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AlMatar M, Makky EA, Yakıcı G, Var I, Kayar B, Köksal F. Antimicrobial peptides as an alternative to anti-tuberculosis drugs. Pharmacol Res 2017; 128:288-305. [PMID: 29079429 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2017.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) presently accounts for high global mortality and morbidity rates, despite the introduction four decades ago of the affordable and efficient four-drugs (isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide and ethambutol). Thus, a strong need exists for new drugs with special structures and uncommon modes of action to effectively overcome M. tuberculosis. Within this scope, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which are small, cationic and amphipathic peptides that comprise a section of the innate immune system, are currently the leading potential agents for the treatment of TB. Many studies have recently illustrated the capability of anti-mycobacterial peptides to disrupt the normal mycobacterial cell wall function through various modes, thereby interacting with the intracellular targets, as well as encompassing nucleic acids, enzymes and organelles. This review presents a wide array of antimicrobial activities, alongside the associated properties of the AMPs that could be utilized as potential agents in therapeutic tactics for TB treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manaf AlMatar
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences (Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü) Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey.
| | - Essam A Makky
- Faculty of Industrial Sciences & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP), Gambang, 26300 Kuantan, Malaysia
| | - Gülfer Yakıcı
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Işıl Var
- Department of Food Engineering, Agricultural Faculty, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Begüm Kayar
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Fatih Köksal
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey
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Shleeva MO, Kondratieva TK, Demina GR, Rubakova EI, Goncharenko AV, Apt AS, Kaprelyants AS. Overexpression of Adenylyl Cyclase Encoded by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Rv2212 Gene Confers Improved Fitness, Accelerated Recovery from Dormancy and Enhanced Virulence in Mice. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:370. [PMID: 28861399 PMCID: PMC5562752 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Earlier we demonstrated that the adenylyl cyclase (AC) encoded by the MSMEG_4279 gene plays a key role in the resuscitation and growth of dormant Mycobacterium smegmatis and that overexpression of this gene leads to an increase in intracellular cAMP concentration and prevents the transition of M. smegmatis from active growth to dormancy in an extended stationary phase accompanied by medium acidification. We surmised that the homologous Rv2212 gene of M. tuberculosis (Mtb), the main cAMP producer, plays similar physiological roles by supporting, under these conditions, the active state and reactivation of dormant bacteria. To test this hypothesis, we established Mtb strain overexpressing Rv2212 and compared its in vitro and in vivo growth characteristics with a control strain. In vitro, the AC-overexpressing pMindRv2212 strain demonstrated faster growth in a liquid medium, prolonged capacity to form CFUs and a significant delay or even prevention of transition toward dormancy. AC-overexpressing cells exhibited easier recovery from dormancy. In vivo, AC-overexpressing bacteria demonstrated significantly higher growth rates (virulence) in the lungs and spleens of infected mice compared to the control strain, and, unlike the latter, killed mice in the TB-resistant strain before month 8 of infection. Even in the absence of selecting hygromycin B, all pMindRv2212 CFUs retained the Rv2212 insert during in vivo growth, strongly suggesting that AC overexpression is beneficial for bacteria. Taken together, our results indicate that cAMP supports the maintenance of Mtb cells vitality under unfavorable conditions in vitro and their virulence in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita O Shleeva
- Federal Research Centre 'Fundamentals of Biotechnology' of the Russian Academy of Sciences, A. N. Bach Institute of BiochemistryMoscow, Russia
| | - Tatyana K Kondratieva
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory for Immunogenetics, Central Institute for TuberculosisMoscow, Russia
| | - Galina R Demina
- Federal Research Centre 'Fundamentals of Biotechnology' of the Russian Academy of Sciences, A. N. Bach Institute of BiochemistryMoscow, Russia
| | - Elvira I Rubakova
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory for Immunogenetics, Central Institute for TuberculosisMoscow, Russia
| | - Anna V Goncharenko
- Federal Research Centre 'Fundamentals of Biotechnology' of the Russian Academy of Sciences, A. N. Bach Institute of BiochemistryMoscow, Russia
| | - Alexander S Apt
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory for Immunogenetics, Central Institute for TuberculosisMoscow, Russia.,Department of Immunology, School of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State UniversityMoscow, Russia
| | - Arseny S Kaprelyants
- Department of Immunology, Laboratory for Immunogenetics, Central Institute for TuberculosisMoscow, Russia
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Rifamycin action on RNA polymerase in antibiotic-tolerant Mycobacterium tuberculosis results in differentially detectable populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E4832-E4840. [PMID: 28559332 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1705385114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) encounters stresses during the pathogenesis and treatment of tuberculosis (TB) that can suppress replication of the bacteria and render them phenotypically tolerant to most available drugs. Where studied, the majority of Mtb in the sputum of most untreated subjects with active TB have been found to be nonreplicating by the criterion that they do not grow as colony-forming units (cfus) when plated on agar. However, these cells are viable because they grow when diluted in liquid media. A method for generating such "differentially detectable" (DD) Mtb in vitro would aid studies of the biology and drug susceptibility of this population, but lack of independent confirmation of reported methods has contributed to skepticism about their existence. Here, we identified confounding artifacts that, when avoided, allowed development of a reliable method of producing cultures of ≥90% DD Mtb in starved cells. We then characterized several drugs according to whether they contribute to the generation of DD Mtb or kill them. Of the agents tested, rifamycins led to DD Mtb generation, an effect lacking in a rifampin-resistant strain with a mutation in rpoB, which encodes the canonical rifampin target, the β subunit of RNA polymerase. In contrast, thioridazine did not generate DD Mtb from starved cells but killed those generated by rifampin.
