Adjuvant effects of protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol saponins from ginseng roots on the immune responses to ovalbumin in mice

Frequent Genetic Defects in the HIV-1 5' LTR/gag Gene in Hemophiliacs Treated with Korean Red Ginseng: Decreased Detection of Genetic Defects by Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy

We investigated whether Korean red ginseng (KRG) and highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) affect the frequency of gross deletion in 5’LTR/gag in 20 hemophiliacs. This study is a prospective study in 20 hemophiliacs who were infected with Korean subclade B of HIV-1 from two cash-paid plasma donors in 1990. Over a 13-year period, we obtained 436 amplicons of 5’LTR/gag genes by nested polymerase chain reaction using 147 peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Of the 436 amplicons, 92 (21.1%) showed gross deletion in 5’LTR/gag. Despite of a 2.3-fold higher monthly dose of KRG intake, the frequency of gross deletion in 5’LTR/gag (16.4%) was significantly decreased during HAART compared with 28.1% prior to HAART (p<0.01). Gross deletion in 5’LTR/gag was 10% more detected on KRG-therapy than prior to KRG-therapy (p<0.05). In addition, we also obtained 28 amplicons containing premature stop codon or isoleucine at initiation codon of 254 amplicons sequenced on KRG intake (7.5%) or HAART (13.6%) compared with 0% before KRG intake. These findings indicate that high frequency of gross deletion in 5’LTR/gag and genetic defects prior to HAART are significantly associated with KRG intake and the detection of gross deletion in 5’LTR/gag is decreased by HAART.

Naturally derived anti-inflammatory compounds from Chinese medicinal plants

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Though inflammatory response is beneficial to body damage repair, if it is out of control, it can produce adverse effects on the body. Although purely western anti-inflammatory drugs, orthodox medicines, can control inflammation occurrence and development, it is not enough. The clinical efficacy of anti-inflammation therapies is unsatisfactory, thus the search for new anti-inflammation continues. Chinese Material Medica (CMM) remains a promising source of new therapeutic agents. CMM and herbal formulae from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), unorthodox medicines, play an improtant anti-inflammatory role in multi-targets, multi-levels, and multi-ways in treating inflammation diseases in a long history in China, based on their multi-active ingredient characteristics. Due to these reasons, recently, CMM has been commercialized as an anti-inflammation agent which has become increasingly popular in the world health drug markets. Major research contributions in ethnopharmacology have generated vast amount of data associated with CMM in anti-inflammtion aspect. Therefore, a systematic introduction of CMM anti-inflammatory research progress is of great importance and necessity.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This paper strives to describe the progress of CMM in the treatment of inflammatory diseases from different aspects, and provide the essential theoretical support and scientific evidence for the further development and utilization of CMM resources as a potential anti-inflammation drug through a variety of databases.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Literature survey was performed via electronic search (SciFinder®, Pubmed®, Google Scholar and Web of Science) on papers and patents and by systematic research in ethnopharmacological literature at various university libraries.

RESULTS

This review mainly introduced the current research on the anti-inflammatory active ingredient, anti-inflammatory effects of CMM, their mechanism, anti-inflammatory drug development of CMM, and toxicological information.

CONCLUSION

CMM is used clinically to treat inflammation symptoms in TCM, and its effect is mediated by multiple targets through multiple active ingredients. Although scholars around the world have made studies on the anti-inflammatory studies of CMM from different pathways and aspects and have made substantial progress, further studies are warranted to delineate the inflammation actions in more cogency models, establish the toxicological profiles and quality standards, assess the potentials of CMM in clinical applications, and make more convenient preparations easy to administrate for patients. Development of the clinically anti-inflammatory drugs are also warranted.

