Game and venison - meat for the modern consumer

Wild Boar Meat as a Sustainable Substitute for Pork: A Mixed Methods Approach

Sensory analysis is unusual in sustainability research, although it can offer a neoteric aspect of nature and wild animals’ perception. The study’s objective was to identify consumers’ attitudes towards plant and animal products from wild and conventional foods and put these findings into a broader social context. A blind sensory evaluation with 80 semi-trained assessors was used, segmented by gender, age, education, income, place of origin, family status, number of children, and willingness to pay. Wild boar (Sus scrofa) was chosen as an example of an overpopulated animal species occurring in the wild, which could be considered a partial substitute for pork. Statistical testing in these blind evaluations proved that wild boar meat is not considered less tasty. Therefore, wild boar meat could represent a partial substitute, complementing pork, on which consumers are willing to spend the same amount of money. Despite the mostly indifferent sensory evaluation, focus group responses showed considerable barriers to wild food. This paper concludes that possible educational and popularizing procedures are presented, including forest pedagogy, eliminating consumers’ prejudices. A mixed-methods approach within quantitative and qualitative methodology was chosen.

Disentangling Individual Phases in the Hunted vs. Farmed Meat Supply Chain: Exploring Hunters' Perceptions in Italy

The growing body of literature concerning the hunted wild game meat (HWGM) supply chain is mainly focused on the final consumer, while little is known about upstream production processes. Even though the hunter plays a central role here, it is not well understood how hunters themselves perceive their role in the various phases of the production process. The present study explores Italian hunters’ perception of the HWGM supply chain and compares it to their perception towards the conventional farmed meat supply chain. We distinguish several phases of this production process and find that the final phase related to on-site game dressing is considered problematic, perhaps because hunters perceive themselves as less skilled than professional butchers. The results, in fact, show that hunters prefer hunted products over farmed meat, but that they consider hunted wild boar meat less safe compared to farmed pork. Findings from this study provide a rare glimpse from the inside of the supply chain and reveals the needs for a broad risk assessment analysis on the Italian game meat supply chain. Considering the development of the Italian emerging market of the HWGM, our results also highlight the relevance of training activities on hunters in order to increase the safety and quality of the final product.

Application of Fat-Tailed Sheep Tail and Backfat to Develop Novel Warthog Cabanossi with Distinct Sensory Attributes

This study compared the use of pork backfat (PF) and fat-tailed sheep tail and backfat (SF) on the physicochemical, fatty acids and sensory attributes of warthog cabanossi. There were no differences between weight loss during drying, moisture content, pH, water activity, salt content and lipid oxidation between the cabanossi types. However, protein and ash contents were higher in PF cabanossi whilst fat content was higher in SF cabanossi. The PF cabanossi had higher polyunsaturated fatty acids (especially n-6), lower monounsaturated fatty acids whilst the saturated fatty acid content was similar between the two cabanossi products. The n-3:n-6 ratio was more beneficial in the SF cabanossi. The descriptive sensory analysis showed two distinct products where PF cabanossi scored higher for most attributes. Although SF cabanossi scored less for these attributes, this cabanossi had unique and acceptable sensory attributes. This study concluded that fat-tailed sheep tail and backfat could be used to produce a unique cabanossi product of acceptable quality.

Food Safety Considerations Related to the Consumption and Handling of Game Meat in North America

Emerging foodborne pathogens present a threat to public health. It is now recognized that several foodborne pathogens originate from wildlife as demonstrated by recent global disease outbreaks. Zoonotic spillover events are closely related to the ubiquity of parasitic, bacterial, and viral pathogens present within human and animal populations and their surrounding environment. Foodborne diseases have economic and international trade impacts, incentivizing effective wildlife disease management. In North America, there are no food safety standards for handling and consumption of free-ranging game meat. Game meat consumption continues to rise in North America; however, this growing practice could place recreational hunters and game meat consumers at increased risk of foodborne diseases. Recreational hunters should follow effective game meat food hygiene practices from harvest to storage and consumption. Here, we provide a synthesis review that evaluates the ecological and epidemiological drivers of foodborne disease risk in North American hunter populations that are associated with the harvest and consumption of terrestrial mammal game meat. We anticipate this work could serve as a foundation of preventive measures that mitigate foodborne disease transmission between free-ranging mammalian and human populations.

Fermented meat sausages from game and venison: what are the opportunities and limitations?

An increase in the acceptance, demand and production of game meat and venison has been experienced globally. Game meat and venison fit into consumers' ideology of healthy and environmentally friendly meat when compared to domesticated animals. Opportunities exist to explore the use of these meat sources in developing new products, particularly as game meat and venison in their fresh state are sometimes perceived as being tough. Consumers have shown a trend for trying exciting new products with different organoleptic qualities, and fermented sausages occupy a special niche in the gastro-economic trade. In this review, the production potential of game meat and venison and its prospective use in the development of fermented sausages are discussed. Emphasis is placed on the importance of meat characteristics in textural and sensorial development as well as the safety of fermented sausages. Additionally, consumers' perception of venison and game meat is discussed. Possible areas of research and knowledge gaps are highlighted, particularly the potential use of meat with high pH and microbial load. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Haematological and serum biochemical reference values in Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis): a preliminary study

Background

A selection of haematological and serum biochemical profile was first presented from the 81 samples of Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis). The deer health assessment database was initially established, especially in relation to determining potential effects associated with diseases diagnosis.

