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Zhang S, Prabhakaran MP, Qin X, Ramakrishna S. Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate containing scaffolds and their integration with osteoblasts as a model for bone tissue engineering. J Biomater Appl 2015; 29:1394-406. [DOI: 10.1177/0885328214568467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Nano/micro engineered polymeric materials offer expansive scope of biomimetic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering especially those involving electrospun biodegradable nanofibers incorporated with inorganic nanoparticles, thus mimicking the extracellular matrix of bone both structurally and chemically. For the first time, poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate containing natural poly-(α, β)-DL-aspartic acid and inorganic hydroxyapatite nanofibers were fabricated using poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate: poly-(α, β)-DL-aspartic acid at a ratio of 80:20 (w/w) added with 1% (w/v) of hydroxyapatite, by the process of electrospinning. The surface morphology, chemical, and mechanical properties of electrospun poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate, poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate/poly-(α, β)-DL-aspartic acid, and poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate/poly-(α, β)-DL-aspartic acid/hydroxyapatite nanofibers were characterized by using field emission scanning electron microscope, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and tensile tester, respectively. Human fetal osteoblasts were cultured on different nanofibrous scaffolds for evaluating the cell proliferation, alkaline phosphatase activity, and mineralization. Cells on poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate/poly-(α, β)-DL-aspartic acid/hydroxyapatite scaffolds demonstrated higher proliferation (30.10%) and mineral deposition (37.60%) than the cells grown on pure poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate scaffolds. Obtained results highlight the synergistic effect of poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate, poly-(α, β)-DL-aspartic acid, and hydroxyapatite towards the enhancement of the osteoinductivity and osteoconductivity of human fetal osteoblasts, demonstrating the appropriate physicochemical and biological properties of poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate/poly-(α, β)-DL-aspartic acid/hydroxyapatite nanofibers to function as a substrate for bone tissue regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sai Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Textile Science & Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Textiles, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
| | - Molamma P Prabhakaran
- Center for Nanofibers and Nanotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Xiaohong Qin
- Key Laboratory of Textile Science & Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Textiles, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
| | - Seeram Ramakrishna
- Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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Nobeshima T, Ishii Y, Sakai H, Uemura S, Yoshida M. Study of Thermally Stimulated Current in Fibrous Poly(DL-Lactic Acid) Films Exhibiting Piezoelectric-Like Behavior. J PHOTOPOLYM SCI TEC 2015. [DOI: 10.2494/photopolymer.28.369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Taiki Nobeshima
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology
| | | | | | - Sei Uemura
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology
| | - Manabu Yoshida
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology
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Azari P, Yahya R, Wong CS, Gan SN. Improved processability of electrospun poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyric acid] through blending with medium-chain length poly(3-hydroxyalkanoates) produced byPseudomonas putidafrom oleic acid. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1179/1432891714z.0000000001024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P. Azari
- Department of ChemistryFaculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - R. Yahya
- Department of ChemistryFaculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - C. S. Wong
- Plasma Technology Research CenterPhysics Department, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - S. N. Gan
- Department of ChemistryFaculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Mulky E, Yazgan G, Maniura-Weber K, Luginbuehl R, Fortunato G, Bühlmann-Popa AM. Fabrication of biopolymer-based staple electrospun fibres for nanocomposite applications by particle-assisted low temperature ultrasonication. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2014; 45:277-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2014.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Revised: 08/18/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Thadavirul N, Pavasant P, Supaphol P. Improvement of dual-leached polycaprolactone porous scaffolds by incorporating with hydroxyapatite for bone tissue regeneration. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2014; 25:1986-2008. [PMID: 25291106 DOI: 10.1080/09205063.2014.966800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Polycaprolactone (PCL)/hydroxyapatite (HA) composite scaffolds were prepared by combining solvent casting and salt particulate leaching with a polymer leaching technique. The hydrophilicity of the dual-leached scaffold was improved by alkaline (NaOH) treatment. Well-defined interconnected pores were detected by scanning electron microscopy. The water absorption capacity of the NaOH-treated PCL/HA dual-leached scaffold increased greatly, confirming that the hydrophilicity of the scaffold was improved by NaOH treatment. The compressive modulus of the PCL/HA dual-leached scaffold was greatly increased by the addition of HA particles. An indirect evaluation of the cytotoxicity of all PCL dual-leached scaffolds with mouse fibroblastic cells (L929) and mouse calvaria-derived pre-osteoblastic cells (MC3T3-E1) indicated that the PCL dual-leached scaffolds are non-toxic to cells. The ability of the scaffolds to support mouse calvaria-derived pre-osteoblastic cell (MC3T3-E1) attachment, proliferation, differentiation, and mineralization was also evaluated. Although the viability of cells was lower on the PCL/HA dual-leached scaffold than on the tissue-culture polystyrene plates (TCPS) and on the other substrates at early time points, both the PCL and NaOH-treated PCL/HA dual-leached scaffolds supported the attachment of MC3T3-E1 at significantly higher levels than TCPS. During the proliferation period (days 1-3), all of the PCL dual-leached scaffolds were able to support the proliferation of MC3T3-E1 at higher levels than the TCPS; in addition, the cells grown on NaOH-treated PCL/HA dual-leached scaffolds proliferated more rapidly. The cells cultured on the surfaces of NaOH-treated PCL/HA dual-leached scaffolds had the highest rate of mineral deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Napaphat Thadavirul
- a The Petroleum and Petrochemical College and the Center of Excellence on Petrochemical and Materials Technology (PETROMAT) , Chulalongkorn University , Bangkok 10330 , Thailand
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Gupta KC, Haider A, Choi YR, Kang IK. Nanofibrous scaffolds in biomedical applications. Biomater Res 2014; 18:5. [PMID: 26331056 PMCID: PMC4549138 DOI: 10.1186/2055-7124-18-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2014] [Accepted: 06/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanofibrous scaffolds are artificial extracellular matrices which provide natural environment for tissue formation. In comparison to other forms of scaffolds, the nanofibrous scaffolds promote cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation more efficiently due to having high surface to volume ratio. Although scaffolds for tissue engineering have been fabricated by various techniques but electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds have shown great potential in the fields of tissue engineering and regeneration. This review highlights the applications and importance of electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds in various fields of biomedical applications ranging from drug delivery to wound healing. Attempts have also been made to highlights the advantages and disadvantages of nanofirbous scaffolds fabricated for biomedical applications using technique of electrospinning. The role of various factors controlling drug distribution in electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds is also discussed to increase the therapeutic efficiency of nanofibrous scaffolds in wound healing and drug delivery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kailash Chandra Gupta
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 702-701 South Korea ; Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, 247 667 India
| | - Adnan Haider