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Vijay S, Nair RR, Sharan D, Jakkala K, Mukkayyan N, Swaminath S, Pradhan A, Joshi NV, Ajitkumar P. Mycobacterial Cultures Contain Cell Size and Density Specific Sub-populations of Cells with Significant Differential Susceptibility to Antibiotics, Oxidative and Nitrite Stress. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:463. [PMID: 28377757 PMCID: PMC5359288 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study shows the existence of two specific sub-populations of Mycobacterium smegmatis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis cells differing in size and density, in the mid-log phase (MLP) cultures, with significant differential susceptibility to antibiotic, oxidative, and nitrite stress. One of these sub-populations (~10% of the total population), contained short-sized cells (SCs) generated through highly-deviated asymmetric cell division (ACD) of normal/long-sized mother cells and symmetric cell divisions (SCD) of short-sized mother cells. The other sub-population (~90% of the total population) contained normal/long-sized cells (NCs). The SCs were acid-fast stainable and heat-susceptible, and contained high density of membrane vesicles (MVs, known to be lipid-rich) on their surface, while the NCs possessed negligible density of MVs on the surface, as revealed by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Percoll density gradient fractionation of MLP cultures showed the SCs-enriched fraction (SCF) at lower density (probably indicating lipid-richness) and the NCs-enriched fraction (NCF) at higher density of percoll fractions. While live cell imaging showed that the SCs and the NCs could grow and divide to form colony on agarose pads, the SCF, and NCF cells could independently regenerate MLP populations in liquid and solid media, indicating their full genomic content and population regeneration potential. CFU based assays showed the SCF cells to be significantly more susceptible than NCF cells to a range of concentrations of rifampicin and isoniazid (antibiotic stress), H2O2 (oxidative stress),and acidified NaNO2 (nitrite stress). Live cell imaging showed significantly higher susceptibility of the SCs of SC-NC sister daughter cell pairs, formed from highly-deviated ACD of normal/long-sized mother cells, to rifampicin and H2O2, as compared to the sister daughter NCs, irrespective of their comparable growth rates. The SC-SC sister daughter cell pairs, formed from the SCDs of short-sized mother cells and having comparable growth rates, always showed comparable stress-susceptibility. These observations and the presence of M. tuberculosis SCs and NCs in pulmonary tuberculosis patients' sputum earlier reported by us imply a physiological role for the SCs and the NCs under the stress conditions. The plausible reasons for the higher stress susceptibility of SCs and lower stress susceptibility of NCs are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinivasan Vijay
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of ScienceBangalore, India
| | - Rashmi Ravindran Nair
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of ScienceBangalore, India
| | - Deepti Sharan
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of ScienceBangalore, India
| | - Kishor Jakkala
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of ScienceBangalore, India
| | - Nagaraja Mukkayyan
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of ScienceBangalore, India
| | - Sharmada Swaminath
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of ScienceBangalore, India
| | - Atul Pradhan
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of ScienceBangalore, India
| | - Niranjan V. Joshi
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of ScienceBangalore, India
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Rosser A, Stover C, Pareek M, Mukamolova GV. Resuscitation-promoting factors are important determinants of the pathophysiology in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Crit Rev Microbiol 2017; 43:621-630. [PMID: 28338360 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2017.1283485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Resuscitation promoting factors (Rpf) are peptidoglycan-hydrolyzing enzymes that are pivotal in the resuscitation of quiescent actinobacteria including Mycobacterium tuberculosis. From the published data, it is clear that Rpf are required for the resuscitation of non-replicating bacilli and pathogenesis in murine infection model of tuberculosis, although their direct influence on human Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection is ill-defined. In this review, we describe the progress in the understanding of the roles that Rpf play in human tuberculosis pathogenesis and importance of bacilli dependent upon Rpf for growth for the outcome of human tuberculosis. We outline how this research is opening up important opportunities for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of human disease, progress in which is essential to attain the ultimate goal of tuberculosis eradication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Rosser
- a Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation , University of Leicester , Leicester , UK.,b Department of Infection and Tropical Medicine , University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust , Leicester , UK
| | - Cordula Stover
- a Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation , University of Leicester , Leicester , UK
| | - Manish Pareek
- a Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation , University of Leicester , Leicester , UK.,b Department of Infection and Tropical Medicine , University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust , Leicester , UK
| | - Galina V Mukamolova
- a Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation , University of Leicester , Leicester , UK
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56
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The majority of environmental bacteria and around a third of oral bacteria remain uncultivated. Furthermore, several bacterial phyla have no cultivable members and are recognised only by detection of their DNA by molecular methods. Possible explanations for the resistance of certain bacteria to cultivation in purity in vitro include: unmet fastidious growth requirements; inhibition by environmental conditions or chemical factors produced by neighbouring bacteria in mixed cultures; or conversely, dependence on interactions with other bacteria in the natural environment, without which they cannot survive in isolation. Auxotrophic bacteria, with small genomes lacking in the necessary genetic material to encode for essential nutrients, frequently rely on close symbiotic relationships with other bacteria for survival, and may therefore be recalcitrant to cultivation in purity. HIGHLIGHT Since in-vitro culture is essential for the comprehensive characterisation of bacteria, particularly with regard to virulence and antimicrobial resistance, the cultivation of uncultivated organisms has been a primary focus of several research laboratories. Many targeted and open-ended strategies have been devised and successfully used. Examples include: the targeted detection of specific bacteria in mixed plate cultures using colony hybridisation; growth in simulated natural environments or in co-culture with 'helper' strains; and modified media preparation techniques or development of customised media eg. supplementation of media with potential growth-stimulatory factors such as siderophores. CONCLUSION Despite significant advances in recent years in methodologies for the cultivation of previously uncultivated bacteria, a substantial proportion remain to be cultured and efforts to devise high-throughput strategies should be a high priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia R. Vartoukian
- Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, UK
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57
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Nikitushkin VD, Shleeva MO, Zinin AI, Trutneva KA, Ostrovsky DN, Kaprelyants AS. The main pigment of the dormantMycobacterium smegmatisis porphyrin. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2016; 363:fnw206. [DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnw206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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58
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Wu ML, Gengenbacher M, Dick T. Mild Nutrient Starvation Triggers the Development of a Small-Cell Survival Morphotype in Mycobacteria. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:947. [PMID: 27379076 PMCID: PMC4909757 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacteria, generally believed to be non-sporulating, are well known to survive shock starvation in saline for extended periods of time in a non-replicating state without any apparent morphological changes. Here, we uncover that mycobacteria can undergo cellular differentiation by exposing Mycobacterium smegmatis to mild starvation conditions. Traces of various carbon sources in saline triggered the development of a novel small resting cell (SMRC) morphotype. Development of SMRCs could also be observed for other mycobacteria, suggesting evolutionary conservation of this differentiation pathway. Fluorescence microscopic analyses showed that development of SMRCs progresses via septated, multi-nucleoided cell intermediates, which divide to generate mono-nucleoided SMRCs. Intriguingly, saline shock-starved large resting cells (LARCs), which did not show cell size or surface changes when observed by scanning electron microscopy, remodeled their internal structure to septated, multi-nucleoided cells, similar to the intermediates seen during differentiation to SMRCs. Our results suggest that mycobacteria harbor a starvation-induced differentiation program in which at first septated, multi-nucleoided cells are generated. Under zero-nutrient conditions bacteria terminate development at this stage as LARCs. In the presence of traces of a carbon source, these multi-nucleoided cells continue differentiation into mono-nucleoided SMRCs. Both SMRCs and LARCs exhibited extreme antibiotic tolerance. SMRCs showed increased long-term starvation survival, which was associated with the presence of lipid inclusion bodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mu-Lu Wu
