediment of the estuary, with the highest risk occurring at one station near a sewage outlet, according to the results of risk analyses using the pollution risk index, polymer risk index (H), contamination factors, and pollution load index (PLI). The single value index, PLI, clearly demonstrated that all sampling sites were considerably polluted with microplastics (PLI > 1). H values showed toxic polymers, even in lower proportions, possess higher polymeric hazard scores and vice versa. This investigation uncovered new insights on the status of MPs in the sediments of the Karnaphuli River estuary, laying the groundwork for future research and control of microplastic pollution and management.

The case of "public congregation vs. COVID-19 PPE pollution": Evidence, lessons, and recommendations from the annual pilgrimage to the Catholic Holy Site in Mexico City, Mexico

Pollution from personal protective equipment (PPE), particularly face masks, has surfaced in the marine and terrestrial environments globally since the COVID-19 outbreak due to improper disposal practices and inadequate waste management, raising widespread alarm and attention. Our understanding of the prevalence and distribution of PPE in highly populated metropolitan areas is still emerging, and studies focusing specifically on developing countries in Latin America remain sparse. This study attempted to "kill two birds with one stone" by (1) addressing this knowledge gap by analyzing the degree of improper dispensing of PPE in Mexico City (Mexico) and (2) investigating the impact of massive public congregations on PPE contamination during the yearly pilgrimage to the Villa de Guadalupe on December 12th. Our survey findings revealed 731 PPE items within a 6-kilometer radius between December 5 and December 12, 2021, with daily densities ranging from 4.1 × 10^-3-13.9 × 10^-3 PPE items m^-2. Face masks were the most disposed type of PPE (94%), with gloves and face shields accounting for just 6% of the total. The PPE disposal more than doubled as the pilgrim day approached, with an estimated disposal rate ranging from 151.52 to 506.06 items day^-1, substantiating the surge in the disposal of used PPE to large public congregations that filled the surroundings during the pilgrimage. The observed average PPE density of 7.8 × 10^-3 items m^-2 was higher than in the metropolitan environments of Canada, Ghana, and Turkey. To our knowledge, this first study describes information showing the need to pay attention to the major impact of public events and mobility on COVID-19 PPE pollution, as well as emphasizes the necessity for adequate management facilities in improving PPE disposal.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by the COVID-19 pandemic along the shoreline of Lake Tana, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution has become one of the most pending environmental challenges resulting from the pandemic. While various studies investigated PPE pollution in the marine environment, freshwater bodies have been largely overlooked. In the present study, PPE monitoring was carried out in the vicinity of Lake Tana, the largest lake in Ethiopia. PPE density, types, and chemical composition (FTIR spectroscopy) were reported. A total of 221 PPEs were identified with a density ranging from 1.22 × 10^-5 PPE m^-2 (control site S1) to 2.88× 10^-4 PPE m^-2 with a mean density of 1.54 × 10^-4 ± 2.58 × 10^-5 PPE m^-2. Mismanaged PPE waste was found in all the sampling sites, mostly consisting of surgical face masks (93.7%). Statistical analyzes revealed significantly higher PPE densities in sites where several recreational, touristic, and commercial activities take place, thus, revealing the main sources of PPE pollution. Furthermore, polypropylene and polyester fabrics were identified as the main components of surgical and reusable cloth masks, respectively. Given the hazard that PPEs represent to aquatic biota (e.g., entanglement, ingestion) and their ability to release microplastics (MPs), it is necessary to implement sufficient solid waste management plans and infrastructure where lake activities take place. Additionally, local authorities must promote and ensure sustainable tourism in order to maintain the ecosystems in Lake Tana. Prospective research priorities regarding the colonization and degradation of PPE, as well as the release of toxic chemicals, were identified and discussed.

Physical and chemical degradation of littered personal protective equipment (PPE) under simulated environmental conditions

Investigations of the physicochemical degradation of personal protective equipment (PPE) under controlled environmental conditions are largely lacking. Here the chemical and physical changes of face masks and gloves (recovered from the marine environment) were evaluated after exposure time up to 60 days of simulated environmental conditions. The results suggested that the polymer backbone of PPE suffers typical changes induced by sun exposure. Changes in the intensity of diffraction peaks indicated shifts in the crystallinity of PPE, possibly altering their thermal behavior. Signs of physical degradation in PPE, such as ruptures, and rough surfaces, which exacerbated over time were also detected. Additionally, signals of some elements of concern, such as Cu and Mo, and elements typically found in seawater were detected. The results of this study allowed us to better understand the degradation of typical PPE items in the marine environment, ultimately resulting in the release of microplastics and chemical contaminants.

