RND transporters in the living world

Bacterial adaptation strategies to host-derived fatty acids

Fatty acids (FAs) are potent antimicrobials which hold great promise as viable alternatives or complements to conventional antibiotics. Intriguingly, bacteria are well equipped to use environmental FAs as energy sources and/or building blocks for their membrane lipids. Furthermore, these microbes display a wide array of mechanisms to prevent or mitigate FA toxicity. In this review we discuss strategies that bacteria use to thrive despite extensive exposure to host-derived antimicrobial FAs. We also highlight the altered response of these FA-adapted bacteria to antibiotics. Given the ubiquitous nature of FAs in various host environments, deciphering bacterial adaptation strategies to FAs is of prime importance. This knowledge may pave the way for a rational design of FA-based combination therapies with antibiotics.

Ever-Adapting RND Efflux Pumps in Gram-Negative Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens: A Race against Time

The rise in multidrug resistance (MDR) is one of the greatest threats to human health worldwide. MDR in bacterial pathogens is a major challenge in healthcare, as bacterial infections are becoming untreatable by commercially available antibiotics. One of the main causes of MDR is the over-expression of intrinsic and acquired multidrug efflux pumps, belonging to the resistance-nodulation-division (RND) superfamily, which can efflux a wide range of structurally different antibiotics. Besides over-expression, however, recent amino acid substitutions within the pumps themselves-causing an increased drug efflux efficiency-are causing additional worry. In this review, we take a closer look at clinically, environmentally and laboratory-evolved Gram-negative bacterial strains and their decreased drug sensitivity as a result of mutations directly in the RND-type pumps themselves (from Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii and Legionella pneumophila). We also focus on the evolution of the efflux pumps by comparing hundreds of efflux pumps to determine where conservation is concentrated and where differences in amino acids can shed light on the broad and even broadening drug recognition. Knowledge of conservation, as well as of novel gain-of-function efflux pump mutations, is essential for the development of novel antibiotics and efflux pump inhibitors.

Chimeric vaccine designs against Acinetobacter baumannii using pan genome and reverse vaccinology approaches

Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii), an opportunistic, gram-negative pathogen, has evoked the interest of the medical community throughout the world because of its ability to cause nosocomial infections, majorly infecting those in intensive care units. It has also drawn the attention of researchers due to its evolving immune evasion strategies and increased drug resistance. The emergence of multi-drug-resistant-strains has urged the need to explore novel therapeutic options as an alternative to antibiotics. Due to the upsurge in antibiotic resistance mechanisms exhibited by A. baumannii, the current therapeutic strategies are rendered less effective. The aim of this study is to explore novel therapeutic alternatives against A. baumannii to control the ailed infection. In this study, a computational framework is employed involving, pan genomics, subtractive proteomics and reverse vaccinology strategies to identify core promiscuous vaccine candidates. Two chimeric vaccine constructs having B-cell derived T-cell epitopes from prioritized vaccine candidates; APN, AdeK and AdeI have been designed and checked for their possible interactions with host BCR, TLRs and HLA Class I and II Superfamily alleles. These vaccine candidates can be experimentally validated and thus contribute to vaccine development against A. baumannii infections.

Mechanism and ultrasensitivity in Hedgehog signaling revealed by Patched1 disease mutations

Hedgehog signaling is fundamental in animal embryogenesis, and its dysregulation causes cancer and birth defects. The pathway is triggered when the Hedgehog ligand inhibits the Patched1 membrane receptor, relieving repression that Patched1 exerts on the GPCR-like protein Smoothened. While it is clear how loss-of-function Patched1 mutations cause hyperactive Hedgehog signaling and cancer, how other Patched1 mutations inhibit signaling remains unknown. Here, we develop quantitative single-cell functional assays for Patched1, which, together with mathematical modeling, indicate that Patched1 inhibits Smoothened enzymatically, operating in an ultrasensitive regime. Based on this analysis, we propose that Patched1 functions in cilia, catalyzing Smoothened deactivation by removing cholesterol bound to its extracellular, cysteine-rich domain. Patched1 mutants associated with holoprosencephaly dampen signaling by three mechanisms: reduced affinity for Hedgehog ligand, elevated catalytic activity, or elevated affinity for the Smoothened substrate. Our results clarify the enigmatic mechanism of Patched1 and explain how Patched1 mutations lead to birth defects.

