51
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Truong L, Ferré-D'Amaré AR. From fluorescent proteins to fluorogenic RNAs: Tools for imaging cellular macromolecules. Protein Sci 2019; 28:1374-1386. [PMID: 31017335 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The explosion in genome-wide sequencing has revealed that noncoding RNAs are ubiquitous and highly conserved in biology. New molecular tools are needed for their study in live cells. Fluorescent RNA-small molecule complexes have emerged as powerful counterparts to fluorescent proteins, which are well established, universal tools in the study of proteins in cell biology. No naturally fluorescent RNAs are known; all current fluorescent RNA tags are in vitro evolved or engineered molecules that bind a conditionally fluorescent small molecule and turn on its fluorescence by up to 5000-fold. Structural analyses of several such fluorescence turn-on aptamers show that these compact (30-100 nucleotides) RNAs have diverse molecular architectures that can restrain their photoexcited fluorophores in their maximally fluorescent states, typically by stacking between planar nucleotide arrangements, such as G-quadruplexes, base triples, or base pairs. The diversity of fluorogenic RNAs as well as fluorophores that are cell permeable and bind weakly to endogenous cellular macromolecules has already produced RNA-fluorophore complexes that span the visual spectrum and are useful for tagging and visualizing RNAs in cells. Because the ligand binding sites of fluorogenic RNAs are not constrained by the need to autocatalytically generate fluorophores as are fluorescent proteins, they may offer more flexibility in molecular engineering to generate photophysical properties that are tailored to experimental needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda Truong
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892-8012
| | - Adrian R Ferré-D'Amaré
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892-8012
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52
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Larsen MB, Perez Verdaguer M, Schmidt BF, Bruchez MP, Watkins SC, Sorkin A. Generation of endogenous pH-sensitive EGF receptor and its application in high-throughput screening for proteins involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis. eLife 2019; 8:46135. [PMID: 31066673 PMCID: PMC6533059 DOI: 10.7554/elife.46135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously we used gene-editing to label endogenous EGF receptor (EGFR) with GFP and demonstrate that picomolar concentrations of EGFR ligand drive signaling and endocytosis of EGFR in tumors in vivo (Pinilla-Macua et al., 2017). We now use gene-editing to insert a fluorogen activating protein (FAP) in the EGFR extracellular domain. Binding of the tandem dye pair MG-Bis-SA to FAP-EGFR provides a ratiometric pH-sensitive model with dual fluorescence excitation and a single far-red emission. The excitation ratio of fluorescence intensities was demonstrated to faithfully report the fraction of FAP-EGFR located in acidic endosomal/lysosomal compartments. Coupling native FAP-EGFR expression with the high method sensitivity has allowed development of a high-throughput assay to measure the rates of clathrin-mediated FAP-EGFR endocytosis stimulated with physiological EGF concentrations. The assay was utilized to screen a phosphatase siRNA library. These studies highlight the utility of endogenous pH-sensitive FAP-receptor chimeras in high-throughput analysis of endocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mads Breum Larsen
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Mireia Perez Verdaguer
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Brigitte F Schmidt
- Molecular Biosensor and Imaging Center, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Marcel P Bruchez
- Molecular Biosensor and Imaging Center, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, United States.,Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, United States.,Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, United States.,Sharp Edge Laboratories, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Simon C Watkins
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Alexander Sorkin
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States
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53
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Wang Z, Liu W, Fan C, Chen N. Visualizing mRNA in live mammalian cells. Methods 2019; 161:16-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2019.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2018] [Revised: 03/10/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
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54