Studies on the interactions between ginsenosides and liposome by equilibrium dialysis combined with ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

To study the interactions between components of Panax Ginseng and liposome biomembrane, we applied the equilibrium dialysis system combined with ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) approach to analyze and identify the bioactive components of ginseng. Moreover, the effect of pH value has also been investigated on their interactions between the ginsenosides of ginseng extract and biomembrane. The result shows that seven kinds of ginsenosides have obvious interactions with biomembrane in comparison with the standards in terms of tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) data along with retention time, including four panaxadiol ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd) and three panaxatriol ginsenosides (Re, Rf, Rg2). The value of binding degree decreased with the increase of molecular weight. The sugar moieties which are attached to C-20 were the main factor affecting the binding degree of panaxadiol ginsenosides. The interactions between panaxadiol ginsenosides and biomembrane correlate to the type and number of sugar moieties in ginsenosides. The sugar moieties which are at C-6 and C-20 have been shown to influence the value of binding degree for panaxatriol ginsenosides. In addition, the pH value has been shown to have an impact on the interactions. Overall, ginsenoside Rd has a better absorption character among the seven ginsenosides. In the study, we have screened the potential bioactive components of ginseng in vitro using the equilibrium dialysis-UPLC-MS/MS method, and then predicted the potential bioactivities of ginseng, which contribute to the investigation of the efficacy of ginseng.

Sensitization of TRAIL-induced cell death by 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3 via CHOP-mediated DR5 upregulation in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells

The TRAIL pathway is a potential therapeutic target for anticancer drugs due to selective cytotoxicity in cancer cells. Despite considerable promise, TRAIL or TRAIL receptor agonists have been used thus far with limited success in multiple clinical trials, in part due to acquired TRAIL resistance during chemotherapeutic treatment. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a common solid tumor and the third leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Classical chemotherapy is not effective for HCC treatment and targeted therapy is limited to sorafenib. Isolated from Panax ginseng CA Meyer, 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3 is a steroidal saponin with high pharmacologic activity that has been shown to sensitize cells to some chemotherapeutic agents. We investigated the sensitizing effect of Rg3 on TRAIL-induced cell death in HCC cells. We show Rg3 is capable of promoting TRAIL-induced apoptosis in a number of HCC cell lines, including HepG2, SK-Hep1, Huh-7, and Hep3B, but not in normal HL-7702 hepatocytes, indicating that Rg3 sensitization to TRAIL may be specific to cancer cells. Mechanistically, we found that Rg3 upregulates DR5 expression at the transcriptional level. DR5 upregulation in this case is mediated by C/EBP homology protein (CHOP), an important endoplasmic reticulum stress responsive protein. Furthermore, Rg3 is well tolerated and enhances the therapeutic efficacy of TRAIL in mouse xenograft models, suggesting that chemosensitization also occurs in vivo. Taken together, our study identifies Rg3 as a novel anticancer therapeutic agent and supports the further development of Rg3 as a chemosensitizer in combined therapy with TRAIL.

Adjuvant effect of docetaxel on the immune responses to influenza A H1N1 vaccine in mice

BACKGROUND

Vaccination remains one of the most effective approaches to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. Immune responses to vaccination can be enhanced by inclusion of adjuvant in a vaccine. Paclitaxel extracted from the bark of the Pacific yew tree Taxus brevifola was previously demonstrated to have adjuvant property. Compared to paclitaxel, docetaxel is another member of taxane family, and is more soluble in water and easier to manipulate in medication. To investigate the adjuvant effect of this compound, we measured the immune responses induced by co-administration of a split inactivated influenza H1N1 vaccine antigen with docetaxel.

RESULTS

When co-administered with docetaxel, lower dose antigen (equivalent to 10 ng HA) induced similar levels of IgG and IgG isotypes as well as HI titers to those induced by higher dose antigen (equivalent to 100 ng HA). Docetaxel promoted splenocyte responses to H1N1 antigen, ConA and LPS, mRNA expressions of cytokines (IFN-gamma, IL-12, IL-4 and IL-10) and T-bet/GATA-3 by splenocytes. The enhanced immunity was associated with up-expressed microRNAs (miR-155, miR-150 and miR-146a) in docetaxel-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Docetaxel promoted similar IgE level to but alum promoted significantly higher IgE level than the control.