Coordination of Substrate Binding and Protonation in the N. gonorrhoeae MtrD Efflux Pump Controls the Functionally Rotating Transport Mechanism

Multidrug resistance is a serious problem that threatens the effective treatment of the widespread sexually transmitted disease gonorrhea, caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. The drug efflux pump primarily implicated in N. gonorrhoeae antimicrobial resistance is the inner membrane transporter MtrD, which forms part of the tripartite multiple transferable resistance (Mtr) CDE efflux system. A structure of MtrD was first solved in 2014 as a symmetrical homotrimer, and then, recently, as an asymmetrical homotrimer. Through a series of molecular dynamics simulations and mutagenesis experiments, we identify the combination of substrate binding and protonation states of the proton relay network that drives the transition from the symmetric to the asymmetric conformation of MtrD. We characterize the allosteric coupling between the functionally important local regions that control conformational changes between the access, binding, and extrusion states and allow for transition to the asymmetric MtrD conformation. We also highlight a significant rotation of the transmembrane helices caused by protonation of the proton relay network, which widens the intermonomeric gap that is a hallmark of the rotational transporter mechanism. This is the first analysis and description of the transport mechanism for the N. gonorrhoeae MtrD transporter and provides evidence that antimicrobial efflux in MtrD follows the functionally rotating transport mechanism seen in protein homologues from the same transport protein superfamily.

Structural and Functional Diversity of Resistance-Nodulation-Cell Division Transporters

Multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria are a global threat with many common infections becoming increasingly difficult to eliminate. While significant effort has gone into the development of potent biocides, the effectiveness of many first-line antibiotics has been diminished due to adaptive resistance mechanisms. Bacterial membrane proteins belonging to the resistance-nodulation-cell division (RND) superfamily play significant roles in mediating bacterial resistance to antimicrobials. They participate in multidrug efflux and cell wall biogenesis to transform bacterial pathogens into "superbugs" that are resistant even to last resort antibiotics. In this review, we summarize the RND superfamily of efflux transporters with a primary focus on the assembly and function of the inner membrane pumps. These pumps are critical for extrusion of antibiotics from the cell as well as the transport of lipid moieties to the outer membrane to establish membrane rigidity and stability. We analyze recently solved structures of bacterial inner membrane efflux pumps as to how they bind and transport their substrates. Our cumulative data indicate that these RND membrane proteins are able to utilize different oligomerization states to achieve particular activities, including forming MDR pumps and cell wall remodeling machineries, to ensure bacterial survival. This mechanistic insight, combined with simulated docking techniques, allows for the design and optimization of new efflux pump inhibitors to more effectively treat infections that today are difficult or impossible to cure.

The Whole Is Bigger than the Sum of Its Parts: Drug Transport in the Context of Two Membranes with Active Efflux

Cell envelope plays a dual role in the life of bacteria by simultaneously protecting it from a hostile environment and facilitating access to beneficial molecules. At the heart of this ability lie the restrictive properties of the cellular membrane augmented by efflux transporters, which preclude intracellular penetration of most molecules except with the help of specialized uptake mediators. Recently, kinetic properties of the cell envelope came into focus driven on one hand by the urgent need in new antibiotics and, on the other hand, by experimental and theoretical advances in studies of transmembrane transport. A notable result from these studies is the development of a kinetic formalism that integrates the Michaelis-Menten behavior of individual transporters with transmembrane diffusion and offers a quantitative basis for the analysis of intracellular penetration of bioactive compounds. This review surveys key experimental and computational approaches to the investigation of transport by individual translocators and in whole cells, summarizes key findings from these studies and outlines implications for antibiotic discovery. Special emphasis is placed on Gram-negative bacteria, whose envelope contains two separate membranes. This feature sets these organisms apart from Gram-positive bacteria and eukaryotic cells by providing them with full benefits of the synergy between slow transmembrane diffusion and active efflux.