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Wirth R, Gao P, Nienhaus GU, Sunbul M, Jäschke A. SiRA: A Silicon Rhodamine-Binding Aptamer for Live-Cell Super-Resolution RNA Imaging. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:7562-7571. [PMID: 30986047 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b02697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Although genetically encoded light-up RNA aptamers have become promising tools for visualizing and tracking RNAs in living cells, aptamer/ligand pairs that emit in the far-red and near-infrared (NIR) regions are still rare. In this work, we developed a light-up RNA aptamer that binds silicon rhodamines (SiRs). SiRs are photostable, NIR-emitting fluorophores that change their open-closed equilibrium between the noncolored spirolactone and the fluorescent zwitterion in response to their environment. This property is responsible for their high cell permeability and fluorogenic behavior. Aptamers binding to SiR were in vitro selected from a combinatorial RNA library. Sequencing, bioinformatic analysis, truncation, and mutational studies revealed a 50-nucleotide minimal aptamer, SiRA, which binds with nanomolar affinity to the target SiR. In addition to silicon rhodamines, SiRA binds structurally related rhodamines and carborhodamines, making it a versatile tool spanning the far-red region of the spectrum. Photophysical characterization showed that SiRA is remarkably resistant to photobleaching and constitutes the brightest far-red light-up aptamer system known to date owing to its favorable features: a fluorescence quantum yield of 0.98 and an extinction coefficient of 86 000 M-1cm-1. Using the SiRA system, we visualized the expression of RNAs in bacteria in no-wash live-cell imaging experiments and also report stimulated emission depletion (STED) super-resolution microscopy images of aptamer-based, fluorescently labeled mRNA in live cells. This work represents, to our knowledge, the first application of the popular SiR dyes and of intramolecular spirocyclization as a means of background reduction in the field of aptamer-based RNA imaging. We anticipate a high potential for this novel RNA labeling tool to address biological questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Wirth
- Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology (IPMB) , Heidelberg University , 69120 Heidelberg , Germany
| | - Peng Gao
- Institute of Applied Physics (APH) , Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) , Wolfgang-Gaede-Straße 1 , D-76131 Karlsruhe , Germany.,Institute of Nanotechnology (INT) , Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) , D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen , Germany
| | - G Ulrich Nienhaus
- Institute of Applied Physics (APH) , Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) , Wolfgang-Gaede-Straße 1 , D-76131 Karlsruhe , Germany.,Institute of Nanotechnology (INT) , Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) , D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen , Germany.,Institute of Toxicology and Genetics (ITG) , Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) , D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen , Germany.,Department of Physics , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , 1110 West Green Street , Urbana , Illinois 61801 , United States
| | - Murat Sunbul
- Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology (IPMB) , Heidelberg University , 69120 Heidelberg , Germany
| | - Andres Jäschke
- Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology (IPMB) , Heidelberg University , 69120 Heidelberg , Germany
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55
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Trachman RJ, Autour A, Jeng SCY, Abdolahzadeh A, Andreoni A, Cojocaru R, Garipov R, Dolgosheina EV, Knutson JR, Ryckelynck M, Unrau PJ, Ferré-D'Amaré AR. Structure and functional reselection of the Mango-III fluorogenic RNA aptamer. Nat Chem Biol 2019; 15:472-479. [PMID: 30992561 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-019-0267-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Several turn-on RNA aptamers that activate small-molecule fluorophores have been selected in vitro. Among these, the ~30 nucleotide Mango-III is notable because it binds the thiazole orange derivative TO1-Biotin with high affinity and fluoresces brightly (quantum yield 0.55). Uniquely among related aptamers, Mango-III exhibits biphasic thermal melting, characteristic of molecules with tertiary structure. We report crystal structures of TO1-Biotin complexes of Mango-III, a structure-guided mutant Mango-III(A10U), and a functionally reselected mutant iMango-III. The structures reveal a globular architecture arising from an unprecedented pseudoknot-like connectivity between a G-quadruplex and an embedded non-canonical duplex. The fluorophore is restrained into a planar conformation by the G-quadruplex, a lone, long-range trans Watson-Crick pair (whose A10U mutation increases quantum yield to 0.66), and a pyrimidine perpendicular to the nucleobase planes of those motifs. The improved iMango-III and Mango-III(A10U) fluoresce ~50% brighter than enhanced green fluorescent protein, making them suitable tags for live cell RNA visualization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Trachman
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Alexis Autour
- Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, Université de Strasbourg, Institut de biologie moléculaire et cellulaire du CNRS, Strasbourg, France
| | - Sunny C Y Jeng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Amir Abdolahzadeh
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Alessio Andreoni