CONCLUSION

Docetaxel has adjuvant effect on the influenza H1N1 vaccine by up-regulation of Th1/Th2 immune responses. Considering its unique vaccine adjuvant property as well as the safe record as an anti-neoplastic agent clinically used in humans during a long period, docetaxel should be further studied for its use in influenza vaccine production.

Ginsenosides Rg1 and Re act as adjuvant via TLR4 signaling pathway

Previous studies have demonstrated that ginsenosides Rg1 and Re extracted from the root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer have adjuvant properties. However, the molecular mechanisms behind their adjuvant activities remain unclear. In the present study, we first investigated the adjuvant effect of Rg1 and Re on the immune responses to a model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) in C3H/HeB mice as well as in C3H/HeJ mice carrying a defective toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) gene, and then evaluated Rg1 and Re for their stimulation of phosphorylation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65 in the macrophages from above two different strains of mice. In addition, Rg1 and Re were also evaluated for their induction of NF-κB in RAW-Blue™ cells. The results showed that Rg1 and Re had adjuvant activities in stimulating IgG, splenocyte proliferation, and mRNA expression of cytokines IL-4, IL-10, IL-12 and IFN-γ as well as transcription factors GATA-3 and T-bet by splenocytes in C3H/HeB mice but not in C3H/HeJ mice. Rg1 and Re induced phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 at Ser536 in macrophages from C3H/HeB mice but not from C3H/HeJ mice. Both Rg1 and Re induced expression of NF-κB in RAW-Blue™ cells. These results suggested that TLR4 signaling pathway is involved in the adjuvant activities of Rg1 and Re. Nevertheless, pretreatment with anti-TLR4 antibody suppressed the Re- but not Rg1-induced expression of NF-κB, indicating that Rg1 may trigger both extracellular and intracellular TLR4 by passing through the cell membrane while Re only activate extracellular TLR4 as it fails to enter inside of the cells to stimulate intracellular TLR4.

Discovery of new anticancer agents from higher plants

Small organic molecules derived from higher plants have been one of the mainstays of cancer chemotherapy for approximately the past half a century. In the present review, selected single chemical entity natural products of plant origin and their semi-synthetic derivatives currently in clinical trials are featured as examples of new cancer chemotherapeutic drug candidates. Several more recently isolated compounds obtained from plants showing promising in vivo biological activity are also discussed in terms of their potential as anticancer agents, with many of these obtained from species that grow in tropical regions. Since extracts of only a relatively small proportion of the ca. 300,000 higher plants on earth have been screened biologically to date, bioactive compounds from plants should play an important role in future anticancer drug discovery efforts.

Discovery of new anticancer agents from higher plants

Small organic molecules derived from higher plants have been one of the mainstays of cancer chemotherapy for approximately the past half a century. In the present review, selected single chemical entity natural products of plant origin and their semi-synthetic derivatives currently in clinical trials are featured as examples of new cancer chemotherapeutic drug candidates. Several more recently isolated compounds obtained from plants showing promising in vivo biological activity are also discussed in terms of their potential as anticancer agents, with many of these obtained from species that grow in tropical regions. Since extracts of only a relatively small proportion of the ca. 300,000 higher plants on earth have been screened biologically to date, bioactive compounds from plants should play an important role in future anticancer drug discovery efforts.

Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) root fractions: differential effects on postprandial glycemia in healthy individuals

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Variations in ginsenoside profile may predict the postprandial glucose (PPG)-lowering efficacy of ginseng. Previously we reported differential PPG-lowering effects with two Korean red ginseng (KRG) root. FRACTIONS: body and rootlets, of variable ginsenoside profiles. Whether this effect is reproducible with a different KRG source is unclear. We therefore tested two root fractions from a KRG source with elevated ginsenoside levels to assess its effect on PPG.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

After a 12-h overnight fast, 13 healthy individuals (6M:7F; age=28 ± 10 y; BMI=24.1 ± 3 kg/m2; FBG=4.77 ± 0.04 mmol/L) randomly received either 3g of KRG-body, rootlets or placebo, on three separate visits. Treatments were consumed 60 min prior to a standard test meal with capillary blood samples at -60, 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120 min.