Structure, Assembly, and Function of Tripartite Efflux and Type 1 Secretion Systems in Gram-Negative Bacteria

Tripartite efflux pumps and the related type 1 secretion systems (T1SSs) in Gram-negative organisms are diverse in function, energization, and structural organization. They form continuous conduits spanning both the inner and the outer membrane and are composed of three principal components-the energized inner membrane transporters (belonging to ABC, RND, and MFS families), the outer membrane factor channel-like proteins, and linking the two, the periplasmic adaptor proteins (PAPs), also known as the membrane fusion proteins (MFPs). In this review we summarize the recent advances in understanding of structural biology, function, and regulation of these systems, highlighting the previously undescribed role of PAPs in providing a common architectural scaffold across diverse families of transporters. Despite being built from a limited number of basic structural domains, these complexes present a staggering variety of architectures. While key insights have been derived from the RND transporter systems, a closer inspection of the operation and structural organization of different tripartite systems reveals unexpected analogies between them, including those formed around MFS- and ATP-driven transporters, suggesting that they operate around basic common principles. Based on that we are proposing a new integrated model of PAP-mediated communication within the conformational cycling of tripartite systems, which could be expanded to other types of assemblies.

Insights on Cadmium Removal by Bioremediation: The Case of Haloarchaea

Although heavy metals are naturally found in the environment as components of the earth’s crust, environmental pollution by these toxic elements has increased since the industrial revolution. Some of them can be considered essential, since they play regulatory roles in different biological processes; but the role of other heavy metals in living tissues is not clear, and once ingested they can accumulate in the organism for long periods of time causing adverse health effects. To mitigate this problem, different methods have been used to remove heavy metals from water and soil, such as chelation-based processes. However, techniques like bioremediation are leaving these conventional methodologies in the background for being more effective and eco-friendlier. Recently, different research lines have been promoted, in which several organisms have been used for bioremediation approaches. Within this context, the extremophilic microorganisms represent one of the best tools for the treatment of contaminated sites due to the biochemical and molecular properties they show. Furthermore, since it is estimated that 5% of industrial effluents are saline and hypersaline, halophilic microorganisms have been suggested as good candidates for bioremediation and treatment of this kind of samples. These microorganisms, and specifically the haloarchaea group, are of interest to design strategies aiming the removal of polluting compounds due to the efficiency of their metabolism under extreme conditions and their significant tolerance to highly toxic compounds such as heavy metals, bromate, nitrite, chlorate, or perchlorate ions. However, there are still few trials that have proven the bioremediation of environments contaminated with heavy metals using these microorganisms. This review analyses scientific literature focused on metabolic capabilities of haloarchaea that may allow these microbes to tolerate and eliminate heavy metals from the media, paying special attention to cadmium. Thus, this work will shed light on potential uses of haloarchaea in bioremediation of soils and waters negatively affected by heavy metals, and more specifically by cadmium.

Comparative population genomic analyses of transporters within the Asgard archaeal superphylum

Upon discovery of the first archaeal species in the 1970s, life has been subdivided into three domains: Eukarya, Archaea, and Bacteria. However, the organization of the three-domain tree of life has been challenged following the discovery of archaeal lineages such as the TACK and Asgard superphyla. The Asgard Superphylum has emerged as the closest archaeal ancestor to eukaryotes, potentially improving our understanding of the evolution of life forms. We characterized the transportomes and their substrates within four metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs), that is, Odin-, Thor-, Heimdall- and Loki-archaeota as well as the fully sequenced genome of Candidatus Prometheoarchaeum syntrophicum strain MK-D1 that belongs to the Loki phylum. Using the Transporter Classification Database (TCDB) as reference, candidate transporters encoded within the proteomes were identified based on sequence similarity, alignment coverage, compatibility of hydropathy profiles, TMS topologies and shared domains. Identified transport systems were compared within the Asgard superphylum as well as within dissimilar eukaryotic, archaeal and bacterial organisms. From these analyses, we infer that Asgard organisms rely mostly on the transport of substrates driven by the proton motive force (pmf), the proton electrochemical gradient which then can be used for ATP production and to drive the activities of secondary carriers. The results indicate that Asgard archaea depend heavily on the uptake of organic molecules such as lipid precursors, amino acids and their derivatives, and sugars and their derivatives. Overall, the majority of the transporters identified are more similar to prokaryotic transporters than eukaryotic systems although several instances of the reverse were documented. Taken together, the results support the previous suggestions that the Asgard superphylum includes organisms that are largely mixotrophic and anaerobic but more clearly define their metabolic potential while providing evidence regarding their relatedness to eukaryotes.