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 702-701 South Korea
| | - Yu-Ri Choi
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 702-701 South Korea
| | - Inn-Kyu Kang
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 702-701 South Korea
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Ramier J, Grande D, Bouderlique T, Stoilova O, Manolova N, Rashkov I, Langlois V, Albanese P, Renard E. From design of bio-based biocomposite electrospun scaffolds to osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stromal cells. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2014; 25:1563-1575. [PMID: 24584668 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-014-5174-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Electrospinning coupled with electrospraying provides a straightforward and robust route toward promising electrospun biocomposite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. In this comparative investigation, four types of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB)-based nanofibrous scaffolds were produced by electrospinning a PHB solution, a PHB/gelatin (GEL) mixture or a PHB/GEL/nHAs (hydroxyapatite nanoparticles) mixed solution, and by electrospinning a PHB/GEL solution and electrospraying a nHA dispersion simultaneously. SEM and TEM analyses demonstrated that the electrospun nHA-blended framework contained a majority of nHAs trapped within the constitutive fibers, whereas the electrospinning-electrospraying combination afforded fibers with a rough surface largely covered by the bioceramic. Structural and morphological characterizations were completed by FTIR, mercury intrusion porosimetry, and contact angle measurements. Furthermore, an in vitro investigation of human mesenchymal stromal cell (hMSC) adhesion and proliferation properties showed a faster cell development on gelatin-containing scaffolds. More interestingly, a long-term investigation of hMSC osteoblastic differentiation over 21 days indicate that hMSCs seeded onto the nHA-sprayed scaffold developed a significantly higher level of alkaline phosphatase activity, as well as a higher matrix biomineralization rate through the staining of the generated calcium deposits: the fiber surface deposition of nHAs by electrospraying enabled their direct exposure to hMSCs for an efficient transmission of the bioceramic osteoinductive and osteoconductive properties, producing a suitable biocomposite scaffold for bone tissue regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Ramier
- Systèmes Polymères Complexes, Institut de Chimie et des Matériaux Paris-Est, Equipe UMR 7182 CNRS, Université Paris Est Créteil, 2, rue Henri Dunant, Thiais, 94320, France
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Karahaliloğlu Z, Demirbilek M, Şam M, Sağlam N, Mızrak AK, Denkbaş EB. Surface-modified bacterial nanofibrillar PHB scaffolds for bladder tissue repair. ARTIFICIAL CELLS NANOMEDICINE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2014; 44:74-82. [DOI: 10.3109/21691401.2014.913053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Electrospun polyhydroxybutyrate and poly(L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) composites as nanofibrous scaffolds. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:741408. [PMID: 24900983 PMCID: PMC4034502 DOI: 10.1155/2014/741408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Revised: 02/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Electrospinning can produce nanofibrous scaffolds that mimic the architecture of the extracellular matrix and support cell attachment for tissue engineering applications. In this study, fibrous membranes of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) with various loadings of poly(L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) (PLCL) were successfully prepared by electrospinning. In comparison to PLCL scaffolds, PLCL blends with PHB exhibited more irregular fibre diameter distributions and higher average fibre diameters but there were no significant differences in pore size. PLCL/PHB scaffolds were more hydrophilic (<120°) with significantly reduced tensile strength (ca. 1 MPa) compared to PLCL scaffolds (150.9 ± 2.8° and 5.8 ± 0.5 MPa). Increasing PLCL loading in PHB/PLCL scaffolds significantly increased the extension at break, (4-6-fold). PLCL/PHB scaffolds supported greater adhesion and proliferation of olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) than those exhibiting asynchronous growth on culture plates. Mitochondrial activity of cells cultivated on the electrospun blended membranes was enhanced compared to those grown on PLCL and PHB scaffolds (212, 179, and 153%, resp.). Analysis showed that PLCL/PHB nanofibrous membranes promoted cell cycle progression and reduced the onset of necrosis. Thus, electrospun PLCL/PHB composites promoted adhesion and proliferation of OECs when compared to their individual PLCL and PHB components suggesting potential in the repair and engineering of nerve tissue.
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Ramier J, Bouderlique T, Stoilova O, Manolova N, Rashkov I, Langlois V, Renard E, Albanese P, Grande D. Biocomposite scaffolds based on electrospun poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) nanofibers and electrosprayed hydroxyapatite nanoparticles for bone tissue engineering applications. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2014; 38:161-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2014.01.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2013] [Revised: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/28/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Ramier J, Boubaker MB, Guerrouache M, Langlois V, Grande D, Renard E. Novel routes to epoxy functionalization of PHA-based electrospun scaffolds as ways to improve cell adhesion. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/pola.27063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julien Ramier
- Institut de Chimie et des Matériaux; UMR 7182 CNRS-Université Paris-Est Créteil, 2 rue Henri Dunant; 92340 Thiais France
| | - Meyssoun Ben Boubaker
- Institut de Chimie et des Matériaux; UMR 7182 CNRS-Université Paris-Est Créteil, 2 rue Henri Dunant; 92340 Thiais France
| | - Mohamed Guerrouache
- Institut de Chimie et des Matériaux; UMR 7182 CNRS-Université Paris-Est Créteil, 2 rue Henri Dunant; 92340 Thiais France
| | - Valérie Langlois
- Institut de Chimie et des Matériaux; UMR 7182 CNRS-Université Paris-Est Créteil, 2 rue Henri Dunant; 92340 Thiais France
| | - Daniel Grande
- Institut de Chimie et des Matériaux; UMR 7182 CNRS-Université Paris-Est Créteil, 2 rue Henri Dunant; 92340 Thiais France
| | - Estelle Renard
- Institut de Chimie et des Matériaux; UMR 7182 CNRS-Université Paris-Est Créteil, 2 rue Henri Dunant; 92340 Thiais France
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Volova T, Goncharov D, Sukovatyi A, Shabanov A, Nikolaeva E, Shishatskaya E. Electrospinning of polyhydroxyalkanoate fibrous scaffolds: effects on electrospinning parameters on structure and properties. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2013; 25:370-93. [DOI: 10.1080/09205063.2013.862400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Thadavirul N, Pavasant P, Supaphol P. Development of polycaprolactone porous scaffolds by combining solvent casting, particulate leaching, and polymer leaching techniques for bone tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res A 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Napapaphat Thadavirul
- The Petroleum and Petrochemical College and the Center of Excellence on Petrochemical and Materials Technology (PETROMAT); Chulalongkorn University; Bangkok 10330 Thailand
| | - Prasit Pavasant
- Department of Anatomy; Faculty of Dentistry; Chulalongkorn University; Bangkok 10330 Thailand
| | - Pitt Supaphol
- The Petroleum and Petrochemical College and the Center of Excellence on Petrochemical and Materials Technology (PETROMAT); Chulalongkorn University; Bangkok 10330 Thailand
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Cacciotti I, Calderone M, Bianco A. Tailoring the properties of electrospun PHBV mats: Co-solution blending and selective removal of PEO. Eur Polym J 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2013.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Correia DM, Ribeiro C, Ferreira JC, Botelho G, Ribelles JLG, Lanceros-Méndez S, Sencadas V. Influence of electrospinning parameters on poly(hydroxybutyrate) electrospun membranes fiber size and distribution. POLYM ENG SCI 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/pen.23704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela M. Correia
- Centro/Departamento de Física da Universidade do Minho; Campus de Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
- Department of Química; Centro de Química, Universidade do Minho; Campus de Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
| | - Clarisse Ribeiro
- Centro/Departamento de Física da Universidade do Minho; Campus de Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
| | - José C.C. Ferreira