Results

Blood samples were analyzed for different haematological parameters viz. white blood cells (WBC), red blood cells (RBC), haemoglobin (HGB), packed-cell volume (PCV), platelet count (PLT), mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean red blood cells distribution width coefficient of variation (RDW) and different hematological parameters viz. total protein (TP), albumin (ALB), globulin (GLB), albumin to globulin ratio (A/G), total bilirubin (TBIL), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), AST/ALT, creatinine, urea (BUN), uric acid, total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride, creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and cortisol. The adult females had higher values than adult males in albumin, mean corpuscular volume, packed-cell volume, and hemoglobin content values. The deer from Shanghai had higher urea nitrogen values than those from Zhoushan.

Conclusion

To our knowledge this is the first report about the haematological and serum biochemical parameters in Chinese water deer. We had initially established a profile of Chinese water deer on haematological and serum biochemical parameters based on 81 samples we had collected. The findings can serve as a primary reference for health monitoring and disease prevention in this species.

Nutritional and functional properties of Moringa oleifera

This study was carried out to evaluate the nutrient composition and functional properties of dried Moringa oleifera leaves collected from two different ecological zones in Bangladesh, Joypurhat and Mymensingh. The proximate analysis revealed that M. oleifera leaves were rich in protein content, ranging from (22.99-29.36%), and low in fat, from (4.03-9.51%), fiber, from (6.00-9.60%), and ash, from (8.05-10.38%). The vitamin C content of fresh M. oleifera leaves ranged from (187.96-278.50 mg/100 g), Ca ranged from (1.322-2.645%), P ranged from (0.152-0.304 g/100 g), and K ranged from (1.317-2.025 g/100 g). The functional properties included WAC (158.00-415.00%), FC (28.30-117.65 mL/l) and FS (333.33-1000 mL/l). Together, these findings indicate that M. oleifera leaves are rich in vital phytonutrients, suggesting a promising balance of food ingredients for human and animal diets.

Game Meat Consumption-Conscious Choice or Just a Game?

Game meat is constantly present on the European meat market, but a limited number of consumers are interested in its consumption. Considering the unique features of wild animal meat, we should explore what pushes consumers to include it in their diet. To identify the motives determining the choice of game meat, a quantitative survey based on the computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI) method was conducted among 450 participants. The statistical analysis based on the logistic regression model allowed us to assess the significance of emotional motives leading to game eating and to investigate the importance of the rational motives related to the quality attributes of game for consumers. It was shown that rational motives influence the consumers’ choice more than emotional factors, while the most important motives are connected with healthcare issues. Consumers, for whom the crucial attributes of quality are taste, nutritional value, and low fat content, constitute a group that might more often include game in their diet in the future. Among the emotional motives, the familiarity, described as a feeling of knowing the product, also has a statistically significant impact on the consumers’ choice. The results obtained may be useful for academic theoreticians and market experts as well.

Relationships Between Fat and Cholesterol Contents and Fatty Acid Composition in Different Meat-Producing Animal Species

The objective of this study was to determine the relationships between intramuscular fat, cholesterol contents and fatty acid composition in the muscles of different animal species. Intramuscular fat, cholesterol and fatty acid composition in 207 muscle samples from 129 animals of different species (pigs, beef cattle, farmed red deer, horses and geese) were determined and analysed. The obtained results indicated unequal relations between intramuscular fat and cholesterol contents and fatty acid proportions in the muscles of different animal species. The increase of intramuscular fat content resulted in higher monounsaturated and lower polyunsaturated fatty acid contents in most muscles of meat producing animals. In all the species higher fatness did not show any increase in cholesterol content and also cholesterol contents were lower as fat increased in m. semimembranosus of pigs and m. pectoralis profundus of horses. The cholesterol content positively correlated with saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids in the longissimus muscle with the lowest fat content found in red deer and beef cattle, whereas the correlations between these measures were negative in m. pectoralis profundus of horses and the breast of goose containing high fat levels. Negative correlations between polyunsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol content were found in the longissimus muscle of red deer and cattle, whereas these correlations in goose breast and horse meat were positive.

The Effect of Barley and Lysine Supplementation on the longissimus lumborum Meat Quality of Pasture-Raised Fallow Deer (Dama dama)

The chemical characteristics (proximate composition, amino acids, and fatty acids) and sensory quality of the longissimus lumborum (LL) muscle of 45 farmed male fallow deer were investigated. The animals were divided into three separate groups (n = 15 per treatment): pasture-fed (P), pasture-fed and supplemented with barley (B), and pasture-fed and supplemented with barley and lysine (BL). Differences were observed in LL moisture and the intramuscular fat contents, the latter being almost two-fold greater in the meat of B and BL groups compared to P. The concentrations of histidine, leucine, alanine, glutamic acid and glycine in the raw meat were higher in the BL group compared to the P group. Higher contents of n–3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and consequently lower n–3 ratios, were found in the P group, compared to the BL group. The grilled meat samples from the P group scored higher than the other groups for grassy flavour, and lower for liver flavour.