Physiological Functions of Bacterial "Multidrug" Efflux Pumps

Bacterial multidrug efflux pumps have come to prominence in human and veterinary pathogenesis because they help bacteria protect themselves against the antimicrobials used to overcome their infections. However, it is increasingly realized that many, probably most, such pumps have physiological roles that are distinct from protection of bacteria against antimicrobials administered by humans. Here we undertake a broad survey of the proteins involved, allied to detailed examples of their evolution, energetics, structures, chemical recognition, and molecular mechanisms, together with the experimental strategies that enable rapid and economical progress in understanding their true physiological roles. Once these roles are established, the knowledge can be harnessed to design more effective drugs, improve existing microbial production of drugs for clinical practice and of feedstocks for commercial exploitation, and even develop more sustainable biological processes that avoid, for example, utilization of petroleum.

Cryo-EM as a tool to study bacterial efflux systems and the membrane proteome

Antibiotic resistance is an emerging threat to global health. Current treatment regimens for these types of bacterial infections are becoming increasingly inadequate. Thus, new innovative technologies are needed to help identify and characterize novel drugs and drug targets which are critical in order to combat multidrug-resistant bacterial strains. Bacterial efflux systems have emerged as an attractive target for drug design, as blocking their export function significantly increases the potency of administered antibiotics. However, in order to develop potent and tolerable efflux pump inhibitors with high efficacy, detailed structural information is required for both the apo- and substrate-bound forms of these membrane proteins. The emergence of cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has greatly advanced the field of membrane protein structural biology. It has significantly enhanced the ability to solve large multi-protein complexes as well as extract meaningful data from a heterogeneous sample, such as identification of several assembly states of the bacterial ribosome, from a single data set. This technique can be expanded to solve the structures of substrate-bound efflux pumps and entire efflux systems from previously unusable membrane protein sample preparations. Subsequently, cryo-EM combined with other biophysical techniques has the potential to markedly advance the field of membrane protein structural biology. The ability to discern complete transport machineries, enzymatic signal transduction pathways, and other membrane-associated complexes will help us fully understand the complexities of the membrane proteome.

Tolerance engineering in Deinococcus geothermalis by heterologous efflux pumps

Producing industrially significant compounds with more environmentally friendly represents a challenging task. The large-scale production of an exogenous molecule in a host microfactory can quickly cause toxic effects, forcing the cell to inhibit production to survive. The key point to counter these toxic effects is to promote a gain of tolerance in the host, for instance, by inducing a constant flux of the neo-synthetized compound out of the producing cells. Efflux pumps are membrane proteins that constitute the most powerful mechanism to release molecules out of cells. We propose here a new biological model, Deinococcus geothermalis, organism known for its ability to survive hostile environment; with the aim of coupling the promising industrial potential of this species with that of heterologous efflux pumps to promote engineering tolerance. In this study, clones of D. geothermalis containing various genes encoding chromosomal heterologous efflux pumps were generated. Resistant recombinants were selected using antibiotic susceptibility tests to screen promising candidates. We then developed a method to determine the efflux efficiency of the best candidate, which contains the gene encoding the MdfA of Salmonella enterica serovar Choleraesuis. We observe 1.6 times more compound in the external medium of the hit recombinant than that of the WT at early incubation time. The data presented here will contribute to better understanding of the parameters required for efficient production in D. geothermalis.