- Centro/Departamento de Física da Universidade do Minho; Campus de Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
| | - Gabriela Botelho
- Department of Química; Centro de Química, Universidade do Minho; Campus de Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
| | - José Luis Gomez Ribelles
- Center for Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering; Universitat Politècnica de València; Camino de Vera s/n 46022 Valencia Spain
- Ciber en Bioingeniería; Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN); Valencia Spain
| | - Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez
- Centro/Departamento de Física da Universidade do Minho; Campus de Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
| | - Vitor Sencadas
- Centro/Departamento de Física da Universidade do Minho; Campus de Gualtar 4710-057 Braga Portugal
- Escola Superior de Tecnologia; Instituto Politécnico do Cávado e do Ave; Campus do IPCA 4750-810 Barcelos Portugal
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Nagiah N, Madhavi L, Anitha R, Anandan C, Srinivasan NT, Sivagnanam UT. Development and characterization of coaxially electrospun gelatin coated poly (3-hydroxybutyric acid) thin films as potential scaffolds for skin regeneration. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2013; 33:4444-52. [PMID: 23910364 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2013.06.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2013] [Revised: 05/25/2013] [Accepted: 06/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The morphology of fibers synthesized through electrospinning has been found to mimic extracellular matrix. Coaxially electrospun fibers of gelatin (sheath) coated poly (3-hydroxybutyric acid) (PHB) (core) was developed using 2,2,2 trifluoroethanol(TFE) and 1,1,1,3,3,3 hexafluoro-2-propanol(HFIP) as solvents respectively. The coaxial structure and coating of gelatin with PHB fibers was confirmed through transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Thermal stability of the coaxially electrospun fibers was analyzed using thermogravimetric analysis(TGA), differential scanning calorimetry(DSC) and differential thermogravimetric analysis(DTA). Complete evaporation of solvent and gelatin grafting over PHB fibers was confirmed through attenuated total reflection-Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). The coaxially electrospun fibers exhibited competent tensile properties for skin regeneration with high surface area and porosity. In vitro degradation studies proved the stability of fibers and its potential applications in tissue engineering. The fibers supported the growth of human dermal fibroblasts and keratinocytes with normal morphology indicating its potential as a scaffold for skin regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naveen Nagiah
- Bioproducts Lab, Central Leather Research Institute, Adyar, Chennai, India
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Moroni L, Nandakumar A, de Groot FB, van Blitterswijk CA, Habibovic P. Plug and play: combining materials and technologies to improve bone regenerative strategies. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2013; 9:745-59. [PMID: 23671062 DOI: 10.1002/term.1762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Revised: 02/12/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Despite recent advances in the development of biomaterials intended to replace natural bone grafts for the regeneration of large, clinically relevant defects, most synthetic solutions that are currently applied in the clinic are still inferior to natural bone grafts with regard to regenerative potential and are limited to non-weight-bearing applications. From a materials science perspective, we always face the conundrum of the preservation of bioactivity of calcium phosphate ceramics in spite of better mechanical and handling properties and processability of polymers. Composites have long been investigated as a method to marry these critical properties for the successful regeneration of bone and, indeed, have shown a significant improvement when used in combination with cells or growth factors. However, when looking at this approach from a clinical and regulatory perspective, the use of cells or biologicals prolongs the path of new treatments from the bench to the bedside. Applying 'smart' synthetic materials alone poses the fascinating challenge of instructing tissue regeneration in situ, thereby tremendously facilitating clinical translation. In the journey to make this possible, and with the aim of adding up the advantages of different biomaterials, combinations of fabrication technologies arise as a new strategy for generating instructive three-dimensional (3D) constructs for bone regeneration. Here we provide a review of recent technologies and approaches to create such constructs and give our perspective on how combinations of technologies and materials can help in obtaining more functional bone regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Moroni
- Department of Tissue Regeneration, Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine (MIRA), University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Anandkumar Nandakumar
- Department of Tissue Regeneration, Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine (MIRA), University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | | | - Clemens A van Blitterswijk
- Department of Tissue Regeneration, Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine (MIRA), University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Pamela Habibovic
- Department of Tissue Regeneration, Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine (MIRA), University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
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Wang X, Schröder HC, Feng Q, Draenert F, Müller WEG. The deep-sea natural products, biogenic polyphosphate (Bio-PolyP) and biogenic silica (Bio-Silica), as biomimetic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: fabrication of a morphogenetically-active polymer. Mar Drugs 2013; 11:718-46. [PMID: 23528950 PMCID: PMC3705367 DOI: 10.3390/md11030718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Revised: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone defects in human, caused by fractures/nonunions or trauma, gain increasing impact and have become a medical challenge in the present-day aging population. Frequently, those fractures require surgical intervention which ideally relies on autografts or suboptimally on allografts. Therefore, it is pressing and likewise challenging to develop bone substitution materials to heal bone defects. During the differentiation of osteoblasts from their mesenchymal progenitor/stem cells and of osteoclasts from their hemopoietic precursor cells, a lineage-specific release of growth factors and a trans-lineage homeostatic cross-talk via signaling molecules take place. Hence, the major hurdle is to fabricate a template that is functioning in a way mimicking the morphogenetic, inductive role(s) of the native extracellular matrix. In the last few years, two naturally occurring polymers that are produced by deep-sea sponges, the biogenic polyphosphate (bio-polyP) and biogenic silica (bio-silica) have also been identified as promoting morphogenetic on both osteoblasts and osteoclasts. These polymers elicit cytokines that affect bone mineralization (hydroxyapatite formation). In this manner, bio-silica and bio-polyP cause an increased release of BMP-2, the key mediator activating the anabolic arm of the hydroxyapatite forming cells, and of RANKL. In addition, bio-polyP inhibits the progression of the pre-osteoclasts to functionally active osteoclasts. Based on these findings, new bioinspired strategies for the fabrication of bone biomimetic templates have been developed applying 3D-printing techniques. Finally, a strategy is outlined by which these two morphogenetically active polymers might be used to develop a novel functionally active polymer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohong Wang
- ERC Advanced Investigator Grant Research Group at Institute for Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Duesbergweg 6, D-55128 Mainz, Germany; E-Mail:
- National Research Center for Geoanalysis, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, 26 Baiwanzhuang Dajie, 100037 Beijing, China
| | - Heinz C. Schröder
- ERC Advanced Investigator Grant Research Group at Institute for Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Duesbergweg 6, D-55128 Mainz, Germany; E-Mail:
| | - Qingling Feng
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China; E-Mail:
| | - Florian Draenert
- Department and Clinic for Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Baldingerstraße, D-35033 Marburg, Germany; E-Mail:
| | - Werner E. G. Müller
- ERC Advanced Investigator Grant Research Group at Institute for Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Duesbergweg 6, D-55128 Mainz, Germany; E-Mail:
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Masaeli E, Morshed M, Nasr-Esfahani MH, Sadri S, Hilderink J, van Apeldoorn A, van Blitterswijk CA, Moroni L. Fabrication, characterization and cellular compatibility of poly(hydroxy alkanoate) composite nanofibrous scaffolds for nerve tissue engineering. PLoS One 2013; 8:e57157. [PMID: 23468923 PMCID: PMC3584130 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2012] [Accepted: 01/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue engineering techniques using a combination of polymeric scaffolds and cells represent a promising approach for nerve regeneration. We fabricated electrospun scaffolds by blending of Poly (3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and Poly (3-hydroxy butyrate-co-3- hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) in different compositions in order to investigate their potential for the regeneration of the myelinic membrane. The thermal properties of the nanofibrous blends was analyzed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), which indicated that the melting and glass temperatures, and crystallization degree of the blends decreased as the PHBV weight ratio increased. Raman spectroscopy also revealed that the full width at half height of the band centered at 1725 cm(-1) can be used to estimate the crystalline degree of the electrospun meshes. Random and aligned nanofibrous scaffolds were also fabricated by electrospinning of PHB and PHBV with or without type I collagen. The influence of blend composition, fiber alignment and collagen incorporation on Schwann cell (SCs) organization and function was investigated. SCs attached and proliferated over all scaffolds formulations up to 14 days. SCs grown on aligned PHB/PHBV/collagen fibers exhibited a bipolar morphology that oriented along the fiber direction, while SCs grown on the randomly oriented fibers had a multipolar morphology. Incorporation of collagen within nanofibers increased SCs proliferation on day 14, GDNF gene expression on day 7 and NGF secretion on day 6. The results of this study demonstrate that aligned PHB/PHBV electrospun nanofibers could find potential use as scaffolds for nerve tissue engineering applications and that the presence of type I collagen in the nanofibers improves cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elahe Masaeli
- Department of Textile Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Biotechnology, ACECR, Isfahan, Iran
- Department of Tissue Regeneration, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Mohammad Morshed
- Department of Textile Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hossein Nasr-Esfahani
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Biotechnology, ACECR, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Saeid Sadri
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Janneke Hilderink
- Department of Tissue Regeneration, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Aart van Apeldoorn
- Department of Tissue Regeneration, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | | | - Lorenzo Moroni
- Department of Tissue Regeneration, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
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70
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Liu W, Wei J, Chen Y, Huo P, Wei Y. Electrospinning of poly(L-lactide) nanofibers encapsulated with water-soluble fullerenes for bioimaging application. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2013; 5:680-685. [PMID: 23327807 DOI: 10.1021/am400037s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Photoluminescent fullerene nanoparticles/nanofibers have potential applications in bioimaging. A novel fluorescent nanofibrous material, consisting of fullerene nanoparticles and poly(L-lactide) (PLLA), was fabricated via a simple electrospinning method, and the composite nanofibers were characterized by various techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The nanofibers were uniform, and their surfaces were reasonably smooth, with the average diameters of fibers ranging from 300 to 600 nm. The fullerene nanoparticles were encapsulated within the composite nanofibers, forming a core-shell structure. The nanofiber scaffolds showed excellent hydrophilic surface due to the addition of water-soluble fullerene nanoparticles. The composite nanofibers used as substrates for bioimaging in vitro were evaluated with human liver carcinoma HepG2 cells, the fullerene nanoparticles signal almost displayed in every cell, implying the potential of fluorescent fullerene nanoparticles/PLLA nanofibers to be used as scaffolds for bioimaging application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanyun Liu
- Department of Chemistry/Institute of Polymers, Nanchang University, 999 Xuefu Avenue, Nanchang 330031, China
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71
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Inorganic Polymers: Morphogenic Inorganic Biopolymers for Rapid Prototyping Chain. BIOMEDICAL INORGANIC POLYMERS 2013; 54:235-59. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-41004-8_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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72
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Bianco A, Calderone M, Cacciotti I. Electrospun PHBV/PEO co-solution blends: microstructure, thermal and mechanical properties. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2012; 33:1067-77. [PMID: 23827544 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2012.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2012] [Revised: 10/26/2012] [Accepted: 11/16/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Blending allows to tailor and modulate the properties of selected polymers. Blends of poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) and polyethylene oxide (PEO) were fabricated by electrospinning in different weight ratios i.e. 100:0, 80:20, 70:30, 50:50, 0:100. In order to evaluate the influence of PEO addition on the final properties of PHBV, a complete microstructural, thermal and mechanical characterization of PHBV/PEO blends has been performed. The two neat polymeric membranes were also considered for the sake of comparison. The following characterization techniques were employed: scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), Fourier transform infrared attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR) spectroscopy, simultaneous thermogravimetric and differential analyses (TG-DTA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and uniaxial tensile tests. All electrospun mats consisted of randomly oriented and uniform fibers. It has been observed that the microstructure of PHBV/PEO was remarkably affected by blend composition. The average fiber size ranged between 0.5 μm and 2.6 μm. It resulted that the electrospun polymeric blends consisted of separate crystalline domains associated to an amorphous interdisperse phase. PHBV/PEO blends presented intermediate mechanical properties, in terms of tensile modulus and ultimate tensile stress, with respect to the two neat components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Bianco
- University of Rome Tor Vergata, Department of Industrial Engineering, INSTM RU Tor Vergata, Via del Politecnico,1 00133-Rome, Italy
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73
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Veleirinho B, Coelho DS, Dias PF, Maraschin M, Ribeiro-do-Valle RM, Lopes-da-Silva JA. Nanofibrous poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)/chitosan scaffolds for skin regeneration. Int J Biol Macromol 2012; 51:343-50. [PMID: 22652216 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2012.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2012] [Revised: 05/11/2012] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate hybrid poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)/chitosan nanofibrous mats as scaffolds for skin engineering. In vitro studies were carried out to test the potential of the scaffolds for fibroblasts adhesion, viability, and proliferation (L929 cell line). The in vivo performance was also studied in a full-thickness wound healing model. PHBV/chitosan 4:1 (w/w) exhibited a higher in vitro biocompatibility and a better ability for cell adhesion and growth, compared to PHBV/chitosan 2:3 (w/w). The in vivo assay also revealed the better performance of this scaffold, improving the wound healing process in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Veleirinho
- QOPNA Research Unit, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
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74
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Tong HW, Wang M, Lu WW. Electrospinning and Evaluation of PHBV-Based Tissue Engineering Scaffolds with Different Fibre Diameters, Surface Topography and Compositions. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2012; 23:779-806. [DOI: 10.1163/092050611x560708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ho-Wang Tong
- a Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
| | - Min Wang
- b Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong.