Isolation, Evaluation, and Identification of Angiotensin I-Converting Enzyme Inhibitory Peptides from Game Meat

Game meat has been underutilized, while it offers the potential to diversify not only the human diet but also increase food production and the nutritional value of meat products. This study aimed to determine the angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activities of the digested game meats (venison and boar meat) compared with those of livestock meats (beef and pork). Through the sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and size chromatography results, we found that the digested products from each meat had different molecular weights. The ACE inhibitory ratio in all tested samples had gradually increased following by the enzyme treatments. ACE inhibitory ratios and the half maximal inhibitory concentration values indicated that digested venison was the most potent inhibitor of ACE activity, followed by the digested boar meat. The level of anserine in digested venison was higher than that in the other meats, but the carnosine level was lower. Through fractionations and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis, five ACE inhibitory peptides were identified from the digested venison. Of these peptides, Isoleucine-Lysine- Glutamic Acid-Valine-Threonine-Glutamic Acid-Arginine (IKEVTER) demonstrated the highest ACE inhibitory activity. Therefore, the game meat is food that is believed potentially to offer high bioactivities, particularly antihypertensive forces.

Attitudes towards hunting in Polish society and the related impacts of hunting experience, socialisation and social networks

In recent years, hunters in Poland have faced a low level of social acceptance. Scientists from the USA and Sweden have demonstrated that contact with hunters and game meat consumption is one of the decisive factors affecting the social acceptance of hunting. The aim of our study was to examine attitudes towards hunting (ATH) held by the non-hunting part of Polish society and to analyse factors influencing these perceptions. We hypothesised that Polish people have a generally negative ATH but that Polish people who have direct contact with hunters and eat game meat have a more positive ATH. During the study, we surveyed a randomly selected representative sample of 486 respondents. Based on nine statements defining non-hunters’ perceptions, we determined ATH and then investigated its association with attitudinal items such as hunting experience, socialisation, social network and socio-demographic information. We found that most respondents (61.7%) possessed an ATH that was at least slightly positive. Experience with hunting and hunters had a significant positive impact on ATH, and respondents who included game meat in their diet on a regular basis had a more positive ATH, as did respondents who participate in hunting. Socialisation and social network (having parents or friends who hunt/having a hunter in the household) were key positive influences on ATH. Conversely, the inability to visit a forest in their neighbourhood due to ongoing hunting had a significant negative impact on ATH. Different socio-demographic variables had a low impact on ATH. The results of this study show measurable steps towards increasing knowledge about social acceptance of hunting and can also be used as a strong argument in the discussion regarding the existence of sustainable hunting in Europe. We recommend several management implications, especially in a Polish context.

Putting the Spring back into the Hare (Pedetes capensis): Meat Chemical Composition of an Underutilized Protein Source

Alternative protein sources are gaining increasing global attention as a solution to address future protein demands. Determining the chemical composition of meat alternatives is vital to confirm that it is nutritious, but also to increase product value and promote its utilization. The carcass characteristics and chemical composition of springhare, an underutilized protein source, was found to be comparable to that of commercially reared rabbits. Hence, its introduction into the commercial supply chain would likely not offset consumers accustomed to purchasing rabbit/hare meat. Springhare meat had a high protein content (~22.5 g/100 g meat) and low lipid (<1.3 g/100 g meat) content. The meat's fatty acids mainly comprised C18:2n6c (γ-linoleic acid; 24%), C18:0 (stearic acid; 20%), C16:0 (palmitic acid; 19%), C20:4n6 (arachidonic acid; 15%) and C18:1n9c (oleic acid; 13%). Although sex did not significantly influence the carcass characteristics and meat composition, season did have an effect (p < 0.05) on the fatty acid profile. The meat harvested in summer had higher (p < 0.05) concentrations of favorable unsaturated fatty acids, C18:2n6c, C18:3n6, C18:3n3 (α-linolenic acid), C20:2n6 (eicosadienoic acid), C20:3n3 (eicosatrienoic acid), compared to the meat obtained in winter, which contained more (p < 0.05) saturated fatty acids. The results verify that springhare can be utilized as a viable alternative protein source.

Effects of Animal, Climatic, Hunting and Handling Conditions on the Hygienic Characteristics of Hunted Roe Doer (Caprelous capreolus L.)

The population of wild animals is increasing, and control strategies based on selective hunting are among the major options adopted. The game meat obtained is therefore available for controlled and certified valuable chains. The understanding of carcass contamination and the factors affecting it is therefore crucial to ensure meat safety and prolonged shelf-life. The carcass hygiene of 64 hunted wild male roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) was evaluated in relation to factors potentially affecting it. Aerobic colony and Enterobacteriaceae counts, as well as Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes detection, were performed. The interaction of the microbial determination with age and weight of the animals, the climate conditions, the shooting procedure, the time between the killing and the evisceration as well as the time of storage of the carcasses in refrigerated conditions before skinning, were evaluated. Neither Salmonella spp. nor Listeria monocytogenes were detected on the carcasses and the average loads detected were 3.39 ± 1.06 UFC/cm2 and 2.27± 1.11 UFC/cm2 for the aerobic colony count and Enterobacteriaceae count, respectively. The loads detected are similar to those reported by UE legislation for slaughtered species. The time of storage before skinning, the environmental temperature during hunting and the time between shooting and evisceration, associated with animal weight, affect the carcass hygiene and must be taken into careful consideration by hunters as food business operators.