Microplastics in Latin America and the Caribbean: A review on current status and perspectives

A literature review was carried out to analyze the current status of microplastic research in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Specifically, this work focused on publications pertaining to (1) occurrence and distribution of microplastics in the environment, including water, sediments, and soil and (2) the environmental impact of MPs, particularly their presence and effects on aquatic and terrestrial organisms. The review included peer-reviewed articles from Scopus, Science Direct, Web of Science, Google Scholar and two iberoamerican open access databases (Redalyc and SciELO). It was found that LAC has only contributed to 5% of the global scientific output on microplastics, and overall the highest contributor within the region was Brazil (52%), followed by Chile (16%) and Mexico (13%). An additional section analyzing the barriers to conducting microplastic research in LAC and their exacerbation by the current COVID-19 pandemic was included to provide additional context behind the relatively low scientific production and improve recommendations encouraging research in this region.

Are used face masks handled as infectious waste? Novel pollution driven by the COVID-19 pandemic

The extensive use of face masks has raised concerns about environmental pollution through improper disposal of used face masks after the emergence of COVID-19. The increasing use of PPEs to preventing the spread of COVID-19 has resulted in several environmental hazards, creating a new environmental barrier for solid waste management and worsened plastic pollution. This study aimed at assessing the occurrence and distribution of face masks in a metropolitan (Adum – Kumasi), municipal (Ejisu), community (Abenase) and an institution (KNUST) in Ghana. The study showed that a total of 535 face masks were numerated along a stretch of 1,720 m with a density ranging from 0.04 m to 0.42 m. A no significant relationship (P = 0.602) was established between the observation distances and the number of waste face masks numerated. The study also showed that for a 1% increase in the number of face masks on working days, there would be a 0.775% increase in non-working days. A review of literature showed that the disposal of used face masks results in the release of micro- and nano-plastics, Pb, Cu, Sb, Zn, Mn, Ti, Fe and Ca into environmental media. Plastic pollution may be a concern to ecosystems due to its persistence in the environment, lack of environmental awareness, sensitization and education, and poor waste management systems. To ensure a sustainable management of waste face masks, significant efforts are needed. These may include proper disposal, redesigning and producing masks from biodegradable materials, incorporating waste face masks into construction materials, and recycling PPE by pyrolyzing are suggested options for the effective management of face masks.

First landscape-scale survey of the background level of COVID-19 face mask litter: Exploring the potential for citizen science data collection during a 'pollution pilgrimage' of walking a 250-km roadside transect

The COVID-19 pandemic has generated a global problem through the cavalier or deliberate disposal of personal protective equipment (PPE) by the general public. This has raised concerns that the billions of discarded face masks pose a threat to wildlife through entanglement or, when broken down, through ingestion of derived microplastics. Previous quantitative surveys of the magnitude of such litter have focused on areas where people congregate, such as tourist beaches and large cities. The present survey is the first to provide data on the background level of face mask litter through a landscape of variable land-use. A 250-km transect along an historic road between Montreal and Quebec City (Canada) was surveyed during a walking pilgrimage, revealing an overall density of 0.0001 ± 0.00006 face masks m^-2. Average densities were significantly higher in areas of human occupation compared to agricultural and forested rural land. However, there was no significant correlation between population size of communities and the number of face masks encountered, nor in litter extent and proximity to municipalities. This may be due to the confounding influence of inter-community differences in scheduled street cleaning operations. Seventy-six percent of face masks were of the disposable surgical variety, with the remaining 24% being reusable cloth masks. This, and the fact that only 10% of the former and none of the latter exhibited broken ear straps, insinuates that the litter could be due to accidental loss rather than inappropriate discarding by individuals en route. Scaling-up these findings in relation to the global road network generates a preliminary background estimate for roadside litter of >17 million face masks. The present study endorses the call made by others to engage citizen scientists in surveying PPE litter, in particular, the thousands who each year walk the medieval pilgrimage routes through the landscape of Europe.