| | - William W. Lu
- c Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Sassoon Road, Hong Kong
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75
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Masaeli E, Morshed M, Rasekhian P, Karbasi S, Karbalaie K, Karamali F, Abedi D, Razavi S, Jafarian-Dehkordi A, Nasr-Esfahani MH, Baharvand H. Does the tissue engineering architecture of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) scaffold affects cell-material interactions? J Biomed Mater Res A 2012; 100:1907-18. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.34131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2012] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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76
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Wang A, Gan Y, Yu H, Liu Y, Zhang M, Cheng B, Wang F, Wang H, Yan J. Improvement of the cytocompatibility of electrospun poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-(R)-3-hydroxyvalerate] mats by Ecoflex. J Biomed Mater Res A 2012; 100:1505-11. [PMID: 22408070 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.34034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2011] [Accepted: 11/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-(R)-3-hydroxyvalerate] (PHBV) is a nature-derived polyester with potential application in tissue engineering scaffolds. However, PHBV is associated with disadvantages including high brittleness, slow degradation, high hydrophobicity, and unsatisfactory biocompatibility. In this study, we sought to improve the properties of PHBV by blending it with Ecoflex, a synthetic biopolyester with a high flexibility, fast degradation, and comparatively higher hydrophilicity. PHBV was codissolved with Ecoflex in dichloromethane at different mass ratios (PHBV/Ecoflex: 100/0, 70/30, 50/50, and 30/70) and electrospun into mats. Compared with the pure PHBV mat, the Ecoflex-containing mats showed decreased contact angles with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), accelerated weight loss in PBS, and increased strain at break with increasing Ecoflex mass ratios. In vitro cell culture also showed significantly improved adhesion and proliferation of human bone marrow stroma cells with the introduction of Ecoflex. Blending PHBV with Ecoflex is a simple and effective method to improve the chemical, mechanical, and biological properties of PHBV simultaneously and thereby to expedite its application in tissue engineering. To our knowledge, this is the first report showing the biocompatibility of Ecoflex-containing materials with human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anhui Wang
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Military Preventive Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, People's Republic of China
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77
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Meng ZX, Zeng QT, Sun ZZ, Xu XX, Wang YS, Zheng W, Zheng YF. Immobilizing natural macromolecule on PLGA electrospun nanofiber with surface entrapment and entrapment-graft techniques. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2012; 94:44-50. [PMID: 22326650 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2012.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2011] [Revised: 12/30/2011] [Accepted: 01/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Surface entrapment is a convenient method to immobilize the natural macromolecules on the surface of synthetic polymers. In this study, the gelatin modified and sodium alginate/gelatin modified PLGA nanofibrous membranes were fabricated via surface entrapment and entrapment-graft techniques. The surface morphology of the each single modified PLGA nanofiber was as smooth as that of untreated PLGA nanofibers. The results of water angle contact measurements and tensile tests showed that the surface entrapment cannot only improve the hydrophilicity but also enhance mechanical properties of the modified nanofibrous membranes. In addition, the sodium alginate/gelatin modified electrospun PLGA nanofibrous membrane exhibited higher hydrophilicity and better biocompatibility than the simply gelatin modified PLGA nanofibrous membrane, which suggested the surface entrapment is a facile and efficient approach to surface modification for electrospun nanofibours membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z X Meng
- Center for Biomedical Materials and Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China
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78
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Lü LX, Wang YY, Mao X, Xiao ZD, Huang NP. The effects of PHBV electrospun fibers with different diameters and orientations on growth behavior of bone-marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Biomed Mater 2012; 7:015002. [PMID: 22262727 DOI: 10.1088/1748-6041/7/1/015002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Microenvironments in which cells live play an important role in the attachment, growth and interactions of cells. To mimic the natural structure of extracellular matrices, electrospinning was applied to fabricate biomaterials into ultrafine fibers. Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV), a biocompatible and biodegradable polyester, has been shown to be an excellent biomaterial candidate for tissue engineering. In this study, five types of PHBV fibrous scaffolds with different diameters and orientations were obtained by changing solvents, concentration of electrospun solution and collector. Three kinds of scaffolds with good continuity and suitable mechanical properties, selected according to the morphology and mechanical properties of the scaffolds, were used for studying the influence of fiber diameter and orientation on growth behavior of bone-marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). The results indicated that the random-oriented nanofibrous scaffold is most favorable for cell growth compared to other scaffolds, while the microfibrous scaffold resulted in the lowest viability of MSCs. The orientation of nanofibers showed a distinct effect on cell morphology by guiding cell skeleton extension. Both the random-oriented and aligned PHBV nanofibrous scaffolds showed to be good candidates for applications in tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan-Xin Lü
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
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79
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Zhijiang C, Chengwei H, Guang Y. Poly(3-hydroxubutyrate-co-4-hydroxubutyrate)/bacterial cellulose composite porous scaffold: Preparation, characterization and biocompatibility evaluation. Carbohydr Polym 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.08.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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80
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K-hasuwan PR, Pavasant P, Supaphol P. Effect of the surface topography of electrospun poly(ε-caprolactone)/poly(3-hydroxybuterate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) fibrous substrates on cultured bone cell behavior. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2011; 27:10938-10946. [PMID: 21790199 DOI: 10.1021/la202255w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The use of electrospun fibrous matrices as substrates for cell/tissue culture has usually been confined to those consisting of smooth fibers. Here, we demonstrated that in vitro responses of mouse-calvaria-derived preosteoblastic cells (MC3T3-E1) that had been cultured on electrospun fibrous substrates made from blend solutions of 50/50 w/w poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) of varying concentrations, ranging from 4 to 14 wt %, depended strongly on the topography of the individual fibers. As the concentration of the blend solutions increased from 4 to 14 wt %, the topography of the individual fibers changed from discrete beads/smooth fibers to beaded fibers/smooth fibers and finally to smooth fibers, and the average diameter of the individual, smooth fibers increased from ∼0.4 to ∼1.8 μm. The results clearly showed that MC3T3-E1 preferred the smooth hydrophilic surface of the fibrous substrate from 10 wt % PCL/PHBV solution because the cells appeared to attach, proliferate, and differentiate on the surface of this substrate particularly well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prae-ravee K-hasuwan