- Antibacterial Drug Discovery Laboratory, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore Singapore, Singapore
| | - Martin Gengenbacher
- Tuberculosis Research Laboratory, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore Singapore, Singapore
| | - Thomas Dick
- Antibacterial Drug Discovery Laboratory, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore Singapore, Singapore
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Lipworth S, Hammond RJH, Baron VO, Hu Y, Coates A, Gillespie SH. Defining dormancy in mycobacterial disease. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2016; 99:131-142. [PMID: 27450015 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2016.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Revised: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis remains a threat to global health and recent attempts to shorten therapy have not succeeded mainly due to cases of clinical relapse. This has focussed attention on the importance of "dormancy" in tuberculosis. There are a number of different definitions of the term and a similar multiplicity of different in vitro and in vivo models. The danger with this is the implicit assumption of equivalence between the terms and models, which will make even more difficult to unravel this complex conundrum. In this review we summarise the main models and definitions and their impact on susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. We also suggest a potential nomenclature for debate. Dormancy researchers agree that factors underpinning this phenomenon are complex and nuanced. If we are to make progress we must agree the terms to be used and be consistent in using them.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Lipworth
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, Biomedical Science Building, North Haugh, St Andrews KY16 9TF, United Kingdom
| | - R J H Hammond
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, Biomedical Science Building, North Haugh, St Andrews KY16 9TF, United Kingdom
| | - V O Baron
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, Biomedical Science Building, North Haugh, St Andrews KY16 9TF, United Kingdom
| | - Yanmin Hu
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London SW17 ORE, United Kingdom
| | - A Coates
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London SW17 ORE, United Kingdom
| | - S H Gillespie
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, Biomedical Science Building, North Haugh, St Andrews KY16 9TF, United Kingdom.
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60
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Kirsebom LA, Dasgupta S, Fredrik Pettersson BM. Pleiomorphism in Mycobacterium. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2016; 80:81-112. [PMID: 22794145 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394381-1.00004-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Morphological variants in mycobacterial cultures under different growth conditions, including aging of the culture, have been shown to include fibrous aggregates, biofilms, coccoids, and spores. Here we discuss the diversity in shape and size changes demonstrated by bacterial cells with special reference to pleiomorphism observed in Mycobacterium spp. in response to nutritional and other environmental stresses. Inherent asymmetry in cell division and compartmentalization of cell interior under different growth conditions might contribute toward the observed pleiomorphism in mycobacteria. The regulatory genes comprising the bacterial signaling pathway responsible for initiating morphogenesis are speculated upon from bioinformatic identifications of genes for known sensors, kinases, and phosphatases existing in mycobacterial genomes as well as on the basis of what is known in other bacteria.
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61
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Clewe O, Aulin L, Hu Y, Coates ARM, Simonsson USH. A multistate tuberculosis pharmacometric model: a framework for studying anti-tubercular drug effects in vitro. J Antimicrob Chemother 2016; 71:964-74. [PMID: 26702921 PMCID: PMC4790616 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkv416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Mycobacterium tuberculosis can exist in different states in vitro, which can be denoted as fast multiplying, slow multiplying and non-multiplying. Characterizing the natural growth of M. tuberculosis could provide a framework for accurate characterization of drug effects on the different bacterial states. METHODS The natural growth data of M. tuberculosis H37Rv used in this study consisted of viability defined as cfu versus time based on data from an in vitro hypoxia system. External validation of the natural growth model was conducted using data representing the rate of incorporation of radiolabelled methionine into proteins by the bacteria. Rifampicin time-kill curves from log-phase (0.25-16 mg/L) and stationary-phase (0.5-64 mg/L) cultures were used to assess the model's ability to describe drug effects by evaluating different linear and non-linear exposure-response relationships. RESULTS The final pharmacometric model consisted of a three-compartment differential equation system representing fast-, slow- and non-multiplying bacteria. Model predictions correlated well with the external data (R(2) = 0.98). The rifampicin effects on log-phase and stationary-phase cultures were separately and simultaneously described by including the drug effect on the different bacterial states. The predicted reduction in log10 cfu after 14 days and at 0.5 mg/L was 2.2 and 0.8 in the log-phase and stationary-phase systems, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The model provides predictions of the change in bacterial numbers for the different bacterial states with and without drug effect and could thus be used as a framework for studying anti-tubercular drug effects in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oskar Clewe
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Linda Aulin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Yanmin Hu
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK
| | - Anthony R M Coates
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK
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62
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Wu ML, Dick T. Metabolic flexibility and morphological plasticity in mycobacteria. Future Microbiol 2016; 10:449-52. [PMID: 25865185 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.14.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mu-Lu Wu
- Department of Microbiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, 5 Science Drive 2, Singapore 117545, Republic of Singapore
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63
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Hoagland D, Zhao Y, Lee RE. Advances in Drug Discovery and Development for Pediatric Tuberculosis. Mini Rev Med Chem 2016; 16:481-97. [PMID: 26202201 PMCID: PMC4964275 DOI: 10.2174/1389557515666150722101723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Revised: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Pediatric tuberculosis is an underappreciated global epidemic estimated to afflict around half a million children worldwide. This problem has historically been overlooked, due in part to their low social status and the difficulty in diagnosis of tuberculosis in children. Children are more susceptible to tuberculosis infection and disease progression, including rapid dissemination into extrapulmonary infection sites. Treatment of pediatric tuberculosis infections has been traditionally built around agents used to treat the adult disease, but the disease pathology, drug pharmacokinetics and the safety window in children differs from the adult disease. This produces additional concerns for drug discovery and development of new agents. This review examines: (i) the safety concerns for current front and second line agents used to treat complex drug resistant infections and how this knowledge can be used to identify, prioritize and dose agents that may be better tolerated in pediatric populations; and (ii) the chemistry and suitability of new drugs in the clinical development pipeline for tuberculosis for the treatment of pediatric infections indicating several new agents may offer significant improvements for the treatment of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis in children.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Richard E Lee
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, MS#1000, Memphis, TN 38105, USA.
