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Abstract
Chemical genetics is an emerging approach for studying biological systems using chemical tools. This strategy aims to reveal the macromolecules responsible for regulating biological systems; thus, the approach shares much in common with genetics. In both strategies, one must (a) develop an assay that reports on a biological process of interest, (b) perturb this process systematically (with mutations or small molecules), and (c) determine the target of each perturbation to reveal macromolecules (i.e., proteins and genes) regulating the process of interest. In this review, we discuss advances and challenges in this field that have emerged over the past four years. Several technologies have converged, raising the hope that it may be possible to systematically apply chemical probes to biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inese Smukste
- Department of Biological Sciences and Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, Fairchild Center, New York, New York 10027, USA
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52
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Gonthier E, Breinbauer R. Solid-supported reagents and catalysts for the preparation of large ring compounds. Mol Divers 2005; 9:51-62. [PMID: 15789552 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-005-1308-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Parallel combinatorial synthesis in solution using immobilized reagents, catalysts, and scavengers has emerged as a powerful technique for the preparation of diverse libraries of compounds. This technique has only recently been applied to the synthesis of large-ring compounds. In this comprehensive review several strategies are presented and discussed, including Pd-catalyzed allylic alkylation, Stille-coupling, macrolactonization and macrolactamization using solid supported reagents and catalysts. In several cases site isolation has allowed operation, of these macrocyclization reactions in concentrated solution (pseudo-dilution effect).
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53
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Carbamoylimidazolium and thiocarbamoylimidazolium salts: novel reagents for the synthesis of ureas, thioureas, carbamates, thiocarbamates and amides. Tetrahedron 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2005.05.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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54
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Characterization of N-phosphoryl oligopeptide libraries by ESI-MS and HPLC-MS. Int J Pept Res Ther 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/s10989-005-0119-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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55
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Nikitin S, Zaitseva N, Demina O, Solovieva V, Mazin E, Mikhalev S, Smolov M, Rubinov A, Vlasov P, Lepikhin D, Khachko D, Fokin V, Queen C, Zosimov V. A very large diversity space of synthetically accessible compounds for use with drug design programs. J Comput Aided Mol Des 2005; 19:47-63. [PMID: 16059666 DOI: 10.1007/s10822-005-0097-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2004] [Accepted: 01/03/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We have constructed a very large virtual diversity space containing more than 10(13) chemical compounds. The diversity space is built from about 400 combinatorial libraries, which have been expanded by choosing sizeable collections of suitable R-groups that can be attached to each link point of their scaffolds. These R-group collections have been created by selecting reagents that have drug-like properties from catalogs of available chemicals. As members of known combinatorial libraries, the compounds in the diversity space are in general synthetically accessible and useful as potential drug leads. Hence, the diversity space can be used as a vast source of compounds by a de novo drug design program. For example, we have used such a program to generate inhibitors of HIV integrase enzyme that exhibited activity in the micromolar range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey Nikitin
- Algodign LLC, Bolshaya Sadovaya 8, Moscow 103001, Russia.