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Razvan Cojocaru
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Ramil Garipov
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Elena V Dolgosheina
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Jay R Knutson
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Michael Ryckelynck
- Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, Université de Strasbourg, Institut de biologie moléculaire et cellulaire du CNRS, Strasbourg, France
| | - Peter J Unrau
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Adrian R Ferré-D'Amaré
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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56
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Autour A, Bouhedda F, Cubi R, Ryckelynck M. Optimization of fluorogenic RNA-based biosensors using droplet-based microfluidic ultrahigh-throughput screening. Methods 2019; 161:46-53. [PMID: 30902664 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2019.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Revised: 03/17/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Biosensors are biological molecules able to detect and report the presence of a target molecule by the emission of a signal. Nucleic acids are particularly appealing for the design of such molecule since their great structural plasticity makes them able to specifically interact with a wide range of ligands and their structure can rearrange upon recognition to trigger a reporting event. A biosensor is typically made of three main domains: a sensing domain that is connected to a reporting domain via a communication module in charge of transmitting the sensing event through the molecule. The communication module is therefore an instrumental element of the sensor. This module is usually empirically developed through a trial-and-error strategy with the testing of only a few combinations judged relevant by the experimenter. In this work, we introduce a novel method combining the use of droplet-based microfluidics and next generation sequencing. This method allows to functionally characterize up to a million of different sequences in a single set of experiments and, by doing so, to exhaustively test every possible sequence permutations of the communication module. Here, we demonstrate the efficiency of the approach by isolating a set of optimized RNA biosensors able to sense theophylline and to convert this recognition into fluorescence emission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Autour
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR 9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Farah Bouhedda
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR 9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Roger Cubi
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR 9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Michael Ryckelynck
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR 9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France.
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57
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Sun Y, Yuan B, Deng M, Wang Q, Huang J, Guo Q, Liu J, Yang X, Wang K. A light-up fluorescence assay for tumor cell detection based on bifunctional split aptamers. Analyst 2019; 143:3579-3585. [PMID: 29999048 DOI: 10.1039/c8an01008k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Light-up aptamers have attracted growing attention due to their advantages of being label-free and having low fluorescence background. In this work, we developed a light-up fluorescence assay for label-free detection of tumor cells based on a bifunctional split aptamer (BFSA) that contained two DNA strands (BFSA-a and BFSA-b). BFSA-a and BFSA-b were constructed by combining aptamers ZY11 and ThT.2-2, which could specifically bind to the tumor cell SMMC-7721 and activate the fluorescence of thioflavin T (ThT). A Helper strand was introduced to hybridize with BFSA-b, and then BFSA-a and BFSA-b were separated if the target cell was absent. Only when the target cell is present can BFSA-a approach and hybridize with BFSA-b due to the 'induced-fit effect', which made the Helper strand dissociate. Then ThT bound to BFSA and the fluorescence of ThT was activated. The results indicated that this fluorescence assay had a good linear response to the target cells in the range of 250-20 000 cells in 100 μL binding buffer; the lowest cell number actually detected was 125 cells in 100 μL buffer. This assay also displayed excellent selectivity and was successfully applied to detect target cells in 20% human serum samples. The design of bifunctional split aptamers realized no-washing, label-free, low-cost, one-step detection of tumor cells, which could generate detectable fluorescence signals just by mixing nucleic acid aptamers and fluorescent reporter molecules with target cells. Such a design of aptamer probes also has the potential to construct stimuli-responsive controlled drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqiong Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Biology, Key Laboratory for Bio-Nanotechnology and Molecular Engineering of Hunan Province, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China.
