A new insight into potential regulation on growth and power generation of Geobacter sulfurreducens in microbial fuel cells based on energy viewpoint

Influence of Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria on the Corrosion Behavior of High Strength Steel EQ70 under Cathodic Polarization

Certain species of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) use cathodes as electron donors for metabolism, and this electron transfer process may influence the proper protection potential choice for structures. The interaction between SRB and polarized electrodes had been the focus of numerous investigations. In this paper, the impact of cathodic protection (CP) on Desulfovibrio caledoniens metabolic activity and its influence on highs trength steel EQ70 were studied by bacterial analyses and electrochemical measurements. The results showed that EQ70 under -0.85 VSCE CP had a higher corrosion rate than that without CP, while EQ70 with -1.05 VSCE had a lower corrosion rate. The enhanced SRB metabolic activity at -0.85 VSCE was most probably caused by the direct electron transfer from the electrode polarized at -0.85 VSCE. This direct electron transfer pathway was unavailable in -1.05 VSCE. In addition, the application of cathodic protection led to the transformation of sulfide rusts into carbonates rusts. These observations have been employed to provide updated recommendations for the optimum CP potential for steel structures in the presence of SRB.

Facile One-Step Strategy for Highly Boosted Microbial Extracellular Electron Transfer of the Genus Shewanella

High performance of bacterial extracellular electron transfer (EET) is essentially important for its practical applications in versatile bioelectric fields. We developed a facile one-step approach to dramatically boost the bacterial EET activity 75-fold by exogenous addition of ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid disodium salt (EDTA-2Na, 1 mM) into the electrochemical cells, where the anodic process of microbial EET was monitored. We propose that EDTA-2Na enables both the alternation of the local environment around the c-type cytochromes located on the outer membrane channels (OMCs), which therefore changes the redox behavior of OMCs in mediating the EET process, and the formation of densely packed biofilm that can further facilitate the EET process. As a synergistic effect, the highly boosted bacterial EET activity was achieved. The method shows good generality for versatile bioelectrical bacteria. We envision that the method is also applicable for constructing various bioelectric devices.

Substrate and electrode potential affect electrotrophic activity of inverted bioanodes

Electricity-consuming microbial communities can serve as biocathodic catalysts in microbial electrochemical technologies. Initiating their functionality, however, remains a challenge. One promising approach is the polarity inversion of bioanodes. The objective of this study was to examine the impact of bioanode substrate and electrode potentials on inverted electrotrophic activity. Bioanodes derived from domestic wastewater were operated at -0.15V or +0.15V (vs. standard hydrogen electrode) with either acetate or formate as the sole carbon source. After this enrichment phase, cathodic linear sweep voltammetry and polarization revealed that formate-enriched cultures consumed almost 20 times the current (-3.0±0.78mA; -100±26A/m(3)) than those established with acetate (-0.16±0.09mA; -5.2±2.9A/m(3)). The enrichment electrode potential had an appreciable impact for formate, but not acetate, adapted cultures, with the +0.15V enrichment generating twice the cathodic current of the -0.15V enrichment. The total charge consumed during cathodic polarization was comparable to the charge released during subsequent anodic polarization for the formate-adapted cultures, suggesting that these communities accumulated charge or generated reduced products that could be rapidly oxidized. These findings imply that it may be possible to optimize electrotrophic activity through specific bioanodic enrichment procedures.

The effect of external resistance on biofilm formation and internal resistance in Shewanella inoculated microbial fuel cells

External resistance has a significant impact on the bioelectrochemical property and biofilm formation of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 on MFC anodes.

Examining sludge production in bioelectrochemical systems treating domestic wastewater

Sludge production in microbial bioelectrochemical systems (BES) was assessed in conjunction with anaerobic and aerobic control reactors. Effluent after primary settling tank (EAPS) and depleted EAPS spiked with acetate were treated. The reactors were loaded with total suspended solids (TSS) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) at average loading rates of 22 mg TSS d(-1)L(-1) and 86 mg COD d(-1)L(-1), respectively. Carbon cloth anode equipped BES reactors delivered the highest performance. They achieved on average a COD removal of 80%, a Coulomb efficiency of 77% for EAPS, a maximum current density of 39 μA cm(-)(3)/175 μA cm(-)(2) for EAPS and a TSS removal of 59%, yielding a sludge production of only 80 mg TSS per g ΔCOD. This study provides further evidence that BES can improve the economics of wastewater treatment via lower sludge production as well as providing a framework for understanding sludge production in BES.