- The Petroleum and Petrochemical College, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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81
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Yu BY, Chen PY, Sun YM, Lee YT, Young TH. Response of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) to the topographic variation of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) (PHBHHx) films. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2011; 23:1-26. [PMID: 21762548 DOI: 10.1163/092050610x541386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The influence of the topographic morphology of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) (PHBHHx) films on human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) was investigated in this study. PHBHHx films with various surface characteristics were prepared by compression-molding, solvent-casting and electrospinning. The adhesion, proliferation and differentiation behaviors of hMSCs were significantly modulated by the surface characteristics of these films. HMSCs could aggregate and form cellular clusters on the cast PHBHHx films, and the time to form cellular aggregates increased as the surface roughness increased. The aggregated hMSCs on the cast films kept their original surface markers and presented much higher viability during the regular culture and lower differentiation ability upon osteogenic induction than the spread cells on the compression-molded films and TCPS. HMSCs spread well and showed a specific orientation on the surface of the random electrospun fibrous films, they were not able to migrate into the interior of electrospun fibrous films, and they revealed the highest viability during the regular culture but a lower differentiation activity upon osteogenic induction. The electrospun fibrous PHBHHx films could serve as a suitable substrate for large quantity culturing of hMSCs when undifferentiated hMSCs are desired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-Yi Yu
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Yuan Ze University, Chung-Li, Taoyuan, Taiwan 320, Republic of China
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82
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Wang YY, Lü LX, Shi JC, Wang HF, Xiao ZD, Huang NP. Introducing RGD Peptides on PHBV Films through PEG-Containing Cross-Linkers to Improve the Biocompatibility. Biomacromolecules 2011; 12:551-9. [DOI: 10.1021/bm100886w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Yan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, P.R. China
| | - Lan-Xin Lü
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, P.R. China
| | - Jun-Cai Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, P.R. China
| | - Hai-Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, P.R. China
| | - Zhong-Dang Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, P.R. China
| | - Ning-Ping Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, P.R. China
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83
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Liang Y, Qiao Y, Guo S, Wang L, Zhai Y, Xie C, Hu R, Deng L, Dong A. Investigation on injectable, thermally and physically gelable poly(ethylene glycol)/poly(octadecanedioic anhydride) amphiphilic triblock co-polymer nanoparticles. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2011; 23:465-82. [PMID: 21294968 DOI: 10.1163/092050610x552230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A family of injectable, biodegradable and thermosensitive co-polymer nanoparticle (NP) hydrogels based on mPEG-b-POA-b-mPEG, which was synthesized from mono-methoxy poly(ethylene glycol) (mPEG) and poly(octadecanedioic anhydride) (POA), was investigated in this paper. It was found that the aqueous dispersions of these NPs underwent a reversible gel-sol transition upon temperature change. By using paclitaxel and Bovine serum albumin (BSA) as model drugs, we noticed that the in vitro releases of both in situ gel-forming formulations were sustained and no initial burst releases were observed for 7 days. In vitro cytotoxicity tests via MTT assay indicate that mPEG-b-POA-b-mPEG NPs are non-toxic to normal mouse lung fibroblast cells (L929). The in vivo hydrogel formation and in vivo biocompatibility of co-polymer NP hydrogel were also investigated and the results further validate the biocompatible nature of co-polymer NP hydrogel. In conclusion, our mPEG-b-POA-b-mPEG NP hydrogel is able to control the release of incorporated drug for longer duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqin Liang
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, P. R. China
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84
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Bang SH, Kim TH, Lee HY, Shin US, Kim HW. Nanofibrous-structured biopolymer scaffolds obtained by a phase separation with camphene and initial cellular events. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1039/c0jm03108a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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85
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Wu XM, Branford-White CJ, Yu DG, Chatterton NP, Zhu LM. Preparation of core-shell PAN nanofibers encapsulated α-tocopherol acetate and ascorbic acid 2-phosphate for photoprotection. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2011; 82:247-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.08.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2010] [Revised: 08/21/2010] [Accepted: 08/31/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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86
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Meng J, Zhang Y, Qi X, Kong H, Wang C, Xu Z, Xie S, Gu N, Xu H. Paramagnetic nanofibrous composite films enhance the osteogenic responses of pre-osteoblast cells. NANOSCALE 2010; 2:2565-9. [PMID: 20949222 DOI: 10.1039/c0nr00178c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
In this work, a paramagnetic nanofibrous composite film was fabricated with poly lactide, hydroxyapatite and γ-Fe(2)0(3) nanoparticles using the electrospinning technique. The composite film significantly enhanced the proliferation, differentiation and ECM secretion of the osteoblast cells under a static magnetic field, which offers promising application potentials in bone tissue engineering and bone regeneration therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Meng
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
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87
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Asran AS, Razghandi K, Aggarwal N, Michler GH, Groth T. Nanofibers from blends of polyvinyl alcohol and polyhydroxy butyrate as potential scaffold material for tissue engineering of skin. Biomacromolecules 2010; 11:3413-21. [PMID: 21090703 DOI: 10.1021/bm100912v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Nanofibers were prepared by electrospinning from pure polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), and their blends. Miscibility and morphology of both polymers in the nanofiber blends were studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), revealing that PVA and PHB were miscible with good compatibility. DSC also revealed suppression of crystallinity of PHB in the blend nanofibers with increasing proportion of PVA. The hydrolytic degradation of PHB was accelerated with increasing PVA fraction. Cell culture experiments with a human keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT) and dermal fibroblast on the electrospun PHB and PVA/PHB blend nanofibers showed maximum adhesion and proliferation on pure PHB. However, the addition of 5 wt % PVA to PHB inhibited growth of HaCaT cells but not of fibroblasts. On the contrary, adhesion and proliferation of HaCaT cells were promoted on PVA/PHB (50/50) fibers, which inhibited growth of fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashraf Sh Asran
- Institute of Physics, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, von Danckelmann Platz 3, D-06099 Halle/S., Germany.