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56
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Santagada V, Frecentese F, Perissutti E, Favretto L, Caliendo G. The Application of Microwaves in Combinatorial and High-Throughput Synthesis as New Synthetic Procedure in Drug Discovery. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1002/qsar.200420039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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57
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Guo T, Adang AEP, Dolle RE, Dong G, Fitzpatrick D, Geng P, Ho KK, Kultgen SG, Liu R, McDonald E, McGuinness BF, Saionz KW, Valenzano KJ, van Straten NCR, Xie D, Webb ML. Small molecule biaryl FSH receptor agonists. Part 1: Lead discovery via encoded combinatorial synthesis. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2004; 14:1713-6. [PMID: 15026056 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2004.01.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2003] [Revised: 01/16/2004] [Accepted: 01/19/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
High-throughput screening of two million compounds in 37 distinct encoded combinatorial libraries using FSH receptor transfected cells provided small molecule agonists such as 1 (EC(50)=3 microM) and 2 (EC(50)=3.9 microM), based on which a focused combinatorial library with a total of 31372 compounds was designed, synthesized, and screened to reveal 72 novel biaryl FSH receptor agonists such as 8a-c as well as a unique combinatorial SAR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Guo
- Pharmacopeia, Inc, PO Box 5350, Princeton, NJ 08543-5350,
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58
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Guo T, Hobbs DW. Privileged structure-based combinatorial libraries targeting G protein-coupled receptors. Assay Drug Dev Technol 2004; 1:579-92. [PMID: 15090254 DOI: 10.1089/154065803322302835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Combinatorial chemistry has become a key component of today's drug discovery process. Privileged structures, with their inherent affinity for diverse biological receptors, represent an ideal source of core scaffolds and capping fragments for the design and synthesis of combinatorial libraries targeted at various receptors. GPCRs-distributed widely in the body and involved in many physiological and pathophysiological processes-have been historically among the most popular targets for drug discovery. Numerous privileged structure-based combinatorial libraries have been designed and synthesized, and these libraries have proved to be an extremely powerful tool to aid the rapid discovery and optimization of potent and selective ligands for a wide variety of GPCR targets. This review focuses on recent developments in applying privileged structure-based combinatorial libraries for the discovery and optimization of GPCR ligands and critically evaluates the advantages of the various types of GPCR-targeted libraries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Guo
- Pharmacopeia, Inc., Princeton, NJ 08543, USA.
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59
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Moriggi JD, Brown LJ, Castro JL, Brown RCD. Ring-closing metathesis: development of a cyclisation-cleavage strategy for the solid-phase synthesis of cyclic sulfonamides. Org Biomol Chem 2004; 2:835-44. [PMID: 15007411 DOI: 10.1039/b313686h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A series of novel 7-membered cyclic sulfonamides have been synthesised using a solid-phase cyclisation-cleavage RCM strategy. Model solution studies indicated the sulfonamides were suitable substrates for RCM using the Grubbs' catalyst 2. Starting from either 2-carboxyethyl polystyrene (21) or Merrifield resin, various seven-membered sulfonamides were prepared in good to excellent yields at low catalyst loadings (2.5-5 mol%) using a flexible spacer between the polymer and the substrate. In addition, a novel double-armed linker was shown to allow efficient RCM cleavage of sulfonamides with as little as 1 mol% of the ruthenium alkylidene complex 2.
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60
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References. Antibiotics (Basel) 2003. [DOI: 10.1128/9781555817886.refs] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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61
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Yan B, Tang Q. Comparison of Kinetics of Organic Reactions Carried out on Resin Beads of Different Diameters. Ind Eng Chem Res 2003. [DOI: 10.1021/ie030149u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bing Yan
- ChemRx Division, Discovery Partners International, Inc., 385 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, and Vertex Pharmaceutical Inc., 130 Waverely Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Qing Tang
- ChemRx Division, Discovery Partners International, Inc., 385 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, and Vertex Pharmaceutical Inc., 130 Waverely Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
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62
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Cao S, Su Y, Zhang J, Liu H, Zhao Y. Characterization of N-phosphoryl oligopeptide libraries by ESI-MS and HPLC-MS. Int J Pept Res Ther 2003. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02442597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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63
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Katritzky AR, Cai X, Rogovoy BV. Solid phase synthesis and application of trisubstituted thioureas. JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL CHEMISTRY 2003; 5:392-9. [PMID: 12857107 DOI: 10.1021/cc020109y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Resin-bound amines 1a-e condense with isothiocyanates to give thiourea resins 2a-i. Resins 2a-g subsequently react with iodomethane followed by cleavage affording S-methyl isothioureas 4a-g, and resins 2a-b,h-i react with acyl chlorides to afford N-acylated thioureas 6a-d. N-Acylthioureas 8a-f (R(2) = H) were prepared directly from resin-bound amines 1a-d with acyl isothiocyanates. N-Acylthioureas 8a-d,f(R(2) = H) were used for the preparation of S-methyl-N-acylisothioureas 10a-e. Alkylation was performed using methyl iodide. Resin-bound S-methyl-N-acylisothioureas 10a,b,d are converted by an action of hydrazines into 3-amino-1,2,4-triazoles 13a-d. Condensation of resins 8a-e (R(2) = H) with 2-bromoacetophenones in the presence of TEA affords thiazoles 15 a-e. All transformations proceeded in high yields and gave products of good purities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan R Katritzky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-7200, USA.