Disposable tri-layer masks and microfiber pollution - An experimental analysis on dry and wet state emission

The use of masks as a personal protective material is the new normal in the post-pandemic. The higher use of masks triggers immediate disposal of synthetic textile fibers leading to environmental pollution. This research is aimed to analyse the level of mask-related pollution and its impact on microfiber release. Microfiber emission characteristics of the tri-layer nonwoven mask (Polypropylene-based disposable mask) are analysed in the dry and wet stages. The individual layers of the mask and the entire mask are evaluated by subjecting them to static immersion and mechanical agitation against freshwater and seawater in the wet stage. The results of the study showed a higher microfiber shedding at dry state (14,031.97-177,601.58 fibers/mask) than the wet state (2557.65-22,525.89 fibers/mask). The increased fuzz formation in the dry state than the wet state is noted as the main reason. In the case of wet state, when the freshwater and seawater are compared, both in a static and agitated state, seawater degraded the mask highly (3358.03-27,348.9 fibers/mask) than the freshwater (1757.26-17,702.86 fibers/mask). Higher salinity and density of the seawater were noted as influencing parameters over the freshwater. When the results of naturally weathered masks are compared with the new mask, weathered masks released significantly (p < 0.05) higher amount of fibers at the evaluation stages. Similar to the new masks, the weathered masks also showed a higher amount of shedding in the dry state and presence of seawater. When the individual layers of the disposable masks were evaluated, at dry and wet states, all the layers showed a similar shedding (no significant difference between individual layers) in the case of a new mask. Whereas, after weathering, a significant amount of higher shedding (p < 0.05) is noted in the middle layer of the mask followed by the outer and inner layer. The difference in fiber composition is noted as the main reason for the strength difference of the nonwoven structure. Statistical analysis confirmed the significant impact of the natural weathering process and seawater on the microfiber shedding.

Environmental risks of polymer materials from disposable face masks linked to the COVID-19 pandemic

The indispensable role of plastic products in our daily life is highlighted by the COVID-19 pandemic again. Disposable face masks, made of polymer materials, as effective and cheap personal protective equipment (PPE), have been extensively used by the public to slow down the viral transmission. The repercussions of this have generated million tons of plastic waste being littered into the environment because of the improper disposal and mismanagement amid. And plastic waste can release microplastics (MPs) with the help of physical, chemical and biological processes, which is placing a huge MPs contamination burden on the ecosystem. In this work, the knowledge regarding to the combined effects of MPs and pollutants from the release of face masks and the impacts of wasted face masks and MPs on the environment (terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem) was systematically discussed. In view of these, some green technologies were put forward to reduce the amounts of discarded face masks in the environment, therefore minimizing MPs pollution at its source. Moreover, some recommendations for future research directions were proposed based on the remaining knowledge gaps. In a word, MPs pollution linked to face masks should be a focus worldwide.

COVID-19-related personal protective equipment (PPE) contamination in the highly urbanized southeast Brazilian coast

This study aimed to report personal protective equipment (PPE) contamination in Santos beaches (Brazil) using standardized procedures for the first time while comparing two periods to understand the progression of PPE contamination. The occurrence of PPE items was ubiquitous in all sampled sites, although the densities were relatively low compared to those in other parts of the world. Unlike previous studies, reusable face masks were the most common type of PPE. PPE density in the studied areas was similar in both sampling seasons, probably because of the influence of tourism, urbanization, and local hydrodynamic aspects. PPE items can release microfibers into the aquatic environment and pose entanglement hazards to marine biota. A wider monitoring of PPE pollution, accompanied by surveys on PPE usage and behavior, as well as chemical characterization of the discarded PPE items, is needed to fully understand this unprecedented form of plastic pollution.

COVID-19-related personal protective equipment (PPE) contamination in the highly urbanized southeast Brazilian coast

This study aimed to report personal protective equipment (PPE) contamination in Santos beaches (Brazil) using standardized procedures for the first time while comparing two periods to understand the progression of PPE contamination. The occurrence of PPE items was ubiquitous in all sampled sites, although the densities were relatively low compared to those in other parts of the world. Unlike previous studies, reusable face masks were the most common type of PPE. PPE density in the studied areas was similar in both sampling seasons, probably because of the influence of tourism, urbanization, and local hydrodynamic aspects. PPE items can release microfibers into the aquatic environment and pose entanglement hazards to marine biota. A wider monitoring of PPE pollution, accompanied by surveys on PPE usage and behavior, as well as chemical characterization of the discarded PPE items, is needed to fully understand this unprecedented form of plastic pollution.