Effects of constant or dynamic low anode potentials on microbial community development in bioelectrochemical systems

In bioelectrochemical systems, exoelectrogenic bacteria respire with anode electrodes as their extracellular electron acceptor; therefore, lower anode potentials can reduce the energy gain to each microbe and select against ones that are not able to respire at a lower potential range. Often fully developed anode communities are compared across bioelectrochemical systems with set anode potentials or fixed external resistances as different operational conditions. However, the comparative effect of the resulting constantly low versus dynamically low anode potentials on the development of anode microbial communities as well as the final cathode microbial communities has not been directly demonstrated. In this study, we used a low fixed anode potential of -250 mV and a higher-current control potential of -119 mV vs. Standard Hydrogen Electrode to approximately correspond with the negative peak anode potential values obtained from microbial fuel cells operated with fixed external resistances of 1 kΩ and 47 Ω, respectively. Pyrosequencing data from a 2-month time series show that a lower set anode potential resulted in a more diverse community than the higher- and variable-potential systems, likely due to the hindered enrichment of a Geobacter-dominated community with limited energy gain at this set potential. In this case, it appears that the selective pressure caused by the low set potential was counteracted by the low energy gain over a 2-month time scale. The air cathode microbial community with constant low anode potentials showed delayed enrichment of denitrifiers or perchlorate-reducing bacteria compared to the fixed external resistance condition.

Enhancing the response of microbial fuel cell based toxicity sensors to Cu(II) with the applying of flow-through electrodes and controlled anode potentials

The application of microbial fuel cell (MFC)-based toxicity sensors to real-world water monitoring is partly impeded by the limited sensitivity. To address this limitation, this study optimized the flow configurations and the control modes. Results revealed that the sensitivity increased by ∼15-41times with the applying of a flow-through anode, compared to those with a flow-by anode. The sensors operated in the controlled anode potential (CP) mode delivered better sensitivity than those operated in the constant external resistance (ER) mode over a broad range of anode potentials from -0.41V to +0.1V. Electrodeposition of Cu(II) was found to bias the toxicity measurement at low anode potentials. The optimal anode potential was approximately -0.15V, at which the sensor achieved an unbiased measurement of toxicity and the highest sensitivity. This value was greater than those required for electrodeposition while smaller than those for power overshoot.

Changes in phosphorylation of adenosine phosphate and redox state of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) in Geobacter sulfurreducens in response to electron acceptor and anode potential variation

Geobacter sulfurreducens is one of the dominant bacterial species found in biofilms growing on anodes in bioelectrochemical systems. The intracellular concentrations of reduced and oxidized forms of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NADH and NAD(+), respectively) and nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH and NADP(+), respectively) as well as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and adenosine monophosphate (AMP) were measured in G. sulfurreducens using fumarate, Fe(III)-citrate, or anodes poised at different potentials (110, 10, -90, and -190 mV (vs. SHE)) as the electron acceptor. The ratios of CNADH/CNAD+ (0.088±0.022) and CNADPH/CNADP+ (0.268±0.098) were similar under all anode potentials tested and with Fe(III)-citrate (reduced extracellularly). Both ratios significantly increased with fumarate as the electron acceptor (0.331±0.094 for NAD and 1.96±0.37 for NADP). The adenylate energy charge (the fraction of phosphorylation in intracellular adenosine phosphates) was maintained near 0.47 under almost all conditions. Anode-growing biofilms demonstrated a significantly higher molar ratio of ATP/ADP relative to suspended cultures grown on fumarate or Fe(III)-citrate. These results provide evidence that the cellular location of reduction and not the redox potential of the electron acceptor controls the intracellular redox potential in G. sulfurreducens and that biofilm growth alters adenylate phosphorylation.