Incorporating social-ecological complexities into conservation policy

In the process of developing new conservation policies, policymakers must have access to information which will inform their decisions. Evidence rarely considers the complexities of social-ecological systems. The Social-Ecological Systems Framework (SESF) is an adaptable yet structured approach for understanding the processes that lead to changes in natural resources, using a systems-based approach that aims to treat ecological and social components equally. Few conservation planning and policy initiatives have implemented the SESF to assess the interlinked social and ecological consequences of conservation policies. We apply the SESF to explore the barriers to the potential implementation of a policy of consumptive utilisation of wildlife in Kenya, a policy regarded as successful in several southern African countries. Using secondary data and expert review we developed a conceptual model of the social-ecological system associated with consumptive utilisation of wildlife in Kenya. We then analysed how different combinations of first and second-tier variables interacted to create focal action situations, and subsequently identified seven barriers to this policy. Our analysis revealed that game ranching would require large-scale investment in effective monitoring systems, new regulations, training, market development and research, considerations about equity, and devolved ownership of wildlife. The least barriers existed for game farming. The SESF appears to be a useful framework for this purpose. In particular, it can help to reveal potential social and ecological barriers which conservation policies might face in attempting to meet intended goals. The information required to implement the SESF are necessarily cross-disciplinary, which can make it challenging to synthesise.

Fatty Acid Composition of Meat and Edible Offal from Free-Living Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)

The objective of the study was to characterize tissue-associated differences in the fatty acid composition of fat in skeletal muscles M. longissimus dorsi (loin), M. biceps femoris (hind quarter), and M. triceps brachii (shoulder), and internal organs (i.e., liver, heart, and kidney) from free-living red deer (Cervus elaphus) females (n = 11) hunted in Lithuania. Skeletal muscles were characterized by lower content of free fat compared with the offal. The highest percentage of saturated fatty acids was found in the liver fat, whereas the lowest percentage was in the heart. Red deer offal showed significantly lower and higher proportions of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids compared to meat, respectively. Higher proportions of oleic fatty acid in the shoulder and hind quarter compared to the loin were the only significant differences between skeletal muscles. The lowest and the highest n-6 polyunsaturated/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6/n-3PUFA) ratio were found in the liver and heart, respectively. More favorable lower atherogenic index and higher hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio found in the offal showed their high nutritional value, however, higher peroxidizability index indicated higher susceptibility to lipid peroxidation compared to skeletal muscles.

Fatty Acid Profile of Muscles from Crossbred Angus-Simmental, Wagyu-Simmental, and Chinese Simmental Cattles

This study assessed breed differences in fatty acid composition and meat quality of Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) and semitendinosus (SE) of Angus× Chinese Simmental (AS), Wagyu×Chinese Simmental (WS), and Chinese Simmental (CS). CS (n=9), AS (n=9) and WS (n=9) were randomly selected from a herd of 80 bulls which were fed and managed under similar conditions. Fatty acid profile and meat quality parameters were analyzed in duplicate. Significant breed difference was observed in fatty acid and meat quality profiles. AS exhibited significantly (p<0.05) lower C16:0 and higher C18:1n9c compared with CS. AS breed also had a tendency (p<0.10) to lower total saturated fatty acid (SFA), improve C18:3n3 and total unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) compared with CS. Crossbreed of AS and WS had significantly (p<0.05) improved the lightness, redness, and yellowness of muscles, and lowered cooking loss, pressing loss, and shear force compared with CS. These results indicated that fatty acid composition and meat quality generally differed among breeds, although the differences were not always similar in different tissues. Fatty acid composition, meat color, water holding capacity, and tenderness favored AS over CS. Thus, Angus cattle might be used to improve fatty acid and meat quality profiles of CS, and AS might contain better nutritive value, organoleptic properties, and flavor, and could be potentially developed as an ideal commercial crossbreed.

Physical Changes during Post-Mortem Ageing of High-Value Impala (Aepyceros Melampus) Steaks

Antelope meat production is rapidly growing, not only due to their adaptation to marginal land usage, but also because of its favorable nutritional properties and free-range production. However, limited information is available on the meat quality and processing potential of game meat for commercial consumption. The objective of this study was to determine the ageing period to achieve maximum tenderness of longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscles of impala. The LTL muscles of 11 male and 11 female impala were harvested, and divided into eight portions. Each portion was randomly allocated to 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14 days of wet-ageing (4 °C) in vacuum packaging. The meat pH, color, weep loss, cooking loss, and Warner–Bratzler shear force were measured throughout ageing. Initially the ageing profile differed depending on the sex of the animal from which the muscle was harvested; however, after 8 days of ageing, maximum tenderness was reached (13.5 ± 0.91 N) and no further sex differences were seen. Ageing improved the surface color of all meat until day 8, after which discoloration occurred. Therefore, it is recommended that impala LTL steaks should be wet-aged at 4 °C for eight days to achieve maximum tenderness and minimize sex variability.

Carcass yields and physiochemical meat quality characteristics of Namibian gemsbok (Oryx gazella) as influenced by muscle, gender and age

The carcass yields and physiochemical meat quality characteristics of six different muscles (biceps femoris, infraspinatus, longissimus thoracis et lumborum, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, supraspinatus) for different sex and age groups of gemsbok antelope were determined. No live weight nor dressing percentage differences were observed for the different sex groups. While muscles, age and sex had an influence on the physiochemical parameters investigated, these differences were minor. The CIE Lab colour values for all muscles, age and sexes were in line with those deemed acceptable for game meat, while mean crude protein (20.7%) and fat (1.6%) levels were typical of game species. Discriminant analysis revealed no differentiation among the muscle groups for the variables measured. Thus, at similar live weights, male and female (sub-adult) gemsbok can be considered of equivalent meat quality and marketed accordingly.