Efflux identification and engineering for ansamitocin P-3 production in Actinosynnema pretiosum

Ansamitocin P-3 (AP-3) exhibits potent biological activities against various tumor cells. As an important drug precursor, reliable supply of AP-3 is limited by low fermentation yield. Although different strategies have been implemented to improve AP-3 yield, few have investigated the impact of efflux on AP-3 production. In this study, AP-3 efflux genes were identified through combined analysis of two sets of transcriptomes. The production-based transcriptome was implemented to search for efflux genes highly expressed in response to AP-3 accumulation during the fermentation process, while the resistance-based transcriptome was designed to screen for genes actively expressed in response to the exogenous supplementation of AP-3. After comprehensive analysis of two transcriptomes, six efflux genes outside the ansamitocin BGC were identified. Among the six genes, individual deletion of APASM_2704, APASM_6861, APASM_3193, and APASM_2805 resulted in decreased AP-3 production, and alternative overexpression led to AP-3 yield increase from 264.6 to 302.4, 320.4, 330.6, and 320.6 mg/L, respectively. Surprisingly, APASM_2704 was found to be responsible for exportation of AP-3 and another macro-lactam antibiotic pretilactam. Furthermore, growth of APASM_2704, APASM_3193, or APASM_2805 overexpression mutants was obviously improved under 300 mg/L AP-3 supplementation. In summary, our study has identified AP-3 efflux genes outside the ansamitocin BGC by comparative transcriptomic analysis, and has shown that enhancing the transcription of transporter genes can improve AP-3 production, shedding light on strategies used for exporter screening and antibiotic production improvement. KEY POINTS: • AP-3-related efflux genes were identified by transcriptomic analysis. • Deletion of the identified efflux genes led in AP-3 yield decrease. • Overexpression of the efflux genes resulted in increased AP-3 production.

Enhancing the tolerance of Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum to lignocellulosic-biomass-derived inhibitors for efficient biobutanol production by overexpressing efflux pumps genes from Pseudomonas putida

Furan aldehydes and phenolic compounds generated during biomass pretreatment can inhibit fermentation for biofuel production. Efflux pumps actively transport small molecules out of cells, thus sustaining normal microbial metabolism. Pseudomonas putida has outstanding tolerance to butanol and other small molecules, and we hypothesize that its efflux pump could play essential roles for such robustness. Here, we overexpressed efflux pump genes from P. putida to enhance tolerance of hyper-butanol producing Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum to fermentation inhibitors. Interestingly, overexpression of the whole unit resulted in decreased tolerance, while overexpression of the subunit (srpB) alone exerted significant enhanced robustness of the strain. Compared to the control, the engineered strain had enhanced capability to grow in media containing 17% more furfural or 50% more ferulic acid, and produced ~14 g/L butanol (comparable to fermentation under regular conditions without inhibitors). This study provided valuable reference for boosting microbial robustness towards efficient biofuel production from lignocellulosic materials.

Distinct Cation Gradients Power Cholesterol Transport at Different Key Points in the Hedgehog Signaling Pathway

Cholesterol plays two critical roles in Hedgehog signaling, a fundamental pathway in animal development and cancer: it covalently modifies the Sonic hedgehog (SHH) ligand, restricting its release from producing cells, and directly activates Smoothened in responding cells. In both contexts, a membrane protein related to bacterial RND transporters regulates cholesterol: Dispatched1 controls release of cholesterylated SHH, and Patched1 antagonizes Smoothened activation by cholesterol. The mechanism and driving force for eukaryotic RND proteins, including Dispatched1 and Patched1, are unknown. Here, we show that Dispatched1 acts enzymatically to catalyze SHH release. Dispatched1 uses the energy of the plasma membrane Na⁺ gradient, thus functioning as an SHH/Na⁺ antiporter. In contrast, Patched1 repression of Smoothened requires the opposing K⁺ gradient. Our results clarify the transporter activity of essential eukaryotic RND proteins and demonstrate that the two main cation gradients of animal cells differentially power cholesterol transport at two crucial steps in the Hedgehog pathway.

Antibiotic Substrate Selectivity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa MexY and MexB Efflux Systems Is Determined by a Goldilocks Affinity

Resistance-nodulation-division (RND) efflux pumps are important contributors to bacterial antibiotic resistance. In this study, we combined evolutionary sequence analyses, computational structural modeling, and ligand docking to develop a framework that can explain the known antibiotic substrate selectivity differences between two Pseudomonas aeruginosa RND transporters, MexY and MexB. For efficient efflux, antibiotic substrates must possess a "Goldilocks affinity": binding strong enough to allow interaction with transporter but not so tight as to impede movement through the pump.

Structure of human Dispatched-1 provides insights into Hedgehog ligand biogenesis

A cryo-EM structure of human Dispatched-1 reveals a unique open conformation of its extracellular domains for Hedgehog ligand binding.