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88
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Tuzlakoglu K, Santos MI, Neves N, Reis RL. Design of nano- and microfiber combined scaffolds by electrospinning of collagen onto starch-based fiber meshes: a man-made equivalent of natural extracellular matrix. Tissue Eng Part A 2010; 17:463-73. [PMID: 20825361 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2010.0178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mimicking the structural organization and biologic function of natural extracellular matrix has been one of the main goals of tissue engineering. Nevertheless, the majority of scaffolding materials for bone regeneration highlights biochemical functionality in detriment of mechanical properties. In this work we present a rather innovative construct that combines in the same structure electrospun type I collagen nanofibers with starch-based microfibers. These combined structures were obtained by a two-step methodology and structurally consist in a type I collagen nano-network incorporated on a macro starch-based support. The morphology of the developed structures was assessed by several microscopy techniques and the collagenous nature of the nano-network was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. In addition, and especially regarding the requirements of large bone defects, we also successfully introduced the concept of layer by layer, as a way to produce thicker structures. In an attempt to recreate bone microenvironment, the design and biochemical composition of the combined structures also envisioned bone-forming cells and endothelial cells (ECs). The inclusion of a type I collagen nano-network induced a stretched morphology and improved the metabolic activity of osteoblasts. Regarding ECs, the presence of type I collagen on the combined structures provided adhesive support and obviated the need of precoating with fibronectin. It was also importantly observed that ECs on the nano-network organized into circular structures, a three-dimensional arrangement distinct from that observed for osteoblasts and resembling the microcappillary-like organizations formed during angiogenesis. By providing simultaneously physical and chemical cues for cells, the herein-proposed combined structures hold a great potential in bone regeneration as a man-made equivalent of extracellular matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kadriye Tuzlakoglu
- 3B's Research Group-Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal.
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89
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Heidarkhan Tehrani A, Zadhoush A, Karbasi S, Sadeghi-Aliabadi H. Scaffold percolative efficiency: in vitro evaluation of the structural criterion for electrospun mats. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2010; 21:2989-2998. [PMID: 20803238 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-010-4149-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2010] [Accepted: 08/06/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Fibrous scaffolds of engineered structures can be chosen as promising porous environments when an approved criterion validates their applicability for a specific medical purpose. For such biomaterials, this paper sought to investigate various structural characteristics in order to determine whether they are appropriate descriptors. A number of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) scaffolds were electrospun; each of which possessed a distinguished architecture when their material and processing conditions were altered. Subsequent culture of mouse fibroblast cells (L929) was carried out to evaluate the cells viability on each scaffold after their attachment for 24 h and proliferation for 48 and 72 h. The scaffolds' porosity, pores number, pores size and distribution were quantified and none could establish a relationship with the viability results. Virtual reconstruction of the mats introduced an authentic criterion, "Scaffold Percolative Efficiency" (SPE), with which the above descriptors were addressed collectively. It was hypothesized to be able to quantify the efficacy of fibrous scaffolds by considering the integration of porosity and interconnectivity of the pores. There was a correlation of 80% as a good agreement between the SPE values and the spectrophotometer absorbance of viable cells; a viability of more than 350% in comparison to that of the controls.
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90
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Tong HW, Wang M, Li ZY, Lu WW. Electrospinning, characterization and
in vitro
biological evaluation of nanocomposite fibers containing carbonated hydroxyapatite nanoparticles. Biomed Mater 2010; 5:054111. [DOI: 10.1088/1748-6041/5/5/054111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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91
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Tong HW, Wang M. Electrospinning of fibrous polymer scaffolds using positive voltage or negative voltage: a comparative study. Biomed Mater 2010; 5:054110. [DOI: 10.1088/1748-6041/5/5/054110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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92
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Wu XM, Branford-White CJ, Zhu LM, Chatterton NP, Yu DG. Ester prodrug-loaded electrospun cellulose acetate fiber mats as transdermal drug delivery systems. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2010; 21:2403-2411. [PMID: 20499138 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-010-4100-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2010] [Accepted: 05/11/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose acetate (CA) fibers loaded with the ester prodrugs of naproxen, including methyl ester, ethyl ester and isopropyl ester, were prepared through electrospinning using acetone/N,N-dimethylacetamide(DMAc)/ethanol (4:1:1, v/v/v) as solvent. The chemical and morphological characterizations of the medicated fibers were investigated by means of SEM, DSC, XRD and FTIR, as well as the studies of the drug release properties. The results indicated that the morphology and diameter of the fibers were influenced by the concentration of spinning solution, applied voltage, electrospun solvent and the surfactants. The average diameters of the fibers ranged between 100 and 500 nm for three prodrugs. There was good compatibility between CA and three prodrugs in the blended fibers, respectively. In vitro release indicated that constant drug release from the fiber was observed over 6 days. The prodrugs were successfully encapsulated into the fibers, and this system was stable in terms of effectiveness in release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-mei Wu
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Donghua University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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93
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Ma G, Yang D, Wang K, Han J, Ding S, Song G, Nie J. Organic-soluble chitosan/polyhydroxybutyrate ultrafine fibers as skin regeneration prepared by electrospinning. J Appl Polym Sci 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/app.32671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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94
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Tehrani AH, Zadhoush A, Karbasi S, Khorasani SN. Experimental investigation of the governing parameters in the electrospinning of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) scaffolds: Structural characteristics of the pores. J Appl Polym Sci 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/app.32620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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95