Facultative nitrate reduction by electrode-respiring Geobacter metallireducens biofilms as a competitive reaction to electrode reduction in a bioelectrochemical system

Alternative metabolic options of exoelectrogenic biofilms in bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) are important not only to explain the fundamental ecology and performance of these systems but also to develop reliable integrated nutrient removal strategies in BESs, which potentially involve substrates or intermediates that support/induce those alternative metabolisms. This research focused on dissimilatory nitrate reduction as an alternative metabolism to dissimilatory anode reduction. Using the exoelectrogenic nitrate reducer Geobacter metallireducens, the critical conditions controlling those alternative metabolisms were investigated in two-chamber, potentiostatically controlled BESs at various anode potentials and biofilm thicknesses and challenged over a range of nitrate concentrations. Results showed that anode-reducing biofilms facultatively reduced nitrate at all tested anode potentials (-150 to +900 mV vs Standard Hydrogen Electrode) with a rapid metabolic shift. The critical nitrate concentration that triggered a significant decrease in BES performance was a function of anode biofilm thickness but not anode potential. This indicates that these alternative metabolisms were controlled by the availability of nitrate, which is a function of nitrate concentration in bulk solution and its diffusion into an anode-reducing biofilm. Coulombic recovery decreased as a function of nitrate dose due to electron-acceptor substrate competition, and nitrate-induced suspended biomass growth decreased the effluent quality.

Electron acceptor-dependent respiratory and physiological stratifications in biofilms

Bacterial respiration is an essential driving force in biogeochemical cycling and bioremediation processes. Electron acceptors respired by bacteria often have solid and soluble forms that typically coexist in the environment. It is important to understand how sessile bacteria attached to solid electron acceptors respond to ambient soluble alternative electron acceptors. Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) provide a useful tool to investigate this interaction. In MFCs with Shewanella decolorationis, azo dye was used as an alternative electron acceptor in the anode chamber. Different respiration patterns were observed for biofilm and planktonic cells, with planktonic cells preferred to respire with azo dye while biofilm cells respired with both the anode and azo dye. The additional azo respiration dissipated the proton accumulation within the anode biofilm. There was a large redox potential gap between the biofilms and anode surface. Changing cathodic conditions caused immediate effects on the anode potential but not on the biofilm potential. Biofilm viability showed an inverse and respiration-dependent profile when respiring with only the anode or azo dye and was enhanced when respiring with both simultaneously. These results provide new insights into the bacterial respiration strategies in environments containing multiple electron acceptors and support an electron-hopping mechanism within Shewanella electrode-respiring biofilms.

Electricity generation from sulfide tailings using a double-chamber microbial fuel cell

Pyrrhotite tailings have the potential to drive electricity generation accompanied by microbial leaching of valuable metals using the double-chamber MFC reactor.

Occurrence and implications of voltage reversal in stacked microbial fuel cells

Voltage reversal in stacked microbial fuel cells (MFCs) is a significant challenge that must be addressed, and the information on its definite cause and occurrence process is still obscure. In this work, we first demonstrated that different anodic reaction rates caused voltage reversal in a stacked MFC. Sluggish reaction rates on the anode in unit 1 of the stacked MFC resulted in a significantly increased anode overpotential of up to 0.132 V, as compared to negligible anode overpotential (0.0247 V) in unit 2. This work clearly verified the process of voltage reversal in the stacked MFC. As the current was gradually increased in the stacked MFC, the voltage in the stacked unit 1 decreased to 0 V prior to that of the stacked unit 2. Then, when the voltage in unit 1 became 0 V, it was converted from a galvanic cell to an electrochemical cell powered by unit 2. We found that the stacked unit 2 provided electrical energy for the stacked unit 1 as a power supply. Finally, the anode potential of the stacked unit 1 significantly increased over cathode potential as current increased further, which caused voltage reversal in unit 1. Voltage reversal occurs in stacked MFCs as a result of non-spontaneous anode overpotential in a unit MFC that has sluggish anode kinetics compared to the other unit MFCs.