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64
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Velayati AA, Abeel T, Shea T, Konstantinovich Zhavnerko G, Birren B, Cassell GH, Earl AM, Hoffner S, Farnia P. Populations of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis lack a cell wall: Isolation, visualization, and whole-genome characterization. Int J Mycobacteriol 2015; 5:66-73. [PMID: 26927992 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmyco.2015.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2015] [Revised: 11/28/2015] [Accepted: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE/BACKGROUND Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) causes active tuberculosis (TB) in only a small percentage of infected people. In most cases, the infection is clinically latent, where bacilli can persist in human hosts for years without causing disease. Surprisingly, the biology of such persister cells is largely unknown. This study describes the isolation, identification, and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of latent TB bacilli after 782days (26months) of latency (the ability of MTB bacilli to lie persistent). METHODS The in vitro double-stress model of latency (oxygen and nutrition) was designed for MTB culture. After 26months of latency, MTB cells that persisted were isolated and investigated under light and atomic force microscopy. Spoligotyping and WGS were performed to verify the identity of the strain. RESULTS We established a culture medium in which MTB bacilli arrest their growth, reduce their size (0.3-0.1μm), lose their acid fastness (85-90%) and change their shape. Spoligopatterns of latent cells were identical to original H37Rv, with differences observed at spacers two and 14. WGS revealed only a few genetic changes relative to the already published H37Rv reference genome. Among these was a large 2064-bp insertion (RvD6), which was originally detected in both H37Ra and CDC1551, but not H37Rv. CONCLUSION Here, we show cell-wall free cells of MTB bacilli in their latent state, and the biological adaptation of these cells was more phenotypic in nature than genomic. These cell-wall free cells represent a good model for understanding the nature of TB latency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Akbar Velayati
- Mycobacteriology Research Centre, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (NRITLD), Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Thomas Abeel
- Genome Sequencing & Analysis Program, The Broad Institute of MIT & Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA; Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Terrance Shea
- Genome Sequencing & Analysis Program, The Broad Institute of MIT & Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Bruce Birren
- Genome Sequencing & Analysis Program, The Broad Institute of MIT & Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Gail H Cassell
- Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ashlee M Earl
- Genome Sequencing & Analysis Program, The Broad Institute of MIT & Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Sven Hoffner
- Department of Microbiology, The Public Health Agency of Sweden, Solna, Sweden
| | - Parissa Farnia
- Mycobacteriology Research Centre, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (NRITLD), Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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65
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Kayigire XA, Friedrich SO, van der Merwe L, Donald PR, Diacon AH. Simultaneous staining of sputum smears for acid-fast and lipid-containing Myobacterium tuberculosis can enhance the clinical evaluation of antituberculosis treatments. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2015; 95:770-779. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2015.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Revised: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/02/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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66
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Ignatov DV, Salina EG, Fursov MV, Skvortsov TA, Azhikina TL, Kaprelyants AS. Dormant non-culturable Mycobacterium tuberculosis retains stable low-abundant mRNA. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:954. [PMID: 26573524 PMCID: PMC4647672 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-2197-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Dormant Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli are believed to play an important role in latent tuberculosis infection. Previously, we have demonstrated that cultivation of M. tuberculosis in K+-deficient medium resulted in generation of dormant cells. These bacilli were non-culturable on solid media (a key feature of dormant M. tuberculosis in vivo) and characterized by low metabolism and tolerance to anti-tuberculosis drugs. The dormant bacteria demonstrated a high potential to reactivation after K+ reintroduction even after prolonged persistence under rifampicin. In this work, we studied the transcriptome and stability of transcripts in persisting dormant bacilli under arrest of mRNA de novo synthesis. Results RNA-seq-based analysis of the dormant non-culturable population obtained under rifampicin exposure revealed a 30–50-fold decrease of the total mRNA level, indicating global transcriptional repression. However, the analysis of persisting transcripts displayed a cohort of mRNA molecules coding for biosynthetic enzymes, proteins involved in adaptation and repair processes, detoxification, and control of transcription initiation. This ‘dormant transcriptome’ demonstrated considerable stability during M. tuberculosis persistence and mRNA de novo synthesis arrest. On the contrary, several small non-coding RNAs showed increased abundance on dormancy. Interestingly, M. tuberculosis entry into dormancy was accompanied by the cleavage of 23S ribosomal RNA at a specific point located outside the ribosome catalytic center. Conclusions Dormant non-culturable M. tuberculosis bacilli are characterized by a global transcriptional repression. At the same time, the dormant bacilli retain low-abundant mRNAs, which are considerably stable during in vitro persistence, reflecting their readiness for translation upon early resuscitation steps. Increased abundance of non-coding RNAs on dormancy may indicate their role in the entry into and maintenance of M. tuberculosis dormant non-culturable state. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-2197-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitriy V Ignatov
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, GSP-7, Moscow, Russian Federation.
| | - Elena G Salina
- A.N. Bakh Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Science, 119071, Leninsky prospekt 33, Build. 2, Moscow, Russian Federation.
| | - Mikhail V Fursov
- A.N. Bakh Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Science, 119071, Leninsky prospekt 33, Build. 2, Moscow, Russian Federation.
| | - Timofey A Skvortsov
- A.N. Bakh Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Science, 119071, Leninsky prospekt 33, Build. 2, Moscow, Russian Federation. .,Current address: The Queen's University of Belfast, School of Biological Sciences, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7BL, UK.
| | - Tatyana L Azhikina
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117997, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, GSP-7, Moscow, Russian Federation.
| | - Arseny S Kaprelyants
- A.N. Bakh Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Science, 119071, Leninsky prospekt 33, Build. 2, Moscow, Russian Federation.