RESULTS

The KRGrootlets had>6 fold total ginsensosides than the KRG-body but did not significantly affect PPG. Despite a reduced ginsenoside profile, KRG-body lowered PPG levels at 45, 60, 90 and 120 min during the test (p<0.05), rendering an overall reduction of 27% in incremental area under the glucose curve compared to the control (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Comparing the results with a previously studied batch of KRG suggests a potential therapeutic dose range for ginsenosides. This observation should be clinically verified with acute screening and ginsenoside composition analysis.

Adjuvant effects of Astragalus saponins macrophyllosaponin B and astragaloside VII

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study was undertaken to evaluate the hemolytic activities of two immunomodulator Astragalus saponins [Macrophyllosaponin B (MacB) from Astragalus oleifolius DC. and Astragaloside VII (Ast VII) from Astragalus trojanus Stev.], and their adjuvant potentials on the cellular and humoral immune responses of Swiss albino mice against BSA.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The hemolytic activity of Mac B and Ast VII was determined using 0.5% rabbit red blood cell. For adjuvant activity, Swiss albino mice were immunized subcutaneously with BSA 100 μg alone or with BSA 100 μg dissolved in saline containing Ast VII (30, 60, 120 and 240 μg), Mac B (30, 60, 90 and 120 μg) or Freund's adjuvant on Days 1 and 15. Sera and splenocytes were collected 2 weeks after the last immunization for concanavalin A (Con A)-, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and BSA-stimulated splenocyte proliferation assay and measurement of BSA-specific antibodies in serum.

RESULTS

Mac B and Ast VII showed a slight hemolytic effect, with 0.42% and 0.54% values, respectively, at the highest concentration of 500 μg/ml. Mac B and Ast VII significantly enhanced the Con A-, LPS-, and BSA-induced splenocyte proliferation in the BSA-immunized mice especially at 120 and 240 μg (P<0.001), and 60, 90 and 120 μg (P<0.05, P<0.01 or P<0.001) doses, respectively. BSA-specific IgG, IgG1 and IgG2b antibody titers in serum were also significantly enhanced by Ast VII (120 μg), Mac B (90 μg) and Freund's as compared to the control group (P<0.01 or P<0.001). Moreover, the IFN-γ and IL-4 levels in the sera were detected using ELISA two weeks after the last immunization. Ast VII and Mac B were also found to stimulate IFN-γ production such as Freund's, two weeks after the last immunization at doses of 120 μg and 90 μg, respectively, as compared to the control.

CONCLUSION

Results show that Ast VII and Mac B generate important specific antibody and cellular response against BSA in mice, proving their potentials as a new class saponin adjuvant.

Ginsenoside Rg1 enhances immune response induced by recombinant Toxoplasma gondii SAG1 antigen

Ginsenoside, the most important component isolated from Panax ginseng, exhibits a variety of biological activities. Particularly, ginsenoside Rg1 is known to have immune-modulating activities such as increase of immune activity of T helper (Th) cells. In the present study, we evaluated the immunomodulatory potentials of the Rg1 at three dose levels on the cellular and humoral immune responses of ICR mice against T. gondii recombinant surface antigen 1 (rSAG1). ICR mice were immunized subcutaneously with 50 μg Rg1 alone, 100 μg rSAG1 alone or with 100 μg rSAG1 dissolved in saline containing ginsenoside Rg1 (10 μg, 50 μg or 100 μg). After immunization, we evaluated the immune response using lymphoproliferative assay, cytokine and antibody measurements, and the survival times of mice challenged lethally. The results showed that the groups immunized with rSAG1 and Rg1 (50 μg, 100 μg) developed a high level of specific antibody responses against T. gondii rSAG1, a strong lymphoproliferative response, and significant levels of cytokine production, compared with the other groups. After lethal challenge, the mice immunized with the rSAG1 and Rg1 (50 μg, 100 μg) showed a significantly increased survival time compared with control mice which died within 6 days of challenge. Our data demonstrate that by addition of ginsenoside Rg1, the rSAG1 triggered a stronger humoral and cellular response against T. gondii, and that Rg1 is a promising vaccine adjuvant against toxoplasmosis, worth further development.