Microbial community composition is unaffected by anode potential

There is great controversy on how different set anode potentials affect the performance of a bioelectrochemical system (BES). It is often reported that more positive potentials improve acclimation and performance of exoelectrogenic biofilms, and alter microbial community structure, while in other studies relatively more negative potentials were needed to achieve higher current densities. To address this issue, the biomass, electroactivity, and community structure of anodic biofilms were examined over a wide range of set anode potentials (-0.25, -0.09, 0.21, 0.51, and 0.81 V vs a standard hydrogen electrode, SHE) in single-chamber microbial electrolysis cells. Maximum currents produced using a wastewater inoculum increased with anode potentials in the range of -0.25 to 0.21 V, but decreased at 0.51 and 0.81 V. The maximum currents were positively correlated with increasing biofilm biomass. Pyrosequencing indicated biofilm communities were all similar and dominated by bacteria most similar to Geobacter sulfurreducens. Differences in anode performance with various set potentials suggest that the exoelectrogenic communities self-regulate their exocellular electron transfer pathways to adapt to different anode potentials.

The significance of the initiation process parameters and reactor design for maximizing the efficiency of microbial fuel cells

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) can be used for electricity generation via bioconversion of wastewater and organic waste substrates. MFCs also hold potential for production of certain chemicals, such as H2 and H2O2. The studies of electricity generation in MFCs have mainly focused on the microbial community formation, substrate effect on the anode reaction, and the cathode's catalytic properties. To improve the performance of MFCs, the initiation process requires more investigation because of its significant effect on the anodic biofilm formation. This review explores the factors which affect the initiation process, including inoculum, substrate, and reactor configuration. The key messages are that optimal performance of MFCs for electricity production requires (1) understanding of the electrogenic bacterial biofilm formation, (2) proper substrates at the initiation stage, (3) focus on operational conditions affecting initial biofilm formation, and (4) attention to the reactor configuration.

Electroanalysis of microbial anodes for bioelectrochemical systems: basics, progress and perspectives

Over about the last ten years, microbial anodes have been the subject of a huge number of fundamental studies dealing with an increasing variety of possible application domains.

Influence of anode potentials on selection of Geobacter strains in microbial electrolysis cells

Through their ability to directly transfer electrons to electrodes, Geobacter sp. are key organisms for microbial fuel cell technology. This study presents a simple method to reproducibly select Geobacter-dominated anode biofilms from a mixed inoculum of bacteria using graphite electrodes initially poised at -0.25, -0.36 and -0.42 V vs. Ag/AgCl. The biofilms all produced maximum power density of approximately 270 m Wm(-2) (projected anode surface area). Analysis of 16S rRNA genes and intergenic spacer (ITS) sequences found that the biofilm communities were all dominated by bacteria closely related to Geobacter psychrophilus. Anodes initially poised at -0.25 V reproducibly selected biofilms that were dominated by a strain of G. psychrophilus that was genetically distinct from the strain that dominated the -0.36 and -0.42 V biofilms. This work demonstrates for the first time that closely related strains of Geobacter can have very different competitive advantages at different anode potentials.

Improving startup performance with carbon mesh anodes in separator electrode assembly microbial fuel cells

In a separator electrode assembly microbial fuel cell, oxygen crossover from the cathode inhibits current generation by exoelectrogenic bacteria, resulting in poor reactor startup and performance. To determine the best approach for improving startup performance, the effect of acclimation to a low set potential (-0.2V, versus standard hydrogen electrode) was compared to startup at a higher potential (+0.2 V) or no set potential, and inoculation with wastewater or pre-acclimated cultures. Anodes acclimated to -0.2 V produced the highest power of 1330±60 mW m(-2) for these different anode conditions, but unacclimated wastewater inocula produced inconsistent results despite the use of this set potential. By inoculating reactors with transferred cell suspensions, however, startup time was reduced and high power was consistently produced. These results show that pre-acclimation at -0.2 V consistently improves power production compared to use of a more positive potential or the lack of a set potential.