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58
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Transition metal complexes based aptamers as optical diagnostic tools for disease proteins and biomolecules. Coord Chem Rev 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2018.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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59
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Neubacher S, Hennig S. RNA Structure and Cellular Applications of Fluorescent Light-Up Aptamers. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:1266-1279. [PMID: 30102012 PMCID: PMC6391945 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201806482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The cellular functions of RNA are not limited to their role as blueprints for protein synthesis. In particular, noncoding RNA, such as, snRNAs, lncRNAs, miRNAs, play important roles. With increasing numbers of RNAs being identified, it is well known that the transcriptome outnumbers the proteome by far. This emphasizes the great importance of functional RNA characterization and the need to further develop tools for these investigations, many of which are still in their infancy. Fluorescent light-up aptamers (FLAPs) are RNA sequences that can bind nontoxic, cell-permeable small-molecule fluorogens and enhance their fluorescence over many orders of magnitude upon binding. FLAPs can be encoded on the DNA level using standard molecular biology tools and are subsequently transcribed into RNA by the cellular machinery, so that they can be used as fluorescent RNA tags (FLAP-tags). In this Minireview, we give a brief overview of the fluorogens that have been developed and their binding RNA aptamers, with a special focus on published crystal structures. A summary of current and future cellular FLAP applications with an emphasis on the study of RNA-RNA and RNA-protein interactions using split-FLAP and Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) systems is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Neubacher
- Department of Chemistry & Pharmaceutical SciencesVU University AmsterdamDe Boelelaan 11081081HZAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Sven Hennig
- Department of Chemistry & Pharmaceutical SciencesVU University AmsterdamDe Boelelaan 11081081HZAmsterdamThe Netherlands
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60
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Steinmetzger C, Palanisamy N, Gore KR, Höbartner C. A Multicolor Large Stokes Shift Fluorogen-Activating RNA Aptamer with Cationic Chromophores. Chemistry 2019; 25:1931-1935. [PMID: 30485561 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201805882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Large Stokes shift (LSS) fluorescent proteins (FPs) exploit excited state proton transfer pathways to enable fluorescence emission from the phenolate intermediate of their internal 4-hydroxybenzylidene imidazolone (HBI) chromophore. An RNA aptamer named Chili mimics LSS FPs by inducing highly Stokes-shifted emission from several new green and red HBI analogues that are non-fluorescent when free in solution. The ligands are bound by the RNA in their protonated phenol form and feature a cationic aromatic side chain for increased RNA affinity and reduced magnesium dependence. In combination with oxidative functionalization at the C2 position of the imidazolone, this strategy yielded DMHBO+ , which binds to the Chili aptamer with a low-nanomolar KD . Because of its highly red-shifted fluorescence emission at 592 nm, the Chili-DMHBO+ complex is an ideal fluorescence donor for Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) to the rhodamine dye Atto 590 and will therefore find applications in FRET-based analytical RNA systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Steinmetzger
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Navaneethan Palanisamy
- International Max Planck Research School Molecular Biology, University of Göttingen, Germany.,Present address: BIOSS Center for Biological Signaling Studies, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Kiran R Gore
- Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CNMPB), Göttingen, Germany.,Present address: Department of Chemistry, University of Mumbai, India
| | - Claudia Höbartner
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany.,International Max Planck Research School Molecular Biology, University of Göttingen, Germany.,Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CNMPB), Göttingen, Germany
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61
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Neubacher S, Hennig S. RNA Structure and Cellular Applications of Fluorescent Light-Up Aptamers. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201806482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Neubacher
- Department of Chemistry & Pharmaceutical Sciences; VU University Amsterdam; De Boelelaan 1108 1081 HZ Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Sven Hennig
- Department of Chemistry & Pharmaceutical Sciences; VU University Amsterdam; De Boelelaan 1108 1081 HZ Amsterdam The Netherlands
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62