Fallow Deer (Dama dama) as a Reservoir of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC)

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia (E.) coli (STEC) are responsible for the outbreaks of serious diseases in humans. Only a few reports on fallow deer as a reservoir of foodborne pathogens have been published to date. The purpose of this study was to determine the occurrence of STEC strains in the fallow deer population in Poland. In all, 94 fallow deer swabs were tested. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to detect the virulence profile of stx1, stx2 and eae or aggR genes, to identify the subtypes of stx1 and stx2 genes and to perform O and H serotyping. STEC and attaching and effacing (AE)-STEC were identified in 13 isolates (13.83%). The most hazardous virulence profile was detected in three strains, namely stx2d serotype O103:HNM, eae/stx1a serotype O26:HNM and eae/stx1a serotype O157:H7. The predominant stx gene was stx2, which was identified in 76.92% of isolates. E. coli O157 was detected in 4/94 (4.26%). Other E. coli serogroups, O26, O103, O111 and O145, were identified in 14/94 fallow deer (14.89%). The present findings suggest that fallow deer are carriers of STEC/AE-STEC that are potentially pathogenic to humans.

Nutritional quality of wild Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) meat: Effects of sex and hunting period

The proximate composition, energetic value, minerals, B-group vitamins and pH value of the loin (longissimus thoracis) of 71 wild Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus), were evaluated in stags and hinds hunted in autumn and winter. In autumn, meat had a higher content of moisture, K, Na, Zn and thiamine when compared to winter, in which higher content of proteins and P were detected. Meat from stags had a higher moisture, Na, Zn and folic acid content, while hinds provided optimal pH values (<5.8) in higher proportions than stags. Considering European Unions nutrition and health claims, deer loin has a high content of proteins, Zn, vitamin B₁₂ (cyanocobalamin), and a low content of fat and sodium/salt, being a source of P, Fe, Cu and vitamins B₂ (riboflavin) and B₃ (niacin). Additionally, health claims related to children's development could be attributed to this meat, which may increase the interest on deer meat from consumers.

Ante-and post-mortem strategies to improve the meat quality of high-value muscles harvested from farmed male common eland (Taurotragus oryx)

The effects of immunocastration, pelvic suspension and wet ageing on the meat quality of the longissimus lumborum et thoracis (LTL) and biceps femoris (BF) muscles of male common eland were evaluated. Ten subadult males were either immunocastrated (n = 5) or remained intact (n = 5) throughout a four-month growth trial, after which their carcass sides were randomly allocated to either pelvic- or Achilles-suspension. The LTL and BF were further aged for 14 days, measuring changes in the physical quality weekly. The sensory quality of the LTL and BF were determined after ageing (8/9 days, respectively). Immunocastration had minimal effects on the meat quality of male eland, but pelvic suspension decreased the shear force. All muscles reached minimum shear force after seven days of ageing, and the panellists ranked the pelvic-suspended muscles higher for tenderness traits. Incorporating pelvic suspension and wet ageing into the commercial processing of eland carcasses should be considered to improve overall meat quality.

Consumers' Concerns and Perceptions of Farm Animal Welfare

In this paper, we explore the evolution of consumers' perceptions and concerns about the effects that intensification of production systems could have on the welfare of farm animals. Despite the differences in definitions of animal welfare that make perceptions about this complex subject extremely variable, there is a growing perception that farm animal welfare should be protected and improved. There is an increasing appreciation of animal welfare parameters over other quality attributes, and animal-friendly products are considered healthier, safer, tastier, more hygienic, authentic, environmentally friendly, and traditional by many consumers. The willingness to pay for the increases in price that higher levels of farm animal welfare could produce could be promoted by means of adequate information about management and housing conditions of the different farming species. Welfare-friendly products that are properly labeled with clear information provided by an internationally accepted, transparent, and traceable monitoring system will increase consumers' confidence in the food chain participants. Both consumers and citizens have the opportunity to improve the welfare of millions of farmed animals now and in the future, consumers by assuming their responsibility at the buying point, purchasing welfare-friendly products, and citizens by driving legislation to achieve some minimum standard of welfare conditions that could meet animals' needs.

Technological and nutritional properties of meat from female wild boars (Sus scrofa scrofa L.) of different carcass weights

The aim of this work was to assess the technological and nutritional quality of meat from female wild boars. The muscle samples - Musculus longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) and Musculus semimembranosus (SM) - were taken from a total of 40 female wild boar after a hunt. Carcasses were allocated to five groups according to weight (group I - 30 ± 5  kg; group II - 45 ± 4.9  kg; group III - 60 ± 4.7  kg; group IV - 75 ± 5.2  kg; group V - 90 ± 5  kg). Studies that have been carried out have shown that technological and nutritional properties of meat from wild boars depend on the mass of carcasses and the type of muscle. The pH of analyzed wild boar meat proved that there was normal glycolysis and glycogenolysis progress in all groups. The water holding capacity (WHC) of SM muscles from the lowest-weight carcasses was significantly ( P ≤ 0.01 ) lower as compared to the heavier carcasses. There were significant differences ( P ≤ 0.01 ) in the shear force of the LTL muscle between groups I, IV and V. The muscles cut from carcasses of a higher mass represent higher values of this parameter. The higher-mass carcasses were characterized by a darker color, which resulted from the higher concentration of myoglobin. The protein concentration increased with carcass weight. A similar effect of carcass weight on the content of intramuscular fat (IMF) was found. Due to the low calorie content, the meat of young wild boar may be an interesting and attractive component of the diet.