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64
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Hermkens PHH, Müller G. The impact of combinatorial chemistry on drug discovery. ERNST SCHERING RESEARCH FOUNDATION WORKSHOP 2003:201-20. [PMID: 12664543 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-05314-0_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P H H Hermkens
- N.V. Organon Research & Development Lead Discovery Unit, P.O. Box 20, 5340 BH Oss, Netherlands.
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65
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66
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Sauer WHB, Schwarz MK. Molecular shape diversity of combinatorial libraries: a prerequisite for broad bioactivity. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL INFORMATION AND COMPUTER SCIENCES 2003; 43:987-1003. [PMID: 12767158 DOI: 10.1021/ci025599w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 335] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A computational method to rapidly assess and visualize the diversity in molecular shape associated with a given compound set has been developed. Normalized ratios of principal moments of inertia are plotted into two-dimensional triangular graphs and then used to compare the shape space covered by different compound sets, such as combinatorial libraries of varying size and composition. We have further developed a computational method to analyze interset similarity in terms of shape space coverage, which allows the shape redundancy between the different subsets of a given compound collection to be analyzed in a quantitative way. The shape space coverage has been found to originate mainly from the nature and the 3D-geometry (but not the size) of the central scaffold, while the number and nature of the peripheral substituents and conformational aspects were shown to be of minor importance. Substantial shape space coverage has been correlated with broad biological activity by applying the same shape analysis to collections of known bioactive compounds, such as MDDR and the GOLD-set. The aggregate of our results corroborates the intuitive notion that molecular shape is intimately linked to biological activity and that a high degree of shape (hence scaffold) diversity in screening collections will increase the odds of addressing a broad range of biological targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang H B Sauer
- Serono Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Department of Chemistry, 14, chemin des Aulx, 1228 Plan-les-Ouates, Geneva, Switzerland
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67
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Preparation of pyrazole and isoxazole libraries on cellulose beads: a new cheap and versatile biopolymer. CR CHIM 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s1631-0748(03)00088-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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68
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Development of a 9-borabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane-mediated solid-phase Suzuki coupling for the preparation of dihydrostilbene analogs. Tetrahedron Lett 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(03)00415-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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69
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Horton DA, Bourne GT, Smythe ML. The combinatorial synthesis of bicyclic privileged structures or privileged substructures. Chem Rev 2003; 103:893-930. [PMID: 12630855 DOI: 10.1021/cr020033s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2447] [Impact Index Per Article: 116.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Douglas A Horton
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, 4072 Queensland, Australia
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70
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Espada A, Rivera-Sagredo A. Ammonium hydrogencarbonate, an excellent buffer for the analysis of basic drugs by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry at high pH. J Chromatogr A 2003; 987:211-20. [PMID: 12613814 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(02)01819-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Ammonium hydrogencarbonate buffer has been found to be especially useful for high-pH HPLC analysis of samples from both combinatorial and medicinal chemistry sources. Satisfactory results were obtained by the standard diode array, evaporative light-scattering, and MS detection by using this buffer at a concentration of 10 mM. From a practical standpoint, ammonium hydrogencarbonate is an ideal buffer for chromatographers since it provides excellent chromatographic behaviour and reproducible separation. In addition to this, its volatility makes it an essential tool for rapid LC-MS product identification. Ammonium hydrogencarbonate was tested for a number of drug-like compounds analysed as mixtures, and data obtained were compared to those from the classical and MS-friendly buffers widely used by chromatographers: trifluoroacetic and formic acids. The results of this study revealed the suitability of this buffer for routine HPLC application in research laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso Espada