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Shelke SA, Shao Y, Laski A, Koirala D, Weissman BP, Fuller JR, Tan X, Constantin TP, Waggoner AS, Bruchez MP, Armitage BA, Piccirilli JA. Structural basis for activation of fluorogenic dyes by an RNA aptamer lacking a G-quadruplex motif. Nat Commun 2018; 9:4542. [PMID: 30382099 PMCID: PMC6208384 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06942-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The DIR2s RNA aptamer, a second-generation, in-vitro selected binder to dimethylindole red (DIR), activates the fluorescence of cyanine dyes, DIR and oxazole thiazole blue (OTB), allowing detection of two well-resolved emission colors. Using Fab BL3-6 and its cognate hairpin as a crystallization module, we solved the crystal structures of both the apo and OTB-SO3 bound forms of DIR2s at 2.0 Å and 1.8 Å resolution, respectively. DIR2s adopts a compact, tuning fork-like architecture comprised of a helix and two short stem-loops oriented in parallel to create the ligand binding site through tertiary interactions. The OTB-SO3 fluorophore binds in a planar conformation to a claw-like structure formed by a purine base-triple, which provides a stacking platform for OTB-SO3, and an unpaired nucleotide, which partially caps the binding site from the top. The absence of a G-quartet or base tetrad makes the DIR2s aptamer unique among fluorogenic RNAs with known 3D structure. The DIR2s RNA aptamer activates the fluorescence of cyanine dyes allowing detection of two well-resolved emission colors. Here authors solve the crystal structures of the apo and OTB-SO3 fluorophore-bound DIR2s and show how the fluorophore ligand is bound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandip A Shelke
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Yaming Shao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Artur Laski
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Deepak Koirala
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | | | - James R Fuller
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Xiaohong Tan
- Center for Nucleic Acids Science and Technology, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Tudor P Constantin
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Alan S Waggoner
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Molecular Biosensor and Imaging Center, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Marcel P Bruchez
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Molecular Biosensor and Imaging Center, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Bruce A Armitage
- Center for Nucleic Acids Science and Technology, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Joseph A Piccirilli
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA. .,Department of Chemistry, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA.
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63
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Canoura J, Wang Z, Yu H, Alkhamis O, Fu F, Xiao Y. No Structure-Switching Required: A Generalizable Exonuclease-Mediated Aptamer-Based Assay for Small-Molecule Detection. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:9961-9971. [PMID: 30011200 PMCID: PMC6133295 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b04975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The binding of small molecules to double-stranded DNA can modulate its susceptibility to digestion by exonucleases. Here, we show that the digestion of aptamers by exonuclease III can likewise be inhibited upon binding of small-molecule targets and exploit this finding for the first time to achieve sensitive, label-free small-molecule detection. This approach does not require any sequence engineering and employs prefolded aptamers which have higher target-binding affinities than structure-switching aptamers widely used in current small-molecule detecting assays. We first use a dehydroisoandrosterone-3-sulfate-binding aptamer to show that target binding halts exonuclease III digestion four bases prior to the binding site. This leaves behind a double-stranded product that retains strong target affinity, whereas digestion of nontarget-bound aptamer produces a single-stranded product incapable of target binding. Exonuclease I efficiently eliminates these single-stranded products but is unable to digest the target-bound double-stranded product. The remaining products can be fluorescently quantified with SYBR Gold to determine target concentrations. We demonstrate that this dual-exonuclease-mediated approach can be broadly applied to other aptamers with differing secondary structures to achieve sensitive detection of various targets, even in biological matrices. Importantly, each aptamer digestion product has a unique sequence, enabling the creation of multiplex assays, and we successfully demonstrate simultaneous detection of cocaine and ATP in a single microliter volume sample in 25 min via sequence-specific molecular beacons. Due to the generality and simplicity of this assay, we believe that different DNA signal-reporting or amplification strategies can be adopted into our assay for target detection in diverse analytical contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Canoura
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 11200 Southwest Eighth Street, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
| | - Zongwen Wang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 11200 Southwest Eighth Street, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