Assessing face masks in the environment by means of the DPSIR framework

The use of face masks outside the health care facility dates back a century ago. However, face masks use noticeably soared due to the COVID-19 (Coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic. As a result, an unprecedented influx of discarded face masks is ending up in the environment. This review paper delves into face masks in the environment using the DPSIR (driving forces, pressures, states, impacts, and responses) framework to simplify and communicate the environmental indicators. Firstly, the historical, and briefly the economic trajectory of face masks are discussed. Secondly, the main driving forces of face masks use with an emphasis on public health are explored. Then, the pressures exerted by efforts to fulfill the human needs (driving forces) are investigated. In turn, the state of the environment due to the influx of masks along with the impacts are examined. Furthermore, the upstream, and downstream societal responses to mitigate the environmental damages of the driving forces, pressures, states, and impacts are reviewed. In summary, it has been shown from this review that the COVID-19 pandemic has been causing a surge in face mask usage, which translates to face masks pollution in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. This implies proper usage and disposal of face masks is paramount to the quality of human health and the environment, respectively. Moreover, further research on eco-friendly face masks is indispensable to mitigating the environmental damages occurring due to the mass use of surgical masks worldwide.

Binational survey of personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by the COVID-19 pandemic in coastal environments: Abundance, distribution, and analytical characterization

In the present contribution, two nationwide surveys of personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution were conducted in Peru and Argentina aiming to provide valuable information regarding the abundance and distribution of PPE in coastal sites. Additionally, PPE items were recovered from the environment and analyzed by Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), and X-ray diffraction (XRD), and compared to brand-new PPE in order to investigate the chemical and structural degradation of PPE in the environment. PPE density (PPE m^-2) found in both countries were comparable to previous studies. FTIR analysis revealed multiple polymer types comprising common PPE, mainly polypropylene, polyamide, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyester. SEM micrographs showed clear weathering signs, such as cracks, cavities, and rough surfaces in face masks and gloves. EDX elemental mapping revealed the presence of elemental additives, such as Ca in gloves and face masks and AgNPs as an antimicrobial agent. Other metals found on the surface of PPE were Mo, P, Ti, and Zn. XRD patterns displayed a notorious decrease in the crystallinity of polypropylene face masks, which could alter its interaction with external contaminants and stability. The next steps in this line of research were discussed.

Degradation of plastics associated with the COVID-19 pandemic

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in an unprecedented form of plastic pollution: personal protective equipment (PPE). Numerous studies have reported the occurrence of PPE in the marine environment. However, their degradation in the environment and consequences are poorly understood. Studies have reported that face masks, the most abundant type of PPE, are significant sources of microplastics due to their fibrous microstructure. The fibrous material (mostly consisting of polypropylene) exhibits physical changes in the environment, leading to its fracture and detachment of microfibers. Most studies have evaluated PPE degradation under controlled laboratory conditions. However, in situ degradation experiments, including the colonization of PPE, are largely lacking. Although ecotoxicological studies are largely lacking, the first attempts to understand the impact of MPs released from face masks showed various types of impacts, such as fertility and reproduction deficiencies in both aquatic and terrestrial organisms.

Recycling of Waste Facial Masks as a Construction Material, a Step towards Sustainability

Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, a sudden surge in the production and utilization of disposable, single-use facial masks has been observed. Delinquency in proper disposal of used facial masks endangers the environment with a new form of non-biodegradable plastic waste that will take hundreds of years to break down. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the resourceful recycling of such waste in an environmentally friendly way. This study presents an efficient solution by using waste masks in fibered or crushed form to produce environmentally friendly and affordable green concrete. This investigation assessed the mechanical and durability properties of waste masks-incorporated concrete. A total of six mixes were prepared for standardized tests to determine compressive strength, split cylinder tensile strength and rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT), and freeze-thaw resistance. The percentage of mask fibers used were 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2% of concrete by volume, while crushed masks were used at 0.5% only. The mask waste in both forms was found suitable to be used in concrete. One percent of waste mask fibers was found as an optimum value to increase compressive and tensile strength, reduce chloride permeability, and increase freeze-thaw resistance. Besides this, 0.5% crushed mask fiber also performed well, especially for producing less permeable and highly durable concrete. It is thus corroborated that waste masks that increase pollution worldwide can be utilized sustainably to help build green buildings. By reutilizing waste masks to produce improved concrete with better strengths and higher durability, circular economy and sustainability are achieved, along with efficient waste management.