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67
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Turapov O, Glenn S, Kana B, Makarov V, Andrew PW, Mukamolova GV. The in vivo environment accelerates generation of resuscitation-promoting factor-dependent mycobacteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015; 190:1455-7. [PMID: 25496107 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201407-1289le] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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68
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Timofeeva LM, Kleshcheva NA, Shleeva MO, Filatova MP, Simonova YA, Ermakov YA, Kaprelyants AS. Nonquaternary poly(diallylammonium) polymers with different amine structure and their biocidal effect on Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium smegmatis. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:2557-71. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-014-6331-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Revised: 12/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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69
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He L, Zhou X, Yin X, Tian L, Yang L, Fan K, Zhao D. Comparative study of the growth and survival of recombinant Mycobacterium smegmatis expressing Mce4A and Mce4E from Mycobacterium bovis. DNA Cell Biol 2014; 34:125-32. [PMID: 25536284 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2014.2487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol is important for the growth and persistence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in macrophages. The mce4 locus, which is conserved in both M. tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis, is thought to be responsible for cholesterol transport into the bacteria. However, the exact roles of specific genes within the sophisticated mce4 system remain poorly understood. In this study, Mce4A and Mce4E of M. bovis, two proteins that are encoded by the mce4 locus, were expressed in Mycobacterium smegmatis. The recombinant strain expressing the Mce4E protein (M. smeg::E) performed better than that expressing the Mce4A protein (M. smeg::A) in a minimal medium with and without glycerol or cholesterol, which may be the reason why M. smeg::E showed better survival in ANA-1 macrophages than did M. smeg::A. Cytokine expression profiles were similar in macrophages infected with either recombinant strain. We also investigated the role of CD36 in recognizing Mce4A and Mce4E proteins. However, CD36 did not appear to be specific for these proteins and showed little impact on the ultimate clearance of the recombinant strains. Reduced interleukin-1β, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha mRNA expression at 6 h postinfection in macrophages infected with M. smeg::E was observed using a CD36-specific monocular antibody to block the receptor, whereas no obvious changes in the expression of these cytokines were observed in cells infected with M. smeg::A with or without exposure to the CD36 antibody. Conclusively, the different performances of the recombinant strains suggest that the Mce4A and Mce4E proteins enhance mycobacterial adaptation to the harsh environment within macrophages after phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liu He
- 1 The State Key Lab of Agrobiotechnology, Key Lab of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis Ministry of Agriculture, National TSE Lab, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University , Beijing, People's Republic of China
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70
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Shleeva M, Kondratieva T, Rubakova E, Vostroknutova G, Kaprelyants A, Apt A. Reactivation of dormant "non-culturable" Mycobacterium tuberculosis developed in vitro after injection in mice: both the dormancy depth and host genetics influence the outcome. Microb Pathog 2014; 78:63-6. [PMID: 25434928 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2014.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2014] [Revised: 11/25/2014] [Accepted: 11/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Three stocks of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv were cultured in vitro under prolonged hypoxic or acidified conditions until partial or complete loss of the capacity to form colonies on agar medium was achieved. Such dormant "non-culturable" mycobacteria were assessed for the growth resuscitation after intra-tracheal injection into mice of the two inbred strains with different genetic susceptibility to M. tuberculosis-triggered disease: hyper-susceptible I/St and relatively resistant B6. The results indicate that bacteria which are able to resuscitate spontaneously in liquid medium in vitro started to multiply in organs of infected mice, and that the outcome of such infection strongly depended upon the level of genetic TB susceptibility. However, dormant bacteria required inducers for resuscitation in vitro lost the capacity to multiply even in genetically susceptible mice. The established model of dormancy/reactivation is suitable for the studying host-pathogen interactions and testing vaccine and drug candidates specifically targeting latent TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita Shleeva
- A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
| | | | | | - Galina Vostroknutova
- A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Arseny Kaprelyants
- A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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71
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Bowness R, Boeree MJ, Aarnoutse R, Dawson R, Diacon A, Mangu C, Heinrich N, Ntinginya NE, Kohlenberg A, Mtafya B, Phillips PPJ, Rachow A, Plemper van Balen G, Gillespie SH. The relationship between Mycobacterium tuberculosis MGIT time to positivity and cfu in sputum samples demonstrates changing bacterial phenotypes potentially reflecting the impact of chemotherapy on critical sub-populations. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 70:448-55. [PMID: 25344806 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dku415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The relationship between cfu and Mycobacterial Growth Indicator Tube (MGIT) time to positivity (TTP) is uncertain. We attempted to understand this relationship and create a mathematical model to relate these two methods of determining mycobacterial load. METHODS Sequential bacteriological load data from clinical trials determined by MGIT and cfu were collected and mathematical models derived. All model fittings were conducted in the R statistical software environment (version 3.0.2), using the lm and nls functions. RESULTS TTP showed a negative correlation with log10 cfu on all 14 days of the study. There was an increasing gradient of the regression line and y-intercept as treatment progressed. There was also a trend towards an increasing gradient with higher doses of rifampicin. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that there is a population of mycobacterial cells that are more numerous when detected in liquid than on solid medium. Increasing doses of rifampicin differentially kill this group of organisms. These findings support the idea that increased doses of rifampicin are more effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Bowness
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9AJ, UK
| | - Martin J Boeree
- Radboud University Medical Center, Department of Pulmonary Diseases, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Rob Aarnoutse
- Radboud University Medical Center, Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Rodney Dawson
- Division of Pulmonology, Department of Medicine and University of Cape Town Lung Institute, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Andreas Diacon
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Chacha Mangu
- NIMR-Mbeya Medical Research Centre, PO Box 2410, Mbeya, Tanzania
| | - Norbert Heinrich
- Department for Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, University of Munich, Munich, Germany DZIF German Centre for Infection Research, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Anke Kohlenberg
- NIMR-Mbeya Medical Research Centre, PO Box 2410, Mbeya, Tanzania Department for Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Bariki Mtafya
- NIMR-Mbeya Medical Research Centre, PO Box 2410, Mbeya, Tanzania
| | | | - Andrea Rachow
- Department for Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, University of Munich, Munich, Germany DZIF German Centre for Infection Research, Munich, Germany
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72