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli isolates from red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) in Poland

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia (E.) coli (STEC) pathogens are responsible for the outbreaks of serious diseases in humans, including haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS), bloody diarrhoea (BD) and diarrhoea (D), and they pose a significant public health concern. Wild ruminants are an important environmental reservoir of foodborne pathogens that can cause serious illnesses in humans and contaminate fresh products. There is a general scarcity of published data about wildlife as a reservoir of foodborne pathogens in Poland, which is why the potential epidemiological risk associated with red deer, roe deer and fallow deer as reservoirs of STEC/AE-STEC strains was evaluated in this study. The aim of the study was to investigate the prevalence of STEC strains in red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) populations in north-eastern Poland, and to evaluate the potential health risk associated with wild ruminants carrying STEC/AE-STEC strains. We examined 252 rectal swabs obtained from 134 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), 97 red deer (Cervus elaphus) and 21 fallow deer (Dama dama) in north-eastern Poland. The samples were enriched in modified buffered peptone water. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays were conducted to determine the virulence profile of stx1, stx2 and eae or aggR genes, to identify the subtypes of stx1 and stx2 genes, and to perform O and H serotyping. E. coli O157:H7 isolates were detected in the rectal swabs collected from 1/134 roe deer (0.75%) and 4/97 red deer (4.1%), and they were not detected in fallow deer (Dama dama). The remaining E. coli serogroups, namely O26, O103, O111 and O145 that belong to the "top five" non-O157 serogroups, were detected in 15/134 roe deer (11.19%), 18/97 red deer (18.56%) and 2/21 fallow deer (9.52%). STEC/AE-STEC strains were detected in 33 roe deer isolates (24.63%), 21 red deer isolates (21.65%) and 2 fallow deer isolates (9.52%). According to the most recent FAO/WHO report, stx2a and eae genes are the primary virulence traits associated with HUS, and these genes were identified in one roe deer isolate and one red deer isolate. Stx2 was the predominant stx gene, and it was detected in 78.79% of roe deer and in 71.43% of red deer isolates. The results of this study confirmed that red deer and roe deer in north-eastern Poland are carriers of STEC/AE-STEC strains that are potentially pathogenic for humans. This is the first report documenting the virulence of STEC/AE-STEC strains from wild ruminants in Poland.

Factors affecting the microbiological load of Italian hunted wild boar meat (Sus scrofa)

This study investigates the microbiological conditions before maturation of wild boar meat (Sus scrofa) processed in approved game handling establishments in Italy. Fillets and legquarters of 37 carcasses were tested to assess Aerobic Colony Count (ACC), Enterobacteriaceae Count (EC) and Salmonella presence. Salmonella was never found and mean values of ACC and EC were 4.67 ± 1.78 SD and 2.60 ± 1.58 SD log CFU/cm², respectively. Both ACC and EC increased with time between evisceration and skinning, were significantly higher in fillets and when meat was processed by untrained operators. ACC also increased with boars' weight and when carcasses were cleaned with running potable water. Based on limits set by EU Regulation No 1441/2007 for pork meat, most legquarters resulted satisfactory or acceptable (59% for ACC and 70% for EC), while most fillets were unsatisfactory (76% ACC, 78% EC). Results show that the wild game meat supply chain can be a safe process when handling practices reported in European and National regulations are met.

Carcass Yields and Physicochemical Meat Quality Characteristics of Namibian Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) as Influenced by Muscle, Sex and Age

This investigation determined the carcass yields of Namibian springbok and compared the physicochemical meat quality characteristics of 6 different muscles (biceps femoris, infraspinatus, Longissimus thoracis et lumborum, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, and supraspinatus) from different sex and age groups. Although the adult male slaughter weights (40.44 ± 1.88 kg) did not differ from that of the adult female slaughter weights (36.61 ± 0.50), the adult males were heavier than both sexes from the sub-adults. No differences were observed for dressing percentages between sex nor age groups. The infraspinatus muscle showed the lowest shear force values in adult male springbok and in both sub-adult male and female springbok and can be described as the more tender muscle. The infraspinatus and Longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscles of the adult male springbok group showed the lowest cooking losses. The supraspinatus and semitendinosus muscles from the sub-adult groups tended to have the highest L* and thus the lightest meat. No major differences were observed for protein content between the different sex and age groups although the muscles of the different sex and age groups had a noticeably higher fat content (above 3%). Discriminant analysis revealed no differentiation among the different muscle groups for the variables measured. Neither springbok sex nor age influenced any of the meat quality parameters although older animals tended to have heavier carcasses, therefore the decision of which sex and/or age group to cull will depend on the springbok management strategy.

Microbial, chemical-physical, rheological and organoleptic characterisation of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) salami

Game meat and related products are important in the promotion of local economies and rural areas. Microbiological, chemical-physical, rheological and sensory characteristics of fermented meat products (salami) made by different percentages of pork and hunted roe-deer (Capreolus capreolus) meat were evaluated. The microbiological determination indicated that the products are safe to eat, as neither Listeria monocytogenes nor Salmonella spp. was isolated from the samples. The hygienic adequacy of the process was guaranteed, as there was below 3 log CFU/g of Enterobacteriaceae level in the final products. The proximal composition analyses showed lower lipid levels in comparison to pork salami. The difference in chemical composition affects the rheological and sensory traits of the final products; the products were harder and with higher gumminess when 50% of roe-deer meat was used. Game meat flavour and odour increased with the increasing percentage of roe-deer meat.