Laundering of face masks represents an additional source of synthetic and natural microfibers to aquatic ecosystems

From the onset of Covid-19 pandemic, the use of face masks has been adapted as one of the main measures to slow down the transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus worldwide. The inadequate handling and management of face masks lead to a massive dispersal in the environment, resulting in a new source of microfibers because of their breakdown and/or degradation. In addition, the laundering of reusable face masks of different polymeric composition can represent an additional sources of microfibers to natural ecosystems, but it was largely neglected. The present study explored the release of synthetic or natural microfibers from reusable and disposable face masks of five different fabrics when subjected to a cycle of laundering in a domestic washing machine. After a single wash, face masks released an average (± SE) of 284.94 ± 73.66 microfibers, independently of the fabrics. Focusing on the fabrics composing the face masks, polyurethane (541.33 ± 51.84 microfibers) and cotton-based (823.00 ± 112.53 microfibers) face masks released the highest amount of synthetic and natural microfibers, respectively. Considering the crucial role of face masks to counteract the pandemic and the increasing trend of their use, further studies represent a priority to estimate the contribution of face mask-derived microfibers to freshwater contamination.

Citizen science: A way forward in tackling the plastic pollution crisis during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in an unprecedented surge of production, consumption, and disposal of single-use plastics (SUPs) and personal protective equipment (PPE) by the public. This widespread use of mostly plastic items like face masks and disposable gloves has led to global reports of improper disposal of potentially infectious PPE both in our urban and natural environments. Due to international travel restrictions during the pandemic, many research programs targeted at measuring plastic pollution were halted. These disruptions to research programs have stunted the ability to assess the true quantities of SUPs and PPE being mismanaged from the waste stream into the environment. This article calls for increased citizen science participation in collecting plastic pollution data both during and post pandemic. By initiating this dialogue and raising attention to the importance and potential of citizen science data collection, data can be used to develop globally informed plastic pollution mitigation strategies.

A critical synthesis of current peer-reviewed literature on the environmental and human health impacts of COVID-19 PPE litter: New findings and next steps

Since the emergence of Coronavirus disease (COVID-19), the threat of plastic waste pollution has grown exponentially, with a strong attention on the environmental and human health consequences of millions of personal protective equipment (PPE) (e.g., face masks, shields, gloves, and wipes) being used and discarded. In response, a massive research effort has been launched to understand, characterize, and estimate the exposure risks of PPE associated contaminants. While the number of studies examining the impacts of PPE is increasing, this review aimed to provide a quick update on the research conducted to date of this topic, as well as to identify priorities for future research. Specifically, we analyzed recent global peer-reviewed articles on PPE to synthesize methods, control measures, and documented evidence to (1) investigate the discarded PPE in a variety of environments; (2) determine the microplastics discharge in the aquatic environment; (3) examine the intentionally or unintentionally added chemicals in the production of PPE; and (4) assess potential human health hazards and exposure pathways. Despite progress, more research is needed in the future to fully understand the chemical emissions from PPE degradation mechanisms (mechanical, chemical, and biological), as well as the magnitude and density of PPE pollution in the environment.

Critical review of the characteristics, interactions, and toxicity of micro/nanomaterials pollutants in aquatic environments

A wide range of contaminants of emerging concern such as micro/nanoplastics (MPs/PNPs) and metal-nanoparticles (Me-NPs) from anthropogenic activities have been identified in aquatic environments. The hazardous effects of these micro/nanomaterials as pollutants in organisms and the lack of knowledge about their behavior in aquatic environments have generated growing concern in the scientific community. The nanomaterials have a colloidal-type behavior due to their size range but with differences in their physicochemical properties. This review comprises the behavior of micro/nanomaterials pollutants and the physicochemical interactions between MPs/PNPs and Me-NPs in aquatic environments, and their potential toxicological effects in organisms. Moreover, this article describes the potential use of Me-NPs to remove MPs/PNPs present in the water column due to their photocatalytic and magnetic properties. It also discusses the challenge to determine harmful effects of micro/nanomaterials pollutants in organisms and provides future research directions to improve integrated management strategies to mitigate their environmental impact.