Combined effects of enrichment procedure and non-fermentable or fermentable co-substrate on performance and bacterial community for pentachlorophenol degradation in microbial fuel cells

Combined effects of enrichment procedure and non-fermentable acetate or fermentable glucose on system performance and bacterial community for pentachlorophenol (PCP) degradation in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) were determined in this study. Co-substrate and PCP were added into MFCs either simultaneously or sequentially. Simultaneous addition with glucose (simultaneous-glucose) achieved the shortest acclimation time and the most endurance to heavy PCP shock loads. Species of Alphaproteobacteria (simultaneous-acetate, 33.9%; sequential-acetate, 31.3%), Gammaproteobacteria (simultaneous-glucose, 44.1%) and Firmicutes (sequential-glucose, 31.8%) dominated the complex systems. The genus Sedimentibacter was found to exist in all the cases whereas Spirochaetes were merely developed in simultaneous-acetate and simultaneous-glucose. While Epsilonproteobacteria were only absent from sequential-acetate, simultaneous-glucose benefited to the evolution of Lentisphaerae. These results demonstrate simultaneous-glucose is a strategy for efficient system performance and the microbiological evidence can contribute to improving understanding of and optimizing PCP degradation in MFCs.

Long-term effect of set potential on biocathodes in microbial fuel cells: electrochemical and phylogenetic characterization

The long-term effect of set potential on oxygen reducing biocathodes was investigated in terms of electrochemical and biological characteristics. Three biocathodes were poised at 200, 60 and -100 mV vs. saturated calomel electrode (SCE) for 110 days, including the first 17 days for startup. Electrochemical analyses showed that 60 mV was the optimum potential during long-term operation. The performance of all the biocathodes kept increasing after startup, suggesting a period longer than startup time needed to make potential regulation more effective. The inherent characteristics without oxygen transfer limitation were studied. Different from short-term regulation, the amounts of biomass were similar while the specific electrochemical activity was significantly influenced by potential. Moreover, potential showed a strong selection for cathode bacteria. Clones 98% similar with an uncultured Bacteroidetes bacterium clone CG84 accounted for 75% to 80% of the sequences on the biocathodes that showed higher electrochemical activity (60 and -100 mV).

Essential data and techniques for conducting microbial fuel cell and other types of bioelectrochemical system experiments

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) and other bioelectrochemical systems are new technologies that require expertise in a variety of technical areas, ranging from electrochemistry to biological wastewater treatment. There are certain data and critical information that should be included in every MFC study, such as specific surface area of the electrodes, solution conductivity, and power densities normalized to electrode surface area and volumes. Electrochemical techniques such as linear sweep voltammetry can be used to understand the performance of the MFC, but extremely slow scans are required for these biological systems compared to more traditional fuel cells. In this Minireview, the critical information needed for MFC studies is provided with examples of how results can be better conveyed through a full description of materials, the use of proper controls, and inclusion of a more complete electrochemical analysis.

Carbonization and activation of inexpensive semicoke-packed electrodes to enhance power generation of microbial fuel cells

A simple and low-cost modification method was developed to improve the power generation performance of inexpensive semicoke electrode in microbial fuel cells (MFCs). After carbonization and activation with water vapor at 800-850 °C, the MFC with the activated coke (modified semicoke) anode produced a maximum power density of 74 Wm(-3) , 17 Wm(-3) , and 681 mWm(-2) (normalized to anodic liquid volume, total reactor volume, and projected membrane surface area, respectively), which was 124 % higher than MFCs using a semicoke anode (33 Wm(-3) , 8 Wm(-3) , and 304 mWm(-2) ). When they were used as biocathode materials, activated coke produced a maximum power density of 177 Wm(-3) , 41 Wm(-3) , and 1628 mWm(-2) (normalized to cathodic liquid volume, total reactor volume, and projected membrane surface area, respectively), which was 211 % higher than that achieved by MFCs using a semicoke cathode (57 Wm(-3) , 13 Wm(-3) , and 524 mWm(-2) ). A substantial increase was also noted in the conductivity, C/O mass ratio, and specific area for activated coke, which reduced the ohmic resistance, increased biomass density, and promoted electron transfer between bacteria and electrode surface. The activated coke anode also produced a higher Coulombic efficiency and chemical oxygen demand removal rate than the semicoke anode.