- DCR&T Alcobendas, European Analytical Technologies, Lilly S.A., Avda. de la Industria 30, 28108 Alcobendas, Spain
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71
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Okada H, Akaki T, Oderaotoshi Y, Minakata S, Komatsu M. Generation and cycloaddition of polymer-supported azomethine ylide by utilizing the characteristics of silicon: a facile route to pyrrolidines and pyrroles from α-silylimines bound to resin. Tetrahedron 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4020(02)01473-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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72
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Bräse S, Dahmen S, Lormann ME. Multifunctional Linkers as an Efficient Tool for the Synthesis of Diverse Small Molecule Libraries: The Triazene Anchors. Methods Enzymol 2003; 369:127-50. [PMID: 14722951 DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(03)69007-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Bräse
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Karlsruhe (TH), Fritz-Haber-Weg 6, Karlsruhe, D-76131, Germany
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73
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Komatsu M, Okada H, Akaki T, Oderaotoshi Y, Minakata S. Generation and cycloaddition of polymer-supported azomethine ylide via a 1,2-silatropic shift of alpha-silylimines: traceless synthesis of pyrrolidine derivatives. Org Lett 2002; 4:3505-8. [PMID: 12323055 DOI: 10.1021/ol026634n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of polymer-supported azomethine ylides to dipolarophiles gave pyrrolidine derivatives in good yields. The azomethine ylides were generated from resin-bound alpha-silylimines via a 1,2-silatropic shift. The features of this method are not only a traceless synthesis but also a unique solid-phase route to pyrrolidines with extensive diversity. [reaction: see text]
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuo Komatsu
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Yamadaoka 2-1, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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74
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Poirier D, Ciobanu LC, Bérubé M. A multidetachable sulfamate linker successfully used in a solid-Phase strategy to generate libraries of sulfamate and phenol derivatives. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2002; 12:2833-8. [PMID: 12270157 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(02)00637-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The sulfamates and phenols constitute two families of compounds with numerous interesting biological properties. Using the ability of a new multidetachable sulfamate linker to generate these two families of compounds from the same resin, we designed and synthesized libraries of estradiol derivatives, sulfamoylated or not. A C-16beta side chain was then judiciously diversified to target two key steroidogenic enzymes, the steroid sulfates and the type 1 17beta-HSD. Four libraries of sulfamate and phenol derivatives were easily obtained by solid-phase parallel synthesis in good crude overall yields (13-62%) and HPLC purities (85-96%). Such strategy using the new two-in-line sulfamate linker could be also extended to other therapeutic targets than steroidogenic enzymes, thus adding to its potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald Poirier
- Medicinal Chemistry Division, Oncology and Molecular Endocrinology Research Center and Laval University, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec (CHUQ), Pavillon CHUL, 2705 Laurier Boulevard, Québec, Qc, Canada.
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75
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Parallel synthesis of 1,2,4-trisubstituted imidazoles via N-alkyl-N-(β-keto)amides using a carbazate linker. Tetrahedron Lett 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(02)01810-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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76
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Seneci P, Miertus S. Combinatorial chemistry and high-throughput screening in drug discovery: different strategies and formats. Mol Divers 2002; 5:75-89. [PMID: 11865648 DOI: 10.1023/a:1013824317218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Different strategies for the discovery of novel leads interacting with therapeutically relevant targets are thoroughly presented and discussed, using also three recent examples. Emphasis is given to approaches which do not require extensive resources and budgets, but rather prove how cleverness and creativity can provide active compounds in drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Seneci
- Nucleotide Analog Pharma AG, Landsbergerstrasse 50, D-80339 München, Germany.