Face masks related to COVID-19 in the beaches of the Moroccan Mediterranean: An emerging source of plastic pollution

During the COVID-19 pandemic, face masks became a common type of litter invading many different environments, including tourist beaches. However, the presence of face masks on beaches threatens the marine environment with a new form of plastic pollution. In this study, we monitored the occurrence and density of face masks on five tourist beaches along the Moroccan Mediterranean during five months starting from February until June 2021. A total of 321 face masks were recorded on the five beaches, 96.27% of which were single use. The mean density of face masks was 0.0012 ± 0.0008 m^-2. Recreational beaches were the most polluted in the study area. This is related to the important influx of beachgoers on urban beaches compared to resort beaches. With the large number of masks introduced on the beach, we hypothesize that microplastic pollution could increase drastically in the Moroccan Mediterranean in the coming years. Significant efforts are required to reduce this type of waste.

Macro marine litter survey of sandy beaches along the Cox's Bazar Coast of Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh: Land-based sources of solid litter pollution

Macro-sized marine litter (>2.5 cm) was collected, characterized, and enumerated along the Cox's Bazar Coast, Bangladesh. Marine litter abundance was converted to density (number of items/m²). Beach cleanliness was evaluated using the clean-coast index (CCI). Plastic polythene bags were the most abundant litter items, followed by plastic cups. Total marine litter abundance was 54,401 ± 184 items. Major sources of marine litter were from tourism, fishery and residential activities. Of 10 sites surveyed, two were classified as dirty, two were moderate, four were clean and two were very clean using the CCI. Marine litter pollution along the Cox's Bazar Coast represents a potential threat to coastal and marine environments. This baseline study will help to establish mitigation strategies that are urgently required to reduce marine litter pollution along the Cox's Bazar Coast.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution associated with the COVID-19 pandemic along the coastline of Agadir, Morocco

The increasing use of personal protective equipment (PPE) as a sanitary measure against the new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has become a significant source of many environmental risks. The majority of the governments enforce the use of PPE in public areas, such as beaches. Thus, the use and disposal of PPE have compromised most solid waste management strategies, ultimately leading to the occurrence of PPE polluting the marine environment. The present study aimed to monitor the PPE pollution associated with COVID-19 along the coastline of Agadir, Morocco. In parallel, the influence of the activities carried out in each sampled beach before and after the lockdown break was reported. Overall, a total number of 689 PPE items were identified, with a mean density of 1.13 × 10^-5 PPE m^-2 (0-1.21 × 10^-4 PPE m^-2). The majority of the PPE items found were face masks (96.81%), out of which 98.4% were surgical masks and 1.6% were reusable cloth masks. The most polluted sites were the beaches with recreational activities, followed by surfing, and fishing as the main activity. Importantly, PPE density increased significantly after lockdown measures. Additionally, the discarded PPE sampled in the supralittoral zone was higher than PPE recorded in the intertidal zone. This confirms that PPE items are driven by the beachgoers during their visit. PPE items are a source of microplastic and chemical pollutants, a substrate to invasive species colonization, and a potential threat of entanglement, ingestion, and/or infection among apex predators. In the specific case of Agadir beaches, significant efforts are required to work on the lack of environmental awareness and education. It is recommended to improve beach cleaning strategies and to penalize incorrect PPE disposal. Additional alternatives may be adopted, as the involvement of biodegradable materials in PPE manufacturing, recycling through pyrolysis, and encouraging reusable and washable masks.

Microplastics pollution in salt pans from the Maheshkhali Channel, Bangladesh

Microplastics (MP) were recognized as an emergent pollution problem due to their ubiquitous nature and bioaccumulative potential. Those present in salt for consumption could represent a human exposure route through dietary uptake. The current study, conducted in Bangladesh, reports microplastics contamination in coarse salt prepared for human consumption. Sea salt samples were collected from eight representative salt pans located in the country's largest salt farming area, in the Maheshkhali Channel, along the Bay of Bengal. Microplastics were detected in all samples, with mean concentrations ranging from 78 ± 9.33 to 137 ± 21.70 particles kg^-1, mostly white and ranging in size from 500-1000 µm. The prevalent types were: fragments (48%) > films (22%) > fibers (15%) > granules and lines (both 9%). Fourier transform mid-IR and near-IR spectra (FT-MIR-NIR) analysis registered terephthalate (48%), polypropylene (20%), polyethylene (17%), and polystyrene (15%) in all samples. These results contribute to the MP's pollution knowledge in sea salts to understand and reduce this significant human exposure route and environmental pollution source in the future.