Hedgehog (HH) signaling is essential for metazoan development. The HH ligand is secreted into the extracellular space by a cell surface protein named Dispatched-1 (DISP1). Here, we report the cryo-EM structure of human DISP1 protein. DISP1 contains 12 transmembrane helices (TMs) and two extracellular domains (ECDs). Its ECDs reveal an open state, in contrast to its structural homologues PTCH1 and NPC1, whose extracellular/luminal domains adopt a closed state. The low-resolution structure of the DISP1 complex with dual lipid-modified HH ligand reveals how the ECDs of DISP1 engage with HH ligand. Moreover, several cholesterol-like molecules are found in the TMs, implying a transport-like function of DISP1.

Functional and Structural Roles of the Major Facilitator Superfamily Bacterial Multidrug Efflux Pumps

Pathogenic microorganisms that are multidrug-resistant can pose severe clinical and public health concerns. In particular, bacterial multidrug efflux transporters of the major facilitator superfamily constitute a notable group of drug resistance mechanisms primarily because multidrug-resistant pathogens can become refractory to antimicrobial agents, thus resulting in potentially untreatable bacterial infections. The major facilitator superfamily is composed of thousands of solute transporters that are related in terms of their phylogenetic relationships, primary amino acid sequences, two- and three-dimensional structures, modes of energization (passive and secondary active), and in their mechanisms of solute and ion translocation across the membrane. The major facilitator superfamily is also composed of numerous families and sub-families of homologous transporters that are conserved across all living taxa, from bacteria to humans. Members of this superfamily share several classes of highly conserved amino acid sequence motifs that play essential mechanistic roles during transport. The structural and functional importance of multidrug efflux pumps that belong to the major facilitator family and that are harbored by Gram-negative and -positive bacterial pathogens are considered here.

Phylogenetic analysis reveals an ancient gene duplication as the origin of the MdtABC efflux pump

The efflux pumps from the Resistance-Nodulation-Division family, RND, are main contributors to intrinsic antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative bacteria. Among this family, the MdtABC pump is unusual by having two inner membrane components. The two components, MdtB and MdtC are homologs, therefore it is evident that the two components arose by gene duplication. In this paper, we describe the results obtained from a phylogenetic analysis of the MdtBC pumps in the context of other RNDs. We show that the individual inner membrane components (MdtB and MdtC) are conserved throughout the Proteobacterial species and that their existence is a result of a single gene duplication. We argue that this gene duplication was an ancient event which occurred before the split of Proteobacteria into Alpha-, Beta- and Gamma- classes. Moreover, we find that the MdtABC pumps and the MexMN pump from Pseudomonas aeruginosa share a close common ancestor, suggesting the MexMN pump arose by another gene duplication event of the original Mdt ancestor. Taken together, these results shed light on the evolution of the RND efflux pumps and demonstrate the ancient origin of the Mdt pumps and suggest that the core bacterial efflux pump repertoires have been generally stable throughout the course of evolution.

The evolution of MarR family transcription factors as counter-silencers in regulatory networks

Gene duplication facilitates the evolution of biological complexity, as one copy of a gene retains its original function while a duplicate copy can acquire mutations that would otherwise diminish fitness. Duplication has played a particularly important role in the evolution of regulatory networks by permitting novel regulatory interactions and responses to stimuli. The diverse MarR family of transcription factors (MFTFs) illustrate this concept, ranging from highly specific repressors of single operons to pleiotropic global regulators controlling hundreds of genes. MFTFs are often genetically and functionally linked to antimicrobial efflux systems. However, the SlyA MFTF lineage in the Enterobacteriaceae plays little or no role in regulating efflux but rather functions as transcriptional counter-silencers, which alleviate xenogeneic silencing of horizontally acquired genes and facilitate bacterial evolution by horizontal gene transfer. This review will explore recent advances in our understanding of MFTF traits that have contributed to their functional evolution.