Microsomal cytochrome p450-mediated metabolism of protopanaxatriol ginsenosides: metabolite profile, reaction phenotyping, and structure-metabolism relationship

Although the biotransformation of ginsenosides in the gastrointestinal tract has been extensively studied, much less is known about hepatic cytochrome P450 (P450)-catalyzed metabolism. The major aims of this study were to clarify the metabolic pathway and P450 isoforms involved and to explore the structure-metabolism relationship of protopanaxatriol (PPT)-type ginsenosides in hepatic microsomes. Efficient depletion of ginsenoside Rh1, Rg2, Rf, and PPT was found, whereas the elimination of Re and Rg1, characterized by a glucose substitution at the C20 hydroxy group, was negligible in microsomal incubation systems. Based on high-performance liquid chromatography hybrid ion trap and time-of-flight mass spectrometry analysis, the oxygenation metabolism on the C20 aliphatic branch chain was identified as the predominant metabolic pathway of PPT ginsenosides in both human and rat hepatic microsomes. By a comparison with authentic standards, the C24-25 double bond was identified as one of the oxygenation sites to produce the metabolites of C20-24 epoxide (ocotillol-type ginsenosides). Both chemical inhibition and human recombinant P450 isoform assays indicated that CYP3A4 was the predominant isozyme responsible for the oxygenation metabolism of PPT ginsenosides. Enzyme kinetic evaluations in rat and human hepatic microsomes and human recombinant CYP3A4 isozyme incubation systems showed generally consistent results in that the intrinsic clearance ranked as Rf ≤ Rg2 < Rh1 < PPT, closely correlating with logP values and the number of glycosyl substitutions. Results obtained from this study suggest that CYP3A4-catalyzed oxygenation metabolism plays an important role in the hepatic disposition of ginsenosides and that glycosyl substitution, especially at the C20 hydroxy group, determines their intrinsic clearances by CYP3A4.

Paclitaxel acts as an adjuvant to promote both Th1 and Th2 immune responses induced by ovalbumin in mice

Paclitaxel, a diterpenoid isolated from the bark of the Taxus cuspidate cv. Nana, was evaluated for its adjuvant effect on the immune responses in a mouse model. Fifty-six mice were randomly distributed into seven groups with 8 mice in each. Animals were subcutaneously immunized on days 1 and 21 with 100microg of paclitaxel, 10microg of ovalbumin (OVA), OVA with paclitaxel (50, 100 or 200microg) or with aluminum hydroxide (alum). Two weeks after the primary and boost immunizations, blood samples were collected for measurement of serum antibodies. Splenocytes were separated for detection of lymphocyte proliferation in responses to concanavalin A (Con A), lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and OVA, and mRNA expression of Th1 cytokines (IFN-gamma and IL-12), Th2 cytokines (IL-10 and IL-5) and transcription factors T-bet/GATA-3 (Th1/Th2 switcher). Results showed that coadministration of OVA with paclitaxel induced significantly higher IgG, IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b, IgG3 and IgM responses than when OVA was used alone. In addition, up-regulated T-bet/GATA-3 together with significantly increased mRNA expression of IL-4, IL-10, IFN-gamma and IL-12 by splenocytes, as well as the proliferative responses of splenocytes to Con A, LPS and OVA were observed in paclitaxel-adjuvanted groups. Incubation of a murine macrophage-like cell line with paclitaxel significantly increased TNF-alpha and -10 released from the cells and expression of microRNAs such as miR-155, miR-147, miR-146a and miR-132. Therefore, paclitaxel activated both Th1 and Th2 responses. Considering its unique adjuvant effect demonstrated in this study and a safe record clinically used as an antineoplastic agent, paclitaxel could be an ideal adjuvant candidate when mixed Th1/Th2 immune responses are needed.