COVID-19, a double-edged sword for the environment: a review on the impacts of COVID-19 on the environment

This review paper discusses the most relevant impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) originated in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The disease has infected 70 million people and caused the death of 1.58 million people since the US Food and Drug Administration issued an Emergency Use Authorization to develop a vaccine to prevent COVID-19 on December 11, 2020. COVID-19 is a global crisis that has impacted everything directly connected with human beings, including the environment. This review discusses the impacts of COVID-19 on the environment during the pandemic and post-COVID-19 era. During the first months of the COVID pandemic, global coal, oil, gas, and electricity demands declined by 8%, 5%, 2%, and 20%, respectively, relative to 2019. Stay-at-home orders in countries increased the concentrations of particles in indoor environments while decreasing the concentrations of PM2.5 and NOX in outdoor environments. Remotely working in response to the COVID-19 pandemic increased the carbon, water, and land footprints of Internet usage. Microplastics are released into our environment from the mishandling and mismanagement of personal protective equipment that endanger our water, soils, and sediments. Since the COVID-19 vaccine cannot be stored for a long time and spoils rapidly, more awareness of the massive waste of unused doses is needed. So COVID-19 is a double-edged sword for the environment.

Anti Covid-19 face-masks increases vigilance in Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana)

Changes in ecosystems resulting from anthropause caused by Covid-19 relate to both abiotic and biotic factors which have both a positive or negative effect on wildlife. The lockdown was manifested by reduced air and water pollution, lower mortality of animals on the roads, an increase in animals' body condition and reproduction success. On the other hand, the closures lead to an increase in the populations of invasive species or poaching. We studied the behavioural reaction of natural, desert-dwelling Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana) on the appearance of a new element in the environment - the facial-masks. We hypothesized that the mask would trigger a response expressed through differences in the vigilance towards a potentially new threat. We applied the flight initiation distance (FID) technique to check the reaction at the approach of a human with a facial-mask and without it. The average FID was 8.8 m and was longer when the observer was wearing a mask (10.7 m) as compared to trials without the mask (6.9 m). Our study indicates that wildlife, even if habituated to human silhouette at a distance, appear to notice unusual accessories when up-close and respond by increased vigilance and what may affect their overall fitness.

Macroalgae in biomonitoring of metal pollution in the Bay of Bengal coastal waters of Cox's Bazar and surrounding areas

Although coastal water marine algae have been popularly used by others as indicators of heavy metal pollution, data within the Bay of Bengal for the estuarine Cox's Bazar region and Saint Martin's Island has remained scarce. Using marine algae, the study herein forms an effort in biomonitoring of metal contamination in the aforementioned Bangladesh areas. A total of 10 seaweed species were collected, including edible varieties, analyzed for metal levels through the use of the technique of EDXRF. From greatest to least, measured mean metal concentrations in descending order have been found to be K > Fe > Zr > Br > Sr > Zn > Mn > Rb > Cu > As > Pb > Cr > Co. Potential toxic heavy metals such as Pb, As, and Cr appear at lower concentration values compared to that found for essential mineral elements. However, the presence of Pb in Sargassum oligocystum species has been observed to exceed the maximum international guidance level. Given that some of the algae species are cultivated for human consumption, the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic indices were calculated, shown to be slightly lower than the maxima recommended by the international organizations. Overall, the present results are consistent with literature data suggesting that heavy metal macroalgae biomonitoring may be species-specific. To the best of our knowledge, this study represents the first comprehensive macroalgae biomonitoring study of metal contamination from the coastal waters of Cox's Bazar and beyond.

Risks of Covid-19 face masks to wildlife: Present and future research needs

The use of disposable face masks became essential to fight against the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in an unprecedented rise in their production and, unfortunately, to a new form of environmental contamination due to improper disposal. Recent publications reported the abundance of COVID-19-related litter in several environments, wildlife interaction with such items, and the contaminants that can be released from such protective equipment that has the potential to induce ecotoxicological effects. This paper provides a critical review of COVID-19 face mask occurrence in diverse environments and their adverse physiological and ecotoxicological effects on wildlife. It also outlines potential remediation strategies to mitigate the environmental challenge impose by COVID-19-related litter.