Charge transport through Geobacter sulfurreducens biofilms grown on graphite rods

Biofilms of the electroactive bacterium Geobacter sulfurreducens were induced to grow on graphite-rod electrodes under a potential of 0 V (vs Ag/AgCl) in the presence of acetate as an electron donor. Increased anodic currents for bioelectrocatalytic oxidation of acetate were obtained when the electrodes were incubated for longer periods with periodic electron-donor feeding. The maximum current density for acetate oxidation increased 2.8-fold, and the biofilm thickness increased by 4.25-fold, over a time period of 83-147 h. Cyclic voltammetry in the presence of acetate supports a model of heterogeneous electron transfer, one electron at time, from biofilm to electrode through a dominant redox species centered at -0.41 V vs Ag/AgCl. Voltammetry performed under nonturnover conditions provided an estimate of the surface coverage of the redox species of 25 nmol/cm(2). This value was used to estimate a redox species concentration of 7.3 mM within the 34-μm-thick biofilm and a charge-transport diffusion coefficient of 3.6 × 10(-7) cm(2)/s. This value of diffusion coefficient is greater than that observed in traditional thin-film voltammetric studies with redox polymer films containing much higher surface concentrations of redox species and might be associated with proton transport to ensure electroneutrality within the biofilm upon electrolysis.

Electricity generation and microbial community changes in microbial fuel cells packed with different anodic materials

Four materials, carbon felt cube (CFC), granular graphite (GG), granular activated carbon (GAC) and granular semicoke (GS) were tested as packed anodic materials to seek a potentially practical material for microbial fuel cells (MFCs). The microbial community and its correlation with the electricity generation performance of MFCs were explored. The maximum power density was found in GAC, followed by CFC, GG and GS. In GAC and CFC packed MFCs, Geobacter was the dominating genus, while Azospira was the most populous group in GG. Results further indicated that GAC was the most favorable for Geobacter adherence and growth, and the maximum power densities had positive correlation with the total biomass and the relative abundance of Geobacter, but without apparent correlation with the microbial diversity. Due to the low content of Geobacter in GS, power generated in this system may be attributed to other microorganisms such as Synergistes, Bacteroidetes and Castellaniella.

Use of inexpensive semicoke and activated carbon as biocathode in microbial fuel cells

In this study, two inexpensive semicoke and activated carbon packed bed biocathode were developed for oxygen reduction in microbial fuel cells (MFCs). These two materials were compared with two commonly used biocathode materials graphite and carbon felt in terms of material characteristic, power density, biomass density and price-performance ratio. MFCs with semicoke and activated carbon biocathode produced a maximum power density of 20.1 W/m3 (normalized liquid volume in cathodic compartment) and 24.3 W/m3, respectively, compared to 14.1 and 17.1 W/m3 obtained by MFCs with graphite and carbon felt biocathode, respectively. The bacteria attached on biocathode played a major role in oxygen reduction for all the materials investigated. The material cost per Watt produced for semicoke and activated carbon biocathode is only 2.8% and 22.7% of that for graphite biocathode, respectively. These two inexpensive carbon materials, especially semicoke, are very cost-effective biocathode materials for future large scale MFCs.

Lactate oxidation coupled to iron or electrode reduction by Geobacter sulfurreducens PCA

Geobacter sulfurreducens PCA completely oxidized lactate and reduced iron or an electrode, producing pyruvate and acetate intermediates. Compared to the current produced by Shewanella oneidensis MR-1, G. sulfurreducens PCA produced 10-times-higher current levels in lactate-fed microbial electrolysis cells. The kinetic and comparative analyses reported here suggest a prominent role of G. sulfurreducens strains in metal- and electrode-reducing communities supplied with lactate.