Comparative Insights Into the Complete Genome Sequence of Highly Metal Resistant Cupriavidus metallidurans Strain BS1 Isolated From a Gold-Copper Mine

The highly heavy metal resistant strain Cupriavidus metallidurans BS1 was isolated from the Zijin gold–copper mine in China. This was of particular interest since the extensively studied, closely related strain, C. metallidurans CH34 was shown to not be only highly heavy metal resistant but also able to reduce metal complexes and biomineralizing them into metallic nanoparticles including gold nanoparticles. After isolation, C. metallidurans BS1 was characterized and complete genome sequenced using PacBio and compared to CH34. Many heavy metal resistance determinants were identified and shown to have wide-ranging similarities to those of CH34. However, both BS1 and CH34 displayed extensive genome plasticity, probably responsible for significant differences between those strains. BS1 was shown to contain three prophages, not present in CH34, that appear intact and might be responsible for shifting major heavy metal resistance determinants from plasmid to chromid (CHR2) in C. metallidurans BS1. Surprisingly, the single plasmid – pBS1 (364.4 kbp) of BS1 contains only a single heavy metal resistance determinant, the czc determinant representing RND-type efflux system conferring resistance to cobalt, zinc and cadmium, shown here to be highly similar to that determinant located on pMOL30 in C. metallidurans CH34. However, in BS1 another homologous czc determinant was identified on the chromid, most similar to the czc determinant from pMOL30 in CH34. Other heavy metal resistance determinants such as cnr and chr determinants, located on megaplasmid pMOL28 in CH34, were shown to be adjacent to the czc determinant on chromid (CHR2) in BS1. Additionally, other heavy metal resistance determinants such as pbr, cop, sil, and ars were located on the chromid (CHR2) and not on pBS1 in BS1. A diverse range of genomic rearrangements occurred in this strain, isolated from a habitat of constant exposure to high concentrations of copper, gold and other heavy metals. In contrast, the megaplasmid in BS1 contains mostly genes encoding unknown functions, thus might be more of an evolutionary playground where useful genes could be acquired by horizontal gene transfer and possibly reshuffled to help C. metallidurans BS1 withstand the intense pressure of extreme concentrations of heavy metals in its environment.

Triclosan: antimicrobial mechanisms, antibiotics interactions, clinical applications, and human health

The large-scale applications of Triclosan in industrial and household products have created many health and environmental concerns. Despite the fears of its drug-resistance and other issues, Triclosan is still an effective drug against many infectious organisms. Knowing the cross-interactions of Triclosan with different antibiotics, bacteria, and humans can provide much-needed information for the risk assessment of this drug. We review the current understanding of the antimicrobial mechanisms of Triclosan, how microbes become resistant to Triclosan, and the synergistic and antagonistic effects of Triclosan with different antibiotics. Current literature on the clinical applications of Triclosan and its effect on fetus/child development are also summarized.

Crystal Structures of Membrane Transporter MmpL3, an Anti-TB Drug Target

Despite intensive efforts to discover highly effective treatments to eradicate tuberculosis (TB), it remains as a major threat to global human health. For this reason, new TB drugs directed toward new targets are highly coveted. MmpLs (Mycobacterial membrane proteins Large), which play crucial roles in transporting lipids, polymers and immunomodulators and which also extrude therapeutic drugs, are among the most important therapeutic drug targets to emerge in recent times. Here, crystal structures of mycobacterial MmpL3 alone and in complex with four TB drug candidates, including SQ109 (in Phase 2b-3 clinical trials), are reported. MmpL3 consists of a periplasmic pore domain and a twelve-helix transmembrane domain. Two Asp-Tyr pairs centrally located in this domain appear to be key facilitators of proton-translocation. SQ109, AU1235, ICA38, and rimonabant bind inside the transmembrane region and disrupt these Asp-Tyr pairs. This structural data will greatly advance the development of MmpL3 inhibitors as new TB drugs.