Enhancement of immune responses to influenza vaccine (H3N2) by ginsenoside Re

This study was designed to evaluate the adjuvant effect of ginsenoside Re isolated from the root of Panax ginseng on the immune responses elicited by split inactivated H3N2 influenza virus antigen in a mouse model. Forty-eight ICR mice were randomly distributed into six groups with 8 mice in each group. All animals were subcutaneously (s.c.) immunized twice on weeks 0 and 3 with 50 microg Re, inactivated H3N2 influenza virus antigen equivalent to 10 or 100 ng of hemogglutinin (HA) or inactivated H3N2 influenza virus antigen equivalent to 10 ng HA adjuvanted with Re (25, 50 or 100 microg). Two weeks after the boost, blood samples were collected for measurement of serum IgG, the IgG isotypes and HI titers. Splenocytes were separated for the detection of lymphocyte proliferation and production of IFN-gamma and IL-5 in vitro. Results showed that co-administration of Re significantly enhanced serum specific IgG, IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b responses, HI titers, lymphocyte proliferation responses as well as IFN-gamma and IL-5 secretions, indicating that both Th1 and Th2 were activated. Considering the adjuvant effect demonstrated in this study, Re deserve further studies for improving the quality of vaccines where mixed Th1/Th2 immune responses are needed.

Adjuvant activities of saponins from traditional Chinese medicinal herbs

New generation vaccines such as recombinant, antigen purified and DNA vaccines are poorly immunogenic due to the lack of an innate immune stimulus. Therefore, search of new adjuvants for these vaccines has become a topic of interesting. In new adjuvant development, saponins are outstanding candidates. Recently, increased attention has been received on plant-derived saponins in search of new adjuvant candidates from traditional Chinese medicinal herbs such as Panax ginseng, Astragalus species, Panax notoginseng,Cochinchina momordica, Glycyrrhiza uralensis and Achyranthes bidentata. Many of the saponins have been found to have adjuvant effects on purified protein antigens. The chemical structures of the saponins are related to their adjuvant activities, and influence the nature of the immune responses. Saponin adjuvants have been reported to stimulate secretion of a broad range of cytokines, suggesting that saponins may act by triggering innate immunity. As these plant-originated adjuvants may promote different branches of the immune system, they have the potential to be used in design of new vaccines so as to induce a desired immune response.

Amplified immune response by ginsenoside-based nanoparticles (ginsomes)

We describe here a novel adjuvant of ginsenoside-based nanoparticles (ginsomes) and its activity for up-regulation of immune response in mice. Ginsomes were assembled during removal of the detergent by dialysis in presence of ginseng saponins extracted from the root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, cholesterol and phosphatidyl choline. The nanoparticles were spherical with diameters ranging from 70 to 107nm, and contained ginsenosides Rb2, Rc, Rb1 and Rd. When co-administered with a model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) in ICR mice, ginsomes at a dose range from 10 to 250microg promoted significantly higher IgG responses than OVA alone. Co-administration of ginsomes with OVA also significantly increased the levels of specific IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b and IgG3, as well as T and B lymphocyte proliferation in response to Con A, LPS and OVA than when OVA was used alone. The enhanced IgG titer and subclass levels paralleled the increased production of IFN-gamma (Th1 cytokine) and IL-5 (Th2 cytokine). Therefore, ginsomes as an adjuvant have up-regulated both Th1 and Th2 immune responses.