Effect of set potential on hexavalent chromium reduction and electricity generation from biocathode microbial fuel cells

Setting a biocathode potential at -300 mV improved the subsequent performance of an MFC for Cr(VI) reduction compared to a control (no set potential). With this set potential, the startup time was reduced to 19 days, the reduction of Cr(VI) was improved to 19.7 mg/L d, and the maximum power density was increased to 6.4 W/m(3) compared to the control (26 days, 14.0 mg/L d and 4.1 W/m(3)). Set potentials of -150 mV and -300 mV also improved system performance and led to similarly higher utilization of metabolic energy gained (PMEG) than set potentials of +200 mV and -450 mV. We observed putative pili at -150 and -300 mV potentials, and aggregated precipitates on bacterial surfaces in both poised and nonpoised controls. These tests show that there are optimal potentials that can be set for developing a Cr(VI) biocathode.

Electricity-assisted biological hydrogen production from acetate by Geobacter sulfurreducens

Geobacter sulfurreducens is a well-known current-producing microorganism in microbial fuel cells, and is able to use acetate and hydrogen as electron donor. We studied the functionality of G. sulfurreducens as biocatalyst for hydrogen formation at the cathode of a microbial electrolysis cell (MEC). Geobacter sulfurreducens was grown in the bioelectrode compartment of a MFC with acetate as the substrate and reduction of complexed Fe(III) at the counter electrode. After depletion of the acetate the electrode potential of the bioelectrode was decreased stepwise to -1.0 V vs Ag/AgCl reference. Production of negative current was observed, which increased in time, indicating that the bioelectrode was now acting as biocathode. Headspace analyses carried out at electrode potentials ranging from -0.8 to -1.0 V showed that hydrogen was produced, with higher rates at more negative cathode potentials. Subsequently, the metabolic properties of G. sulfurreducens for acetate oxidation at the anode and hydrogen production at the cathode were combined in one-compartment membraneless MECs operated at applied voltages of 0.8 and 0.65 V. After two days, current densities were 0.44 A m(-2) at 0.8 V applied voltage and 0.22 A m(-2) at 0.65 V, using flat-surface carbon electrodes for both anode and cathode. The cathodic hydrogen recovery ranged from 23% at 0.5 V applied voltage to 43% at 0.9 V.

Cathodes as electron donors for microbial metabolism: which extracellular electron transfer mechanisms are involved?

This review illuminates extracellular electron transfer mechanisms that may be involved in microbial bioelectrochemical systems with biocathodes. Microbially-catalyzed cathodes are evolving for new bioprocessing applications for waste(water) treatment, carbon dioxide fixation, chemical product formation, or bioremediation. Extracellular electron transfer processes in biological anodes, were the electrode serves as electron acceptor, have been widely studied. However, for biological cathodes the question remains: what are the biochemical mechanisms for the extracellular electron transfer from a cathode (electron donor) to a microorganism? This question was approached by not only analysing the literature on biocathodes, but also by investigating known extracellular microbial oxidation reactions in environmental processes. Here, it is predicted that in direct electron transfer reactions, c-type cytochromes often together with hydrogenases play a critical role and that, in mediated electron transfer reactions, natural redox mediators, such as PQQ, will be involved in the bioelectrochemical reaction. These mechanisms are very similar to processes at the bioanode, but the components operate at different redox potentials. The biocatalyzed cathode reactions, thereby, are not necessarily energy conserving for the microorganism.

Optimal set anode potentials vary in bioelectrochemical systems

In bioelectrochemical systems (BESs), the anode potential can be set to a fixed voltage using a potentiostat, but there is no accepted method for defining an optimal potential. Microbes can theoretically gain more energy by reducing a terminal electron acceptor with a more positive potential, for example oxygen compared to nitrate. Therefore, more positive anode potentials should allow microbes to gain more energy per electron transferred than a lower potential, but this can only occur if the microbe has metabolic pathways capable of capturing the available energy. Our review of the literature shows that there is a general trend of improved performance using more positive potentials, but there are several notable cases where biofilm growth and current generation improved or only occurred at more negative potentials. This suggests that even with diverse microbial communities, it is primarily the potential of the terminal respiratory proteins used by certain exoelectrogenic bacteria, and to a lesser extent the anode potential, that determines the optimal growth conditions in the reactor. Our analysis suggests that additional bioelectrochemical investigations of both pure and mixed cultures, over a wide range of potentials, are needed to better understand how to set and evaluate optimal anode potentials for improving BES performance.