Product Yield and Fatty Acid Content of North Dakota Mule Deer, Elk, and Moose

The objective of this study was to determine and document proportion of edible lean from harvested big game species (mule deer, elk, and moose), analyze nutritive value of longissimus muscle (LM) tissue, and discuss the implications of shot damage on loss of edible lean. Twenty-nine mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus; MUL), 22 moose (Alces alces), and 21 elk (Cervus canadensis) were harvested from the field and processed at the North Dakota State University Meat Science Laboratory. Fatty acid analysis was conducted for each species. Field harvested animal yield data were collected and compared across species to include edible lean availability and tissue loss (trimming) associated with bullet damage (shot loss). Larger species had heavier whole body (WB), field dressed (FD), carcass (CARC), and lean (LN) yield, whereas the smaller species (MUL) had the highest FD expressed as a percentage of WB (77.19%). Shot loss expressed as a percentage of total lean tissue was greatest for elk (16.59%, P = 0.02), then MUL (13.24%), and moose (12.32%). The most edible lean (332.53 kg) was obtained from moose whereas MUL tended to yield more lean as a percentage of WB (42.07%, P = 0.06). Moose had the least crude fat on a DM basis, the least total kcals/100 g of loin sample, and least total cholesterol (mg/100 g of loin sample). Mule deer and elk exhibited a greater percentage of oleic acid (24.1 and 29.7%, respectively, expressed as a percentage of LM crude fat content) than moose (14.5%, P < 0.01). Mule deer had the highest stearic acid content (24.7%) compared to elk (12.83%) and moose (21.62%). This research found that elk and MUL have more desirable MUFA and SFA of total fat content than moose which possess the highest lean yield percentage.

The effect of age and ultimate pH value on selected quality traits of meat from wild boar

The meat from hunted wild boar juveniles (N = 18) and yearlings (N = 17) was analysed to assess the influence of age and the ultimate pH value on selected quality traits. The analysed meat of 55.56% of the juveniles and 64.71% of the yearlings was characterised with normal pH. The pH had been measured 24 and 48 h post mortem. More cases of high ultimate pH (pHu > 5.8) and high maximal pH (about 6.2) have been noted in the meat of younger animals compared with older ones. We found no effect of pHu on the colour coordinates of analysed wild boar meat. A slight effect of age was observed for the lightness (L*) coordinate. The postmortem time was the most important factor influencing meat colour [L*, yellowness (b*), and hue angle]. A high pHu was related to lower drip loss (P = 0.001), lower percentage of free water (P = 0.036), lower cooking loss (P = 0.001), and lower plasticity (P = 0.042). The meat from juveniles showed higher plasticity than meat from yearlings. Summing up, both the pHu level and the age of wild boars may affect some qualitative patterns of meat, changing the technological usability of this raw animal product.

EFFICIENCY OF USING THE ANIMAL PROTEIN COMPLEX IN THE TECHNOLOGY OF COOKED SAUSAGE

The research is dedicated to the development of recipes of cooked sausages and their diversification through including in the recipes poultry meat, and by-products of processing meat and milk. The meat products most affordable and popular with the Ukrainian people are selected for the study: cooked sausages and poultry meat wieners. The main components of the recipes are: red poultry meat, mechanically deboned poultry meat, medium-fat pork. In the recipes of the products developed, 10 % of the basic raw material was replaced with a hydrated protein-carbohydrate-mineral supplement. According to its physico-chemical characteristics, the protein-carbohydrate-mineral supplement in the technology of cooked sausage products allows us to get ready-made products with excellent quality parameters. It has been established that adding protein-carbohydrate-mineral supplement to the formulation significantly effects on the physico-chemical, functional, and technological parameters and biological value of meat products. The experimental data obtained show that the moisture content of the fresh stuffing for the sausages Kuryacha and the wieners Videnski is by 0.9 and 1.7%, respectively, higher than that in the control samples. The water-binding power in the fresh stuffing of the control samples is by 5% lower than in the test samples. In the finished product, the moisture-holding capacity is higher in the test samples (by 5.9% in the sausages Kuryacha, by 3.8% in the wieners Videnski). The study has shown that the amino acid score difference coefficient (AASDC) in the control sample of cooked sausage was by 11.2% higher than in the sample of the cooked sausage Kuryacha. In the control sausages, it was 13.0% higher than in the Videnski wieners. The developed cooked sausage products with the protein-carbohydrate-mineral supplement can be introduced into production as functional products with improved biological value.

Body composition and venison quality of farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus) hinds reared on grass, papilionaceous or mixed pasture paddocks

Red deer (Cervus elaphus) hinds (n=3×10) of identical initial body weight (BW, ca. 68 kg) were reared on a monocotyledonous grass (G group), on a grass–papilionaceous (GP group) or on pure papilionaceous pasture each of 2 ha (P group) for 219 d. At the end of the experiment carcass tissue composition was assessed by means of computer tomography, slaughter value and meat quality were characterized and tissue – longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL), thigh and liver – samples were taken for fatty acid composition analysis. The primary aim was to assess nutrition-driven differences.