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77
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Rastogi SK, Gupta P, Srinivasan T, Kundu B. Combinatorial synthesis of unsymmetrical secondary amines. Application to arylethanolamines, arylpropanolamines and aryloxypropanolamines. Mol Divers 2002; 5:91-104. [PMID: 11865649 DOI: 10.1023/a:1013884926081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Combinatorial libraries of unsymmetrical secondary amines: arylethanolamine, arylpropanolamines and aryloxypropanolamines [1], in particular have been synthesized by four different routes using styrenes, aldehydes, hydroxyaromatic acids and bromoaliphatic acids. The structurally diverse libraries were generated in parallel format using solid phase methodology. The compounds corresponding to prototype I-IV were obtained in high yields and purities.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Rastogi
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow 226 001, India
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78
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Abstract
The increasing need to efficiently assemble small molecules as potential modulators of therapeutic targets that are emerging from genomics and proteomics is driving the development of novel technologies for small-molecule synthesis. Here, we describe some of the general applications and approaches to synthesis using one such technology--solid-supported reagents--that has been shown to significantly improve productivity in the generation of combinatorial libraries and complex target molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven V Ley
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK.
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79
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Richards WG. Virtual screening using grid computing: the screensaver project. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2002; 1:551-5. [PMID: 12120261 DOI: 10.1038/nrd841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W Graham Richards
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QH, UK.
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80
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Schiedel MS, Briehn CA, Bäuerle P. CC Cross-coupling reactions for the combinatorial synthesis of novel organic materials. J Organomet Chem 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0022-328x(02)01153-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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81
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Halperin I, Ma B, Wolfson H, Nussinov R. Principles of docking: An overview of search algorithms and a guide to scoring functions. Proteins 2002; 47:409-43. [PMID: 12001221 DOI: 10.1002/prot.10115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 771] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The docking field has come of age. The time is ripe to present the principles of docking, reviewing the current state of the field. Two reasons are largely responsible for the maturity of the computational docking area. First, the early optimism that the very presence of the "correct" native conformation within the list of predicted docked conformations signals a near solution to the docking problem, has been replaced by the stark realization of the extreme difficulty of the next scoring/ranking step. Second, in the last couple of years more realistic approaches to handling molecular flexibility in docking schemes have emerged. As in folding, these derive from concepts abstracted from statistical mechanics, namely, populations. Docking and folding are interrelated. From the purely physical standpoint, binding and folding are analogous processes, with similar underlying principles. Computationally, the tools developed for docking will be tremendously useful for folding. For large, multidomain proteins, domain docking is probably the only rational way, mimicking the hierarchical nature of protein folding. The complexity of the problem is huge. Here we divide the computational docking problem into its two separate components. As in folding, solving the docking problem involves efficient search (and matching) algorithms, which cover the relevant conformational space, and selective scoring functions, which are both efficient and effectively discriminate between native and non-native solutions. It is universally recognized that docking of drugs is immensely important. However, protein-protein docking is equally so, relating to recognition, cellular pathways, and macromolecular assemblies. Proteins function when they are bound to other molecules. Consequently, we present the review from both the computational and the biological points of view. Although large, it covers only partially the extensive body of literature, relating to small (drug) and to large protein-protein molecule docking, to rigid and to flexible. Unfortunately, when reviewing these, a major difficulty in assessing the results is the non-uniformity in the formats in which they are presented in the literature. Consequently, we further propose a way to rectify it here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inbal Halperin
- Sackler Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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82
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Abstract
Notable limitations have previously prevented the wide application of split synthesis. However, recent developments in highly condensed and miniaturized biological screening and single-bead analysis methods have argued for a revival of split combinatorial synthesis. Although there are still many challenges, we are now in a much better position to accomplish high-throughput analysis and screening of one-bead-one-compound libraries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Yan
- ChemRx Division of Discovery Partners International, 385 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA.