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Ma J, He X, Jabbari E. Osteogenic differentiation of marrow stromal cells on random and aligned electrospun poly(L-lactide) nanofibers. Ann Biomed Eng 2010; 39:14-25. [PMID: 20577811 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-010-0106-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2010] [Accepted: 06/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The fibrillar structure and sub-micron diameter of electrospun nanofibers can be used to reproduce the morphology and structure of the natural extracellular matrix (ECM). The objective of this work was to investigate the effect of fiber alignment on osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal (BMS) cells. Random and aligned poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) nanofibers were produced by collecting the spun fibers on a stationary plate and a rotating wheel, respectively, as the ground electrode. Morphology and alignment of the BMS cells seeded on the fibers were characterized by SEM. The effect of fiber orientation on osteogenic differentiation of BMS cells was determined by measuring alkaline phosphatase (ALPase) activity, calcium content, and mRNA expression levels of osteogenic markers. There was a strong correlation between the fiber and cell distributions for the random (p=0.16) and aligned (p=0.81) fibers. Percent deviation from ideal randomness (PDIR) values indicated that cells seeded on the random fibers (PDIR=6.5%) were likely to be distributed randomly in all directions while cells seeded on the aligned fibers (PDIR=86%) were highly likely to be aligned with the direction of fibers. BMS cell seeded on random and aligned fibers had similar cell count and ALPase activity with incubation time, but the calcium content on aligned fibers was significantly higher after 21 days compared to that of random fibers (p=0.003). Osteopontin (OP) and osteocalcin (OC) expression levels of BMS cells on fibers increased with incubation time. However, there was no difference between the expression levels of OP and OC on aligned vs. random fibers. The results indicate that BMS cells aligned in the direction of PLLA fibers to form long cell extensions, and fiber orientation affected the extent of mineralization, but it had no effect on cell proliferation or mRNA expression of osteogenic markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyu Ma
- Biomimetic Materials and Tissue Engineering Laboratories, Department of Chemical Engineering, Swearingen Engineering Center, Rm 2C11, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
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96
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Liang Y, Xiao L, Li Y, Zhai Y, Xie C, Deng L, Dong A. Poly(ester anhydride)/mPEG amphiphilic block co-polymer nanoparticles as delivery devices for paclitaxel. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2010; 22:701-15. [PMID: 20566053 DOI: 10.1163/092050610x490158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This work focused on the preparation and characterization of a novel amphiphilic block co-polymer and paclitaxel-loaded co-polymer nanoparticles (NPs) and in vitro evaluation of the release of paclitaxel and cytotoxicity of NPs. mPEG-b-P(OA-DLLA)-b-mPEG was prepared via melt polycondensation of methoxy poly(ethylene glycol) (mPEG), octadecanedioic acid (OA) and D,L-lactic acid (DLLA) and characterized by FT-IR, (1)H-NMR, (13)C-NMR, GPC, DSC and XRD. The paclitaxel-loaded mPEG-b-P(OA-DLLA)-b-mPEG NPs were prepared by nanoprecipitation and then characterized by LPSA, TEM and (1)H-NMR. In vitro release behaviors of the paclitaxel-loaded NPs were investigated by HPLC. In vitro cytotoxicity of NPs was evaluated by MTT assay with normal mouse lung fibroblast cells (L929) as model cells. The composition of mPEG-b-P(OA-DLLA)-b-mPEG is consistent with that of the designed co-polymer. The paclitaxel-loaded NPs are of spherical shape with core/shell structure and size smaller than 300 nm. Paclitaxel can be continuously released from the paclitaxel-loaded NPs and the in vitro release rate of paclitaxel decreases with increasing the content of the P(OA-DLLA) segments in the co-polymer. The mPEG-b-P(OA-DLLA)-b-mPEG NPs are non-toxic to L929. The results suggest that mPEG-b-P(OA-DLLA)-b-mPEG NPs are a potential candidate carrier material for the controlled delivery of paclitaxel and other hydrophobic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqin Liang
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
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97
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98
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Gagliardi M, Silvestri D, Cristallini C, Guadagni M, Crifaci G, Giusti P. Combined drug release from biodegradable bilayer coating for endovascular stents. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2010; 93:375-85. [PMID: 20119946 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.31592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
In this work, the characterization of a biodegradable bilayer system, used as controlled and combined drug delivery platform, is reported. For this aim, a bilayer system, composed of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) and poly(3-hydroxybutyric-co-3-hydroxyvaleric acid), was investigated under physicochemical and functional aspects by evaluating polymer/polymer and polymer/stent material interactions, the kinetic of in vitro degradation, and drug release properties, comparing results with the monolayer reference systems. Obtained results showed that the bilayer system allowed increasing the total amount of eluted Tacrolimus and Paclitaxel drugs with respect to the monolayer systems in the considered testing period and conditions. This evidence was associated to a faster degradation of the tested copolymers in the bilayered configuration, excluding a synergic effect of two drugs on delivery performance. In addition, a macromolecular relaxation process was identified to govern the PLX release from poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), whereas a pure Fickian diffusion occurred in the delivery of Tacrolimus from poly(3-hydroxybutyric-co-3-hydroxyvaleric acid).
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gagliardi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Industrial Chemistry and Materials Science, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.
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99
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Zahedi P, Rezaeian I, Ranaei-Siadat SO, Jafari SH, Supaphol P. A review on wound dressings with an emphasis on electrospun nanofibrous polymeric bandages. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.1625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 527] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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100
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Jang JH, Castano O, Kim HW. Electrospun materials as potential platforms for bone tissue engineering. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2009; 61:1065-83. [PMID: 19646493 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2009.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 303] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2008] [Accepted: 07/16/2009] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Nanofibrous materials produced by electrospinning processes have attracted considerable interest in tissue regeneration, including bone reconstruction. A range of novel materials and processing tools have been developed to mimic the native bone extracellular matrix for potential applications as tissue engineering scaffolds and ultimately to restore degenerated functions of the bone. Degradable polymers, bioactive inorganics and their nanocomposites/hybrids nanofibers with suitable mechanical properties and bone bioactivity for osteoblasts and progenitor/stem cells have been produced. The surface functionalization with apatite minerals and proteins/peptides as well as drug encapsulation within the nanofibers is a promising strategy for achieving therapeutic functions with nanofibrous materials. Recent attempts to endow a 3D scaffolding technique to the electrospinning regime have shown some promise for engineering 3D tissue constructs. With the improvement in knowledge and techniques of bone-targeted nanofibrous matrices, bone tissue engineering is expected to be realized in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Hyeog Jang
- Department of Biochemistry, Inha University College of Medicine, South Korea
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