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Salina EG, Waddell SJ, Hoffmann N, Rosenkrands I, Butcher PD, Kaprelyants AS. Potassium availability triggers Mycobacterium tuberculosis transition to, and resuscitation from, non-culturable (dormant) states. Open Biol 2014; 4:140106. [PMID: 25320096 PMCID: PMC4221891 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.140106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2014] [Accepted: 09/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dormancy in non-sporulating bacteria is an interesting and underexplored phenomenon with significant medical implications. In particular, latent tuberculosis may result from the maintenance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli in non-replicating states in infected individuals. Uniquely, growth of M. tuberculosis in aerobic conditions in potassium-deficient media resulted in the generation of bacilli that were non-culturable (NC) on solid media but detectable in liquid media. These bacilli were morphologically distinct and tolerant to cell-wall-targeting antimicrobials. Bacterial counts on solid media quickly recovered after washing and incubating bacilli in fresh resuscitation media containing potassium. This resuscitation of growth occurred too quickly to be attributed to M. tuberculosis replication. Transcriptomic and proteomic profiling through adaptation to, and resuscitation from, this NC state revealed a switch to anaerobic respiration and a shift to lipid and amino acid metabolism. High concordance with mRNA signatures derived from M. tuberculosis infection models suggests that analogous NC mycobacterial phenotypes may exist during disease and may represent unrecognized populations in vivo. Resuscitation of NC bacilli in potassium-sufficient media was characterized by time-dependent activation of metabolic pathways in a programmed series of processes that probably transit bacilli through challenging microenvironments during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena G Salina
- Institution of the Russian Academy of Sciences A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry RAS, Moscow, Russia
| | - Simon J Waddell
- Brighton and Sussex Medical School, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Nadine Hoffmann
- Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ida Rosenkrands
- Department of Infectious Disease Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Philip D Butcher
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK
| | - Arseny S Kaprelyants
- Institution of the Russian Academy of Sciences A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry RAS, Moscow, Russia
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73
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Latent tuberculosis infection: What we know about its genetic control? Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2014; 94:462-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2014.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2014] [Revised: 06/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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74
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Mulyukin AL, Suzina NE, Mel’nikov VG, Gal’chenko VF, El’-Registan GI. Dormant state and phenotypic variability of Staphylococcus aureus and Corynebacterium pseudodiphtheriticum. Microbiology (Reading) 2014. [DOI: 10.1134/s0026261713060088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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75
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Huang W, Qi Y, Diao Y, Yang F, Zha X, Ren C, Huang D, Franken KLMC, Ottenhoff THM, Wu Q, Shen J. Use of resuscitation-promoting factor proteins improves the sensitivity of culture-based tuberculosis testing in special samples. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2014; 189:612-4. [PMID: 24579840 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201310-1899le] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Huang
- 1 Anhui Medical UniversityHefei, PR China and
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76
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New antituberculosis drugs, regimens, and adjunct therapies: needs, advances, and future prospects. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2014; 14:327-40. [DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(13)70328-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 262] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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77
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Demidenok OI, Kaprelyants AS, Goncharenko AV. Toxin-antitoxinvapBClocus participates in formation of the dormant state inMycobacterium smegmatis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2014; 352:69-77. [DOI: 10.1111/1574-6968.12380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Revised: 12/31/2013] [Accepted: 12/31/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Oksana I. Demidenok
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Stresses in Microorganisms; A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry Russian Academy of Sciences; Moscow Russia
| | - Arseny S. Kaprelyants
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Stresses in Microorganisms; A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry Russian Academy of Sciences; Moscow Russia
| | - Anna V. Goncharenko
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Stresses in Microorganisms; A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry Russian Academy of Sciences; Moscow Russia
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78
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Pascoe B, Dams L, Wilkinson TS, Harris LG, Bodger O, Mack D, Davies AP. Dormant cells of Staphylococcus aureus are resuscitated by spent culture supernatant. PLoS One 2014; 9:e85998. [PMID: 24523858 PMCID: PMC3921112 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe the first in vitro model of dormancy in Staphylococcus aureus, showing that cells are generated which can be resuscitated by addition of spent medium supernatant taken from cultures of the same organism. Over 30 days, culturable counts in dormant cultures of S. aureus SH1000 fell from 10(6)-10(7) cfu/ml to <10 cfu/ml as measured by the Most Probable Number method in liquid culture, while total counts as determined by microscopy, and supported by data from RT-qPCR, remained around 10(6)-10(7) cells/ml. Supplementing cultures with 25-50% spent medium resulted in a >600-fold increase in bacterial growth. Resuscitation was a specific effect, greatly reduced by boiling or addition of trypsin to the spent supernatant. Supernatant also effected a reduction in lag phase of dormant cultures. SEM demonstrated the presence of small coccoid cells in dormant cultures. The results are similar to those seen with resuscitation promoting factors (Rpfs) in actinobacteria. This is the first time resuscitation has been demonstrated in Staphylococcus aureus, which is an important human pathogen. A better understanding of control and reactivation of dormant cells could lead to major improvements in managing staphylococcal infections; resuscitation could be an important step in restoring susceptibility to antibiotic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Pascoe
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University College of Medicine, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Lucy Dams
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University College of Medicine, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Tom S. Wilkinson
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University College of Medicine, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Llinos G. Harris
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University College of Medicine, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Owen Bodger
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University College of Medicine, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Dietrich Mack
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University College of Medicine, Swansea, United Kingdom
- Public Health Wales Microbiology Swansea, Swansea, United Kingdom
- Bioscientia Labor Ingelheim, Institut für Medizinische Diagnostik GmbH, Mainz, Germany
| | - Angharad P. Davies
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University College of Medicine, Swansea, United Kingdom
- Public Health Wales Microbiology Swansea, Swansea, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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79
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Shleeva M, Goncharenko A, Kudykina Y, Young D, Young M, Kaprelyants A. Cyclic AMP-dependent resuscitation of dormant Mycobacteria by exogenous free fatty acids. PLoS One 2013; 8:e82914. [PMID: 24376605 PMCID: PMC3871856 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