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83
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Nicolaou KC, Montagnon T, Ulven T, Baran PS, Zhong YL, Sarabia F. Novel chemistry of alpha-tosyloxy ketones: applications to the solution- and solid-phase synthesis of privileged heterocycle and enediyne libraries. J Am Chem Soc 2002; 124:5718-28. [PMID: 12010045 DOI: 10.1021/ja012146j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
New synthetic technologies for the preparation and elaboration of alpha-tosyloxy ketones in solution- and on solid-phase are described. Both olefins and ketones serve as precursors to these relatively stable chemical entities: olefins via a novel one-pot epoxidation, arylsulfonic acid displacement, and oxidation sequence, and ketones by direct exposure to arylsulfonic acids in the presence of diacetoxy iodobenzene. Reaction of these substrates with O-, S-, or N-centered nucleophiles leads to incorporation of the nucleophile with concomitant expulsion of the sulfonate, while exposure to bis-functional nucleophiles furnishes annulated heterocyclic systems. In addition, the reactions of carbon-centered nucleophiles with alpha-tosylyloxy ketones are also explored. The collated data for all these nucleophiles provide compelling evidence for the proposal that different reaction pathways are followed when alpha-tosyloxy ketones are engaged by "hard" versus "soft" nucleophiles. The accessibility and site-selectivity of the chemistry demonstrated herein offer the promise of an expanded use for this moiety in solid-phase library construction, in particular, and in the field of organic synthesis, in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- K C Nicolaou
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA.
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84
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Abstract
The current drug discovery processes in many pharmaceutical companies require large and growing collections of high quality lead structures for use in high throughput screening assays. Collections of small molecules with diverse structures and "drug-like" properties have, in the past, been acquired by several means: by archive of previous internal lead optimization efforts, by purchase from compound vendors, and by union of separate collections following company mergers. More recently, many drug discovery companies have established dedicated efforts to effect synthesis by internal and/or outsourcing efforts of targeted compound libraries for new lead generation. Although high throughput/combinatorial chemistry is an important component in the process of new lead generation, the selection of library designs for synthesis and the subsequent design of library members has evolved to a new level of challenge and importance. The potential benefits of screening multiple small molecule compound library designs against multiple biological targets offers substantial opportunity to discover new lead structures. Subsequent optimization of such compounds is often accelerated because of the structure-activity relationship (SAR) information encoded in these lead generation libraries. Lead optimization is often facilitated due to the ready applicability of high-throughput chemistry (HTC) methods for follow-up synthesis. Some of the strategies, trends, and critical issues central to the success of lead generation processes are discussed below.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Goodnow
- New Leads Chemistry Initiative, Roche Research Center, Nutley, New Jersey 07110-1199, USA.
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85
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86
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Abstract
Liquid-phase synthesis of 2-arylaminobenzimidazoles using soluble polymer support strategy is first described. The key step to benzimidazole skeleton is achieved in the presence of diisopropylcarbodimide (DICDI) and isothiocyanates. A mechanism study for one-pot cyclodesulfurization is also investigated on the support. A wide range of benzimidazole derivatives is synthesized in excellent yield and purity just by simple wash and precipitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuo-Ting Huang
- Department of Chemistry, National Dong Hwa University, Shou-Feng, Hualien 974, Taiwan
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87
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Abstract
Soluble polymer-supported synthetic method provides a highly efficient route for the construction of biologically important 1,5-benzodiazepin-2-ones. A library of N-substituted benzodiazepinones can be readily assembled utilizing S(N)Ar reaction, reduction of nitro group and one-pot cyclization following N-alkylation as the key step in the synthesis. All reactions in the sequence were performed at room temperature to facilitate the generation of libraries in a parallel fashion. The crude products were obtained in 80-95% yield with 60-96% HPLC purity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Yi Wu
- Department of Chemistry, National Dong-Hwa University, Shou-Feng, 974, Hualien, Taiwan
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88
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Lebreton S, Newcombe N, Bradley M. Rapid synthesis of high-loading resins using triple branched protected monomer for dendrimer synthesis. Tetrahedron Lett 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(02)00294-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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89