- College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Haixiang Yu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 11200 Southwest Eighth Street, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
| | - Obtin Alkhamis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 11200 Southwest Eighth Street, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
| | - Fengfu Fu
- Key Laboratory for Analytical Science of Food Safety and Biology of MOE, Fujian Provincial Key Lab of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350116, China
| | - Yi Xiao
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 11200 Southwest Eighth Street, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
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64
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A multicolor riboswitch-based platform for imaging of RNA in live mammalian cells. Nat Chem Biol 2018; 14:964-971. [PMID: 30061719 PMCID: PMC6143402 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-018-0103-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
RNAs directly regulate a vast array of cellular processes, emphasizing the need for robust approaches to fluorescently label and track RNAs in living cells. Here, we develop an RNA imaging platform using the cobalamin riboswitch as an RNA tag and a series of probes containing cobalamin as a fluorescence quencher. This highly modular ‘Riboglow’ platform leverages different colored fluorescent dyes, linkers and riboswitch RNA tags to elicit fluorescent turn-on upon binding RNA. We demonstrate the ability of two different Riboglow probes to track mRNA and small non-coding RNA in live mammalian cells. A side-by-side comparison revealed that Riboglow outperformed the dye binding aptamer Broccoli and performed on par with the gold standard RNA imaging system, the MS2-fluorescent protein system, while featuring a much smaller RNA tag. Together, the versatility of the Riboglow platform and ability to track diverse RNAs suggest broad applicability for a variety of imaging approaches.
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65
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Zeng R, Su L, Luo Z, Zhang L, Lu M, Tang D. Ultrasensitive and label-free electrochemical aptasensor of kanamycin coupling with hybridization chain reaction and strand-displacement amplification. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1038:21-28. [PMID: 30278904 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2018.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This work reports the proof-of-concept of an ultrasensitive label-free electrochemical aptasensor for Kanamycin (Kana) detection coupling strand-displacement amplification (SDA) with hybridization chain reaction (HCR). In the presence of target Kana, the analyte triggers conformational change of hairpin HP1 (HP1) and two-staged SDA to produce short single-stranded DNA (S1) with the aid of KF polymerase and nicking endonuclease. Meanwhile, the as-produced S1 hybridizes with the immobilized hairpin HP2 (HP2) on the electrode to open the hairpin, thereby resulting in the formation of DNA duplex. Thereafter, DNA duplex is selectively digested by Exo III accompanying S1 recycling. The residual single-stranded probe (S2) on the electrode opens another two hairpins in sequence and propagates a chain reaction of hybridization events between two alternating hairpins (H1 and H2) to form a long nicked double-helix. Upon addition of redox-active methylene blue (MB), numerous indicators are intercalated into the grooves of double-helix DNA polymers, each of which produces an electrochemical signal within the applied potentials. Under optimum conditions, the SDA/HCR-based electrochemical aptasensor exhibits a high sensitivity for detection of Kana down to 36 fM with a linear range from 0.05 to 200 pM. Additionally, the as-prepared aptasensor is successfully employed to determinate the Kana in animal derived food (milk). With the advantages of high sensitivity, label-free strategy and excellent selectivity, the developed aptasensor possesses great potential application value in food-safety analysis field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruijin Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety (Ministry of Education and Fujian Province), Institute of Nanomedicine and Nanobiosensing, Department of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, PR China
| | - Lingshan Su
- Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety (Ministry of Education and Fujian Province), Institute of Nanomedicine and Nanobiosensing, Department of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, PR China
| | - Zhongbin Luo
- Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety (Ministry of Education and Fujian Province), Institute of Nanomedicine and Nanobiosensing, Department of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, PR China
| | - Lijia Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety (Ministry of Education and Fujian Province), Institute of Nanomedicine and Nanobiosensing, Department of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, PR China
| | - Minghua Lu
- Institute of Environmental and Analytical Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, Henan, PR China.
| | - Dianping Tang
- Key Laboratory of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety (Ministry of Education and Fujian Province), Institute of Nanomedicine and Nanobiosensing, Department of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, PR China.