One third of the world population carries a latent tuberculosis (TB) infection, which may reactivate leading to active disease. Although TB latency has been known for many years it remains poorly understood. In particular, substances of host origin, which may induce the resuscitation of dormant mycobacteria, have not yet been described. In vitro models of dormant ("non-culturable") cells of Mycobacterium smegmatis (mc(2)155) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv were used. We found that the resuscitation of dormant M. smegmatis and M. tuberculosis cells in liquid medium was stimulated by adding free unsaturated fatty acids (FA), including arachidonic acid, at concentrations of 1.6-10 µM. FA addition enhanced cAMP levels in reactivating M. smegmatis cells and exogenously added cAMP (3-10 mM) or dibutyryl-cAMP (0.5-1 mM) substituted for FA, causing resuscitation of M. smegmatis and M. tuberculosis dormant cells. A M. smegmatis null-mutant lacking MSMEG_4279, which encodes a FA-activated adenylyl cyclase (AC), could not be resuscitated by FA but it was resuscitated by cAMP. M. smegmatis and M. tuberculosis cells hyper-expressing AC were unable to form non-culturable cells and a specific inhibitor of AC (8-bromo-cAMP) prevented FA-dependent resuscitation. RT-PCR analysis revealed that rpfA (coding for resuscitation promoting factor A) is up-regulated in M. smegmatis in the beginning of exponential growth following the cAMP increase in lag phase caused by FA-induced cell activation. A specific Rpf inhibitor (4-benzoyl-2-nitrophenylthiocyanate) suppressed FA-induced resuscitation. We propose a novel pathway for the resuscitation of dormant mycobacteria involving the activation of adenylyl cyclase MSMEG_4279 by FAs resulted in activation of cellular metabolism followed later by increase of RpfA activity which stimulates cell multiplication in exponential phase. The study reveals a probable role for lipids of host origin in the resuscitation of dormant mycobacteria, which may function during the reactivation of latent TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita Shleeva
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anna Goncharenko
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Yuliya Kudykina
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Danielle Young
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Young
- Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, United Kingdom
| | - Arseny Kaprelyants
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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80
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Cossu A, Sechi LA, Bandino E, Zanetti S, Rosu V. Expression profiling of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv and Mycobacterium smegmatis in acid-nitrosative multi-stress displays defined regulatory networks. Microb Pathog 2013; 65:89-96. [PMID: 24184341 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2013.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Revised: 10/17/2013] [Accepted: 10/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Several studies regarding the transcriptome of Mycobacterium tuberculosis following the exposure to various in vitro simulated phagosomal stressors, have already tried to elucidate the bacterium behavior during the intracellular infection. An in vitro acid-nitrosative multi-stress was carried out for M. tuberculosis H37Rv and Mycobacterium smegmatis MC(2)155 in order to analyze by DNA-microarray the gene expression changes associated respectively to pathogenic and non-pathogenic mycobacterial species. During acid-nitrosative multi-stress both mycobacteria shift their transcriptome to allow the anaerobic respiratory state and energy pathways characteristic of starvation. M. tuberculosis counteracts the combined acid-nitrosative stress more efficiently than M. smegmatis as also shown by the up-regulation of glbN and hmp genes, that are specifically directed to NO detoxification. Moreover, the down-regulation of some virulence factors involved in phthiocerol dimycocerosates synthesis strengthens the hypothesis that these major virulence determinants may be attenuated by M. tuberculosis in the presence of reactive nitrogen species. In fact, it down-regulates other genes implicated in the synthesis of membrane structural lipids but in contrast to M. smegmatis, M. tuberculosis up-regulates many genes annotated for the synthesis of peptidoglycan. Results suggest a gene regulation of M. tuberculosis which reveals a distinctive expression pattern under stressful environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Cossu
- Department of Food Science, Division of Food Microbiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
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81
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Pienaar E, Lerm M. A mathematical model of the initial interaction between Mycobacterium tuberculosis and macrophages. J Theor Biol 2013; 342:23-32. [PMID: 24112967 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2013.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Revised: 09/07/2013] [Accepted: 09/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
There is a large body of literature describing molecular level interactions between Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and macrophages. Macrophages initiate a range of anti-bacterial mechanisms in response to infection, and Mtb is capable of surviving and circumventing many of these responses. We apply a computational approach to ask: what are the effects on the cellular level of these opposing interactions? The model considers the interplay between bacterial killing and the pathogen's interference with macrophage function. The results reveal an oscillating balance between host and pathogen, but the balance is transient and varies in length, indicating that stochasticity in the bacterial population or host response could contribute to the diverse incubation periods observed in exposed individuals. The model captures host and strain variation and gives new insight into host-pathogen compatibility and co-evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsje Pienaar
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, SE-58185 Linköping, Sweden.
| | - Maria Lerm
- Division of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, SE-58185 Linköping, Sweden
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82
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Cook K, Flis S, Ballard C. Sensitivity of Mycobacterium avium
subsp paratuberculosis
,Escherichia coli
and Salmonella enterica
serotype Typhimurium to low pH, high organic acids and ensiling. J Appl Microbiol 2013; 115:334-45. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.12243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2012] [Revised: 04/10/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - S.A. Flis
- William H. Miner Agricultural Research Institute; Chazy NY USA
| | - C.S. Ballard
- William H. Miner Agricultural Research Institute; Chazy NY USA
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83
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Manina G, McKinney JD. A single-cell perspective on non-growing but metabolically active (NGMA) bacteria. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2013; 374:135-61. [PMID: 23793585 DOI: 10.1007/82_2013_333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A long-standing and fundamental problem in microbiology is the non-trivial discrimination between live and dead cells. The existence of physically intact and possibly viable bacterial cells that fail to replicate during a more or less protracted period of observation, despite environmental conditions that are ostensibly propitious for growth, has been extensively documented in many different organisms. In clinical settings, non-culturable cells may contribute to non-apparent infections capable of reactivating after months or years of clinical latency, a phenomenon that has been well documented in the specific case of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The prevalence of these silent but potentially problematic bacterial reservoirs has been highlighted by classical approaches such as limiting culture dilution till extinction of growing cells, followed by resuscitation of apparently "viable but non-culturable" (VBNC) subpopulations. Although these assays are useful to demonstrate the presence of VBNC cells in a population, they are effectively retrospective and are not well suited to the analysis of non-replicating cells per se. Here, we argue that research on a closely related problem, which we shall refer to as the "non-growing but metabolically active" state, is poised to advance rapidly thanks to the recent development of novel technologies and methods for real-time single-cell analysis. In particular, the combination of fluorescent reporter dyes and strains, microfluidic and microelectromechanical systems, and time-lapse fluorescence microscopy offers tremendous and largely untapped potential for future exploration of the physiology of non-replicating cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Manina
- School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland,