Ginseng stem-leaf saponins (GSLS) and mineral oil act synergistically to enhance the immune responses to vaccination against foot-and-mouth disease in mice

Saponins extracted from ginseng stems and leaves (GSLS) as well as the synergistic effect between GSLS and oil emulsion were investigated for their adjuvant effects on the immune responses of mice to vaccination against foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) serotype Asia 1. In experiment A, ICR mice were subcutaneously immunized twice with FMDV antigen with or without GSLS (0, 1, 5, 10 and 20 microg) at 3 week intervals. Highest FMDV-specific IgG level was observed 2 weeks after the boosting in mice immunized with FMDV antigen plus 10 microg of GSLS. In experiment B, mice were subcutaneously injected with FMDV antigen with or without GSLS (10 microg), or in oil emulsion with or without GSLS (10 microg) on days 1 and 21. Results indicated that when co-administered with a mixture of oil and GSLS, FMDV antigen induced significantly higher IgG titer and IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b and IgG3 responses, production of IFN-gamma (Th1 cytokine) and IL-5 (Th2 cytokine) by splenocytes, as well as T and B lymphocyte proliferation in response to Con A and LPS than when FMDV antigen was used alone or mixed with either GSLS or oil. This suggests that GSLS and oil adjuvant synergistically promote both Th1 and Th2 immune responses. As protection against FMDV requires both cellular and humoral immune responses, the combined effects of GSLS and oil deserve further study in other animals such as cattle and pigs in order to induce effective immunity against FMDV infection.

Long-term ginsenoside consumption prevents memory loss in aged SAMP8 mice by decreasing oxidative stress and up-regulating the plasticity-related proteins in hippocampus

Ginsenoside, the effective component of ginseng, has been reported to have a neuron protective effect, but the preventive effect on Alzheimer's disease (AD) related memory loss and the underlying mechanisms have not been well determined. The senescence-accelerated mouse (SAM) is a useful model of AD-related memory impairment. In the present study, SAMP8 mice aged 4 months were chronically treated with ginsenoside (3 dose groups were given ginsenoside in drinking water for 7 months). The three groups were treated with ginsenoside 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg per day, respectively. Placebo-treated aged mice and young ones (4 months old) were used as controls. In addition, SAMR1 mice were used as "normal aging" control. The beneficial role of ginsenoside was manifested in the prevention of memory loss in aged SAMP8 mice. The optimal dose of ginsenoside is 100 or 200 mg/kg per day. In ginsenoside treated groups, the Abeta level markedly decreased in hippocampus and antioxidase level significantly increased in serum. In addition, the plasticity-related proteins in hippocampus significantly increased in the two ginsenoside treated groups. The plasticity-related proteins were checked in the present study including postsynaptic density-95 (PSD-95), phosphor-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor 1 (p-NMDAR1), phospho-calcium-calmodulin dependent kinase II (p-CaMKII), phospho-protein kinase A Catalyticbeta subunit (p-PKA Cbeta) and protein kinase Cgamma subunit (PKCgamma), phospho-CREB (p-CREB) and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) etc. These findings suggest that the increase of antioxidation and up-regulation of plasticity-related proteins in hippocampus may be one of the mechanisms of ginsenoside on the memory loss prevention in aged SAMP8 mice.

Ginsenoside Rg1 and aluminum hydroxide synergistically promote immune responses to ovalbumin in BALB/c mice

The combined adjuvant effect of ginsenoside Rg1 and aluminum hydroxide (alum) on immune responses to ovalbumin (OVA) in mice was investigated. BALB/c mice were subcutaneously (s.c.) inoculated twice with OVA alone or in combination with Rg1, alum, or Rg1 plus alum. Samples were collected 2 weeks after the boosting for the measurement of anti-OVA immunoglobulin G (IgG) isotypes in sera and gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-5 (IL-5) produced in singular splenocyte cultures. Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) responses were measured in mice immunized as described above. After 10 days, the mice were injected s.c. with OVA at the footpads. Thereafter, the thickness of the footpads was measured once daily for 5 days. The results indicated that alum enhanced mainly Th2 (IgG1 and IL-5) responses (P < 0.05), while Rg1 enhanced both Th1 (IgG1 and IL-5) and Th2 (IgG2a, IFN-gamma, and DTH) responses (P < 0.05). The highest immune responses were found in the mice injected with OVA solution containing both alum and Rg1. In addition, the hemolytic activity of Rg1 was much lower than that of Quil A. Therefore, Rg1 deserves further studies in order to tailor desired immune responses when a mixed Th1/Th2 immune response is needed.