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Cournoyer JJ, Kshirsagar T, Fantauzzi PP, Figliozzi GM, Makdessian T, Yan B. Color test for the detection of resin-bound aldehyde in solid-phase combinatorial synthesis. JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL CHEMISTRY 2002; 4:120-4. [PMID: 11886285 DOI: 10.1021/cc010060g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We report the development of a sensitive and specific color test for the detection of the presence of resin-bound aldehyde groups using 4-amino-3-hydrazino-5-mercapto-1,2,4-triazole (Purpald). Aldehyde resin turns dark-brown to purple after a 5 min reaction followed by a 10 min air oxidation period. Resins that possess other functional groups (i.e., ketone, ester, amide, alcohol, and carboxylic acid) do not change color under the same conditions. The detection limit is 20 micromol/g for polystyrene-based aldehyde resins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason J Cournoyer
- ChemRx Advanced Technologies, 385 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
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90
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Ding S, Gray NS, Wu X, Ding Q, Schultz PG. A combinatorial scaffold approach toward kinase-directed heterocycle libraries. J Am Chem Soc 2002; 124:1594-6. [PMID: 11853431 DOI: 10.1021/ja0170302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A novel strategy for efficient synthesis of various substituted heterocycles as kinase-directed combinatorial libraries is described. The general scheme involves capture of various dichloroheterocycles onto solid support and further elaborations by aromatic substitution with amines at elevated temperature or by anilines, boronic acids, and phenols via palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions, thus the scaffold itself is transformed into a diversity element within the combinatorial scheme. Libraries consisting of discrete and highly diverse heterocyclic small molecules constructed with these chemistries are currently being evaluated in a variety of cell and protein-based assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Ding
- Department of Chemistry and the Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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91
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92
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Shey JY, Sun CM. Liquid-phase combinatorial reaction monitoring by conventional 1H NMR spectroscopy. Tetrahedron Lett 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(02)00061-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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93
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Arya P, Joseph R, Chou DTH. Toward high-throughput synthesis of complex natural product-like compounds in the genomics and proteomics age. CHEMISTRY & BIOLOGY 2002; 9:145-56. [PMID: 11880029 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-5521(02)00105-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
In the age of high-throughput biology, novel genes and proteins are emerging quickly. The need for developing organic synthesis-derived methods that allow rapid access to polyfunctional, complex natural product-like compounds is growing constantly, largely because these small-molecule-based compounds serve as smart, powerful tools both in understanding the roles and functions of emerging biological targets and in validating their biological responses. Developing asymmetric synthesis-derived organic reactions on solid phase allows the synthesis of complex natural product-like compounds in a high-throughput manner. Solid phase organic synthesis is now commonly utilized in the library synthesis of rather simple compounds (i.e., compounds with no multiple stereogenic centers). With few exceptions, the synthesis of complex natural product-like derivatives is still in its infancy. Some recent efforts made in this area indicate opportunities yet to be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prabhat Arya
- Chemical Biology Program, Steacie Institute for Molecular Sciences, National Research Council of Canada, 100 Sussex Drive, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0R6, Canada
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94
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Holland RJ, Hardcastle IR, Dick AG, Nutley BP, Hayes A, Jarman M. Pentafluoronitrobenzene a novel scaffold for the solid-phase synthesis of 2,4,6-substituted-3,5-difluoronitrobenzene libraries. Tetrahedron Lett 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(01)02237-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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95
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96
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Lou B. Novel strategies for solid-phase construction of small-molecule combinatorial libraries. Drug Discov Today 2001; 6:1288-1294. [PMID: 11738971 DOI: 10.1016/s1359-6446(01)02070-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