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Puspita ID, Kamagata Y, Tanaka M, Asano K, Nakatsu CH. Are uncultivated bacteria really uncultivable? Microbes Environ 2012; 27:356-66. [PMID: 23059723 PMCID: PMC4103542 DOI: 10.1264/jsme2.me12092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2012] [Accepted: 06/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Many strategies have been used to increase the number of bacterial cells that can be grown from environmental samples but cultivation efficiency remains a challenge for microbial ecologists. The difficulty of cultivating a fraction of bacteria in environmental samples can be classified into two non-exclusive categories. Bacterial taxa with no cultivated representatives for which appropriate laboratory conditions necessary for growth are yet to be identified. The other class is cells in a non-dividing state (also known as dormant or viable but not culturable cells) that require the removal or addition of certain factors to re-initiate growth. A number of strategies, from simple to high throughput techniques, are reviewed that have been used to increase the cultivation efficiency of environmental samples. Some of the underlying mechanisms that contribute to the success of these cultivation strategies are described. Overall this review emphasizes the need of researchers to first understand the factors that are hindering cultivation to identify the best strategies to improve cultivation efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indun Dewi Puspita
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, N9 W9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060–8589,
Japan
| | - Yoichi Kamagata
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, N9 W9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060–8589,
Japan
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 2–17 Tsukisamu-Higashi, Toyohira, Sapporo, Hokkaido 062–8517,
Japan
| | - Michiko Tanaka
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, N9 W9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060–8589,
Japan
| | - Kozo Asano
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, N9 W9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060–8589,
Japan
| | - Cindy H. Nakatsu
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, N9 W9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060–8589,
Japan
- Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907,
USA
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Bald D, Koul A. Advances and strategies in discovery of new antibacterials for combating metabolically resting bacteria. Drug Discov Today 2012; 18:250-5. [PMID: 23032727 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2012.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2012] [Revised: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 09/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Discovery of new antibacterial agents is crucial to counter the challenge of drug-resistant bacterial infections. In this review we discuss the issue of bacterial metabolic resting states, observed for a variety of pathogenic bacteria, which display low susceptibility for most antibacterials. We present examples of how bacterial metabolic states may be controlled, target pathways may be validated and screening on metabolically resting bacteria can be designed. A deeper understanding of bacterial metabolic states may provide valuable input for the design of efficient screening approaches in the discovery of new antibacterial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Bald
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Faculty of Earth- and Life Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Fang X, Wallqvist A, Reifman J. Modeling phenotypic metabolic adaptations of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv under hypoxia. PLoS Comput Biol 2012; 8:e1002688. [PMID: 23028286 PMCID: PMC3441462 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 07/23/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to adapt to different conditions is key for Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), to successfully infect human hosts. Adaptations allow the organism to evade the host immune responses during acute infections and persist for an extended period of time during the latent infectious stage. In latently infected individuals, estimated to include one-third of the human population, the organism exists in a variety of metabolic states, which impedes the development of a simple strategy for controlling or eradicating this disease. Direct knowledge of the metabolic states of M. tuberculosis in patients would aid in the management of the disease as well as in forming the basis for developing new drugs and designing more efficacious drug cocktails. Here, we propose an in silico approach to create state-specific models based on readily available gene expression data. The coupling of differential gene expression data with a metabolic network model allowed us to characterize the metabolic adaptations of M. tuberculosis H37Rv to hypoxia. Given the microarray data for the alterations in gene expression, our model predicted reduced oxygen uptake, ATP production changes, and a global change from an oxidative to a reductive tricarboxylic acid (TCA) program. Alterations in the biomass composition indicated an increase in the cell wall metabolites required for cell-wall growth, as well as heightened accumulation of triacylglycerol in preparation for a low-nutrient, low metabolic activity life style. In contrast, the gene expression program in the deletion mutant of dosR, which encodes the immediate hypoxic response regulator, failed to adapt to low-oxygen stress. Our predictions were compatible with recent experimental observations of M. tuberculosis activity under hypoxic and anaerobic conditions. Importantly, alterations in the flow and accumulation of a particular metabolite were not necessarily directly linked to differential gene expression of the enzymes catalyzing the related metabolic reactions. Mycobacterium tuberculosis latently infects one-third of the human population and is responsible for millions of deaths worldwide every year. The ability of the pathogen to persist in the human population stems from its capacity to adapt to host-induced stresses and adjust its metabolism to different host environments. We have developed a novel model to interpret M. tuberculosis H37Rv metabolic adjustment by combining gene transcription data with a genome-scale metabolic network model. Using our model, we were able to identify the changes in the metabolic program associated with hypoxia, predict phenotypic change, and determine the critical metabolic enzymes and pathways that are required for pathogen survival. In particular, we predicted the switch in the tricarboxylic acid cycle from an oxidative to a reductive path. The altered importance of different metabolites and pathways under hypoxic conditions may provide guidance for designing novel, adjuvant drug therapies for clearing persistent and latent infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Fang
- DoD Biotechnology High-Performance-Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA
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Peptidoglycan fragments stimulate resuscitation of “non-culturable” mycobacteria. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 2012; 103:37-46. [DOI: 10.1007/s10482-012-9784-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2012] [Accepted: 07/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Abstract
The history of the development of modern chemotherapy for tuberculosis (TB), largely due to the British Medical Research Council, is first described. There is a current need to shorten the duration of treatment and to prevent and cure drug-resistant disease. These aims will only be achieved if the way in which multidrug treatment prevents resistance from emerging and the reasons for the very slow response to chemotherapy are understood. Consideration of mutation rates to resistance and the size of bacterial populations in lesions makes it very unlikely that resistance would emerge spontaneously, leaving irregularity in drug taking and inadequate dosage as the main reasons for its occurrence. Slow response to treatment seems due to the presence of persister populations whose natural history is only partly known. In the future, we need to explore the persister state in patients and in experimental murine TB, and to take it into account in the design of future mouse experiments. The activity of rifamycins and pyrazinamide is being increased by a rise in rifamycin dosage and the inhalation of pyrazinoic acid. New drugs are gradually being brought into use, initially TMC207 and the nitroimadazoles, PA824 and OPC67683. They will need to be tested in new combination regimens for drug-susceptible and multi- and extensively drug-resistant disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Mitchison
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, St George's Hospital Medical School, London, UK.
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