Key ingredients and recycling strategy of personal protective equipment (PPE): Towards sustainable solution for the COVID-19 like pandemics

The COVID-19 pandemic has intensified the complications of plastic trash management and disposal. The current situation of living in fear of transmission of the COVID-19 virus has further transformed our behavioural models, such as regularly using personal protective equipment (PPE) kits and single-use applications for day to day needs etc. It has been estimated that with the passage of the coronavirus epidemic every month, there is expected use of 200 billion pieces of single-use facemasks and gloves. PPE are well established now as life-saving items for medicinal specialists to stay safe through the COVID-19 pandemic. Different processes such as glycolysis, hydrogenation, aminolysis, hydrolysis, pyrolysis, and gasification are now working on finding advanced technologies to transfer waste PPE into value-added products. Here, in this article, we have discussed the recycling strategies of PPE, important components (such as medical gloves, gowns, masks & respirators and other face and eye protection) and the raw materials used in PPE kits. Further, the value addition methods to recycling the PPE kits, chemical & apparatus used in recycling and recycling components into value-added products. Finally, the biorenewable materials in PPE for textiles components have been discussed along with concluded remarks.

Investigating the current status of COVID-19 related plastics and their potential impact on human health

The COVID-19 pandemic led to a sudden global increase in the production, consumption, and mismanagement of personal protective equipment (PPE). As plastic-based PPE such as disposable face masks and gloves have become widely used, human exposure to PPE-derived pollutants may occur through indirect and direct pathways. This review explores the potential health impacts related to plastic-based PPE through these pathways. Face masks release microplastics, which are directly inhaled during use or transported through the environment. The latter can adsorb chemical contaminants and harbor pathogenic microbiota, and once consumed by organisms, they can translocate to multiple organs upon intake, potentially causing detrimental and cytotoxic effects. However, more research is required to have a comprehensive overview of the human health effects.

Could Nanotechnology Help to End the Fight Against COVID-19? Review of Current Findings, Challenges and Future Perspectives

A serious viral infectious disease was introduced to the globe by the end of 2019 that was seen primarily from China, but spread worldwide in a few months to be a pandemic. Since then, accurate prevention, early detection, and effective treatment strategies are not yet outlined. There is no approved drug to counter its worldwide transmission. However, integration of nanostructured delivery systems with the current management strategies has promised a pronounced opportunity to tackle the pandemic. This review addressed the various promising nanotechnology-based approaches for the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of the pandemic. The pharmaceutical, pharmacoeconomic, and regulatory aspects of these systems with currently achieved or predicted beneficial outcomes, challenges, and future perspectives are also highlighted.

Review of the valorization options for the proper disposal of face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected not only human health and economies but also the environment due to the large volume of waste in the form of discarded personal protective equipment. The remarkable increase in the global usage of face masks, which mainly contain polypropylene, and improper waste management have led to a serious environmental challenge called microplastic pollution. Potential practices for waste management related to waste valorization of discarded face masks as the major type of waste during the COVID-19 pandemic are explored in this study. Recommendations based on governmental practices, situation of state facilities, and societal awareness and engagement applicable to emergency (including COVID-19 pandemic) and postpandemic scenarios are offered while considering potential solutions and available waste management practices in different countries during emergency conditions. However, multicriteria decision making for a country must determine the optimal solution for waste management on the basis of all affecting factors. Awareness of scientific, governments, and communities worldwide will successfully eradicate this important environmental issue.

Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) during COVID-19 pandemic: A letter to the editor on "Envisioning the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through the lens of clean water sanitation, life below water, and life on land in Fiji"

COVID-19 pandemic is a designated worldwide public health emergency, the use of a variety of plastic-based personal protective equipment (PPE) has escalated as a means of reducing infection. Emerging reports imply that the rapid expansion of PPE during the COVID-19 outbreak has exacerbated microplastics contamination in the ocean. In response, this letter to the editor will disclose the impact of PPEs on clean water sanitation, life below water, and life on land in regards to SDGs 6, 14, and 15, respectively.