During the past decade we witnessed a rapid advance in the new field of chemical science, combinatorial chemistry. The pharmaceutical industries invested heavily in accelerating the development of this new technology. As a result, it has become an extremely important tool in lead identification and optimization in current pharmaceutical research. It also quickly crossed the boundaries of the original chemical discipline and demonstrated great potential in many other important areas, such as searching for novel and highly efficient catalysts and superconductive material. Researchers from both academic and industrial laboratories have directed great effort towards the development of novel strategies for combinatorial synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boliang Lou
- Advanced SynTech, 9800 Bluegrass Parkway, 40299,. Tel.: +1-502-499-0122; fax: +1-502-499-0078., Louisville, KT, USA
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97
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98
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Blackwell HE, Pérez L, Stavenger RA, Tallarico JA, Cope Eatough E, Foley MA, Schreiber SL. A one-bead, one-stock solution approach to chemical genetics: part 1. CHEMISTRY & BIOLOGY 2001; 8:1167-82. [PMID: 11755396 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-5521(01)00085-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In chemical genetics, small molecules instead of genetic mutations are used to modulate the functions of proteins rapidly and conditionally, thereby allowing many biological processes to be explored. This approach requires the identification of compounds that regulate pathways and bind to proteins with high specificity. Structurally complex and diverse small molecules can be prepared using diversity-oriented synthesis, and the split-pool strategy allows their spatial segregation on individual polymer beads, but typically in quantities that limit their usefulness. RESULTS We report full details of the first phase of our platform development, including the synthesis of a high-capacity solid-phase bead/linker system, the development of a reliable library encoding strategy, and the design of compound decoding methods both from macrobeads and stock solutions. This phase was validated by the analysis of an enantioselective, diversity-oriented synthesis resulting in an encoded 4320-member library of structurally complex dihydropyrancarboxamides. CONCLUSIONS An efficient and accessible approach to split-pool, diversity-oriented synthesis using high-capacity macrobeads as individual microreactors has been developed. Each macrobead contains sufficient compound to generate a stock solution amenable to many biological assays, and reliable library encoding allows for rapid compound structure elucidation post-synthesis. This 'one-bead, one-stock solution' strategy is a central element of a technology platform aimed at advancing chemical genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- H E Blackwell
- Howard Hughes Medical Institutes at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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99
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Abstract
Combinatorial chemistry has become a popular tool for the preparation of collections of compounds that can be used to find inhibitors and substrates for different protein targets. It has evolved to provide small molecule libraries, which, with the concomittant use of affinity chromatography, gene expression profiling and complementation, can be used to identify compounds and their protein targets in biological systems, including the neurological system.
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Affiliation(s)
- N S Gray
- Novartis Institute of Functional Genomics, 3115 Merryfield Row Suite 200, 92121-1125, San Diego, CA 92121-1125, USA.
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100
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Nicolaou KC, Hughes R, Pfefferkorn JA, Barluenga S, Roecker AJ. Combinatorial synthesis through disulfide exchange: discovery of potent psammaplin A type antibacterial agents active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Chemistry 2001; 7:4280-95. [PMID: 11686609 DOI: 10.1002/1521-3765(20011001)7:19<4280::aid-chem4280>3.0.co;2-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Psammaplin A is a symmetrical bromotyrosine-derived disulfide natural product isolated from the Psammaplysilla sponge, which exhibits in vitro antibacterial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Inspired by the structure of this marine natural product, a combinatorial scrambling strategy for the construction of heterodimeric disulfide analogues was developed and applied to the construction of a 3828-membered library starting from 88 homodimeric disulfides. These psammaplin A analogues were screened directly against various gram positive bacterial strains leading to the discovery of a series of potent antibacterial agents active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Among the most active leads derived from these studies are compounds 104, 105, 113, 115, 123, and 128. The present, catalytically-induced, disulfide exchange strategy may be extendable to other types of building blocks bearing thiol groups facilitating the construction of diverse discovery-oriented combinatorial libraries.
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Affiliation(s)
- K C Nicolaou
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA.
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