Hinds of group P provided higher final BW (101 kg vs. 90 and 91.9 kg in groups G and GP, respectively) and higher BW gain (32.6 kg during the total period vs. 22.4 and 22.1 kg). The carcass weight exceeded those of the other groups significantly (68.8 kg vs. 59.3 and 63.2 kg), while there was no difference among groups in the perirenal fat weight and red color tone (a*) of the LTL. Groups G and P differed significantly in the LTL weight (highest in P), its dripping loss (lowest in G), lightness (L; highest in P) and yellow color tone (b*).

In the thigh muscle, LTL and liver the highest proportion of fatty acid CLA9c11t was reached on the G pasture, and the same trend was true for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA , C22:6 n3) in the muscles. The n6 / n3 fatty acid ratio was the highest on the P pasture in the liver and both muscles. The liver incorporated the highest proportion of linoleic acid (C18:2 n6) and converted it rather effectively to arachidonic acid (C20:4 n6), coupled with the lowest α-linolenic acid presence.

In conclusion, concerning muscle mass production, group P proved to be the most advantageous pasture; meanwhile LTL meat quality factors (dripping loss, DHA proportion, pH, color) were more favorable on the G pasture.

Quality parameters of hunted game meat: Sensory analysis and pH monitoring

The aim of the present research is to propose a new, quick and objective method for the certification of hunted and/or culled wild game meat quality and to monitor its origin and the hunting practices adopted by hunters. The expected deliverable is a new labelling scheme for Italian hunted wild game meat that will guarantee high quality and safety standards for consumers and will decrease transaction costs of the supply chains. During the 2015, 2016 and 2017 hunting seasons, 1,056 hunted wild ungulates were sampled. Specifically, alpine chamois (n=537), roe deer (n=113), red deer (n=342) and wild boar (n=64), which were all hunted in the VCO2-Ossola Nord hunting district (Verbania Province, Piedmont, Italy). Samples of the longissimus dorsi were collected to evaluate the nutritional parameters and the acid profiles of the products. As a measure of meat quality, pH values have been recorded after slaughtering by inserting a probe in the semimembranosus muscle. The results were categorized as DFD (pH≥6,2), intermediate DFD (5,8≤pH<6,2) and high-quality meat (pH <5,8). As explanatory variables for the quality of wild game meat, differences based on age, gender and hunting practices were considered. Concerning the latter variables, measures were collected from animals received at hunting districts control centers by trained technicians who also collected information on the hunting practices, i.e., bleeding and evisceration of the carcasses and number of shots. Nutritional values showed low fat (<3 g per 100 g), low saturated fat (<1,5 g per 100 g) and high protein contents. Furthermore, wild game meat has high values of ω3 and CLA, ensuring a positive ω6/ω3 ratio. Differences were found in the concentrations of fat between age and gender, considering that during the mating season, adult males' weight loss can exceed 40%. Hunting practices seem to affect meat quality.

Carcass and meat quality characteristics from Iberian wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) hunted at different ages

BACKGROUND

Deer-meat consumption is increasing in several countries based on claims that it is a healthy red meat. This study assessed the effect of slaughter age (low - 26 months and younger; medium - from 27 months to younger than 42 months; and high - 42 months and older) on carcass characteristics and meat physicochemical properties of 150 Iberian wild red deer.

RESULTS

Whole carcass yields of neck, backbone and flank increased (P < 0.001) with age, while yields of shoulder, tenderloin and leg decreased (P < 0.05) with age. The pH measured at 48 h post mortem at 9th rib level was not affected by age, while pH measured at 72 h post mortem at the longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscle decreased (P < 0.05) with age. Meat chemical composition was not affected by slaughter age, except for intramuscular fat (IMF), which increased (P < 0.05) with slaughter age. Finally, cooking loss and shear force were higher (P < 0.05) in meat from older deer.

CONCLUSION

Most characteristics of meat from wild red deer depend on age at slaughter. The greater IMF of meat from older animals may render it more palatable. However, meat shear force also increased with age. Additional studies testing palatability seem to be necessary to evaluate the effects of slaughter age on the sensorial quality of meat from Iberian wild red deer. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of age on nutritional properties of Iberian wild red deer meat

BACKGROUND

This study assessed the effect of age (L, less than 27 months old; M, from 27 to 42 months old; H, 43 months and older) on the fatty acid profile, cholesterol content, amino acid composition and mineral content of 150 Iberian wild red deer meat samples.

RESULTS

Intramuscular fat content increased (P < 0.05) with age (0.05 vs 0.12 vs 0.34% for L, M and H groups respectively), while cholesterol content decreased (P < 0.05) as the slaughter age increased (52.78 vs 48.72 vs 45.34 mg per 100 g meat for L, M and H groups respectively). The slaughter age showed differences among groups for saturated fatty acids, with the highest content in older animals (30.41 vs 34.55 vs 38.21% for L, M and H groups respectively), whereas younger deer displayed the highest polyunsaturated fatty acid levels (50.05 vs 45.24 vs 37.55% for L, M and H groups respectively). The n-6/n-3 ratio was more favorable (P < 0.05) for young and medium ages compared with that for older animals. In contrast, amino acid profile and mineral content were only slightly affected by age.

CONCLUSION

As a general conclusion, wild red deer meat could be considered a good alternative to red meats for human consumption. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.