AcrB: a mean, keen, drug efflux machine

Gram-negative bacteria are intrinsically resistant against cytotoxic substances by means of their outer membrane and a network of multidrug efflux systems, acting in synergy. Efflux pumps from various superfamilies with broad substrate preferences sequester and pump drugs across the inner membrane to supply the highly polyspecific and powerful tripartite resistance-nodulation-cell division (RND) efflux pumps with compounds to be extruded across the outer membrane barrier. In Escherichia coli, the tripartite efflux system AcrAB-TolC is the archetype RND multiple drug efflux pump complex. The homotrimeric inner membrane component acriflavine resistance B (AcrB) is the drug specificity and energy transduction center for the drug/proton antiport process. Drugs are bound and expelled via a cycle of mainly three consecutive states in every protomer, constituting a flexible alternating access channel system. This review recapitulates the molecular basis of drug and inhibitor binding, including mechanistic insights into drug efflux by AcrB. It also summarizes 17 years of mutational analysis of the gene acrB, reporting the effect of every substitution on the ability of E. coli to confer resistance toward antibiotics (http://goethe.link/AcrBsubstitutions). We emphasize the functional robustness of AcrB toward single-site substitutions and highlight regions that are more sensitive to perturbation.

Strategies for discovery of new molecular targets for anti-infective drugs

Multidrug resistant bacterial pathogens as causative agents of infectious disease are a primary public health concern. Clinical efficacy of antimicrobial chemotherapy toward bacterial infection has been compromised in cases where causative agents are resistant to multiple structurally distinct antimicrobial agents. Modification of extant antimicrobial agents that exploit conventional bacterial targets have been developed since the advent of the antimicrobial era. This approach, while successful in certain cases, nonetheless suffers overall from the costs of development and rapid emergence of bacterial variants with confounding resistances to modified agents. Thus, additional strategies toward discovery of new molecular targets have been developed based on bioinformatics analyses and comparative genomics. These and other strategies meant to identify new molecular targets represent promising avenues for reducing emergence of bacterial infections. This short review considers these strategies for discovery of new molecular targets within bacterial pathogens.

Identification and characterization of carbapenem binding sites within the RND-transporter AcrB

Understanding the molecular determinants for recognition, binding and transport of antibiotics by multidrug efflux systems is important for basic research and useful for the design of more effective antimicrobial compounds. Imipenem and meropenem are two carbapenems whose antibacterial activity is known to be poorly and strongly affected by MexAB-OprM, the major efflux pump transporter in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. However, not much is known regarding recognition and transport of these compounds by AcrAB-TolC, which is the MexAB-OprM homologue in Escherichia coli and by definition the paradigm model for structural studies on efflux pumps. Prompted by this motivation, we unveiled the molecular details of the interaction of imipenem and meropenem with the transporter AcrB by combining computer simulations with biophysical experiments. Regarding the interaction with the two main substrate binding regions of AcrB, the so-called access and deep binding pockets, molecular dynamics simulations revealed imipenem to be more mobile than meropenem in the former, while comparable mobilities were observed in the latter. This result is in line with isothermal titration calorimetry, differential scanning experiments, and binding free energy calculations, indicating a higher affinity for meropenem than imipenem at the deep binding pocket, while both sharing similar affinities at the access pocket. Our findings rationalize how different physico-chemical properties of compounds reflect on their interactions with AcrB. As such, they constitute precious information to be exploited for the rational design of antibiotics able to evade efflux pumps.

Functional Mechanism of the Efflux Pumps Transcription Regulators From Pseudomonas aeruginosa Based on 3D Structures

Bacterial antibiotic resistance is a worldwide health problem that deserves important research attention in order to develop new therapeutic strategies. Recently, the World Health Organization (WHO) classified Pseudomonas aeruginosa as one of the priority bacteria for which new antibiotics are urgently needed. In this opportunistic pathogen, antibiotics efflux is one of the most prevalent mechanisms where the drug is efficiently expulsed through the cell-wall. This resistance mechanism is highly correlated to the expression level of efflux pumps of the resistance-nodulation-cell division (RND) family, which is finely tuned by gene regulators. Thus, it is worthwhile considering the efflux pump regulators of P. aeruginosa as promising therapeutical targets alternative. Several families of regulators have been identified, including activators and repressors that control the genetic expression of the pumps in response to an extracellular signal, such as the presence of the antibiotic or other environmental modifications. In this review, based on different crystallographic structures solved from archetypal bacteria, we will first focus on the molecular mechanism of the regulator families involved in the RND efflux pump expression in P. aeruginosa, which are TetR, LysR, MarR, AraC, and the two-components system (TCS). Finally, the regulators of known structure from P. aeruginosa will be presented.