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Trachman RJ, Abdolahzadeh A, Andreoni A, Cojocaru R, Knutson JR, Ryckelynck M, Unrau PJ, Ferré-D'Amaré AR. Crystal Structures of the Mango-II RNA Aptamer Reveal Heterogeneous Fluorophore Binding and Guide Engineering of Variants with Improved Selectivity and Brightness. Biochemistry 2018; 57:3544-3548. [PMID: 29768001 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b00399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Several RNA aptamers that bind small molecules and enhance their fluorescence have been successfully used to tag and track RNAs in vivo, but these genetically encodable tags have not yet achieved single-fluorophore resolution. Recently, Mango-II, an RNA that binds TO1-Biotin with ∼1 nM affinity and enhances its fluorescence by >1500-fold, was isolated by fluorescence selection from the pool that yielded the original RNA Mango. We determined the crystal structures of Mango-II in complex with two fluorophores, TO1-Biotin and TO3-Biotin, and found that despite their high affinity, the ligands adopt multiple distinct conformations, indicative of a binding pocket with modest stereoselectivity. Mutational analysis of the binding site led to Mango-II(A22U), which retains high affinity for TO1-Biotin but now discriminates >5-fold against TO3-biotin. Moreover, fluorescence enhancement of TO1-Biotin increases by 18%, while that of TO3-Biotin decreases by 25%. Crystallographic, spectroscopic, and analogue studies show that the A22U mutation improves conformational homogeneity and shape complementarity of the fluorophore-RNA interface. Our work demonstrates that even after extensive functional selection, aptamer RNAs can be further improved through structure-guided engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Trachman
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center , National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute , 50 South Drive, MSC 8012 , Bethesda , Maryland 20892-8012 , United States
| | - Amir Abdolahzadeh
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry , Simon Fraser University , 8888 University Drive , Burnaby , British Columbia , Canada V5A 1S6
| | - Alessio Andreoni
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center , National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute , 50 South Drive, MSC 8012 , Bethesda , Maryland 20892-8012 , United States
| | - Razvan Cojocaru
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry , Simon Fraser University , 8888 University Drive , Burnaby , British Columbia , Canada V5A 1S6
| | - Jay R Knutson
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center , National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute , 50 South Drive, MSC 8012 , Bethesda , Maryland 20892-8012 , United States
| | - Michael Ryckelynck
- Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN , Université de Strasbourg, Institut de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire du CNRS , 15 rue René Descartes , 67084 Strasbourg , France
| | - Peter J Unrau
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry , Simon Fraser University , 8888 University Drive , Burnaby , British Columbia , Canada V5A 1S6
| | - Adrian R Ferré-D'Amaré
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center , National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute , 50 South Drive, MSC 8012 , Bethesda , Maryland 20892-8012 , United States
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67
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Tang J, He X, Lei Y, Shi H, Guo Q, Liu J, He D, Yan L, Wang K. Temperature-responsive split aptamers coupled with polymerase chain reaction for label-free and sensitive detection of cancer cells. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 53:11889-11892. [PMID: 29043317 DOI: 10.1039/c7cc06218d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A label-free and general thermo-controlled split apta-PCR strategy was first developed for the sensitive and specific detection of cancer cells. By integrating the temperature-responsive function of split aptamers with PCR amplification, a facile fluorescence assay of liver cancer SMMC-7721 cells was successfully realized with the detection of as low as 100 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinlu Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Biology, Hunan University, Key Laboratory for Bio-Nanotechnology and Molecular Engineering of Hunan Province, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China.
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68
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Oligonucleotide aptamers against tyrosine kinase receptors: Prospect for anticancer applications. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2018; 1869:263-277. [PMID: 29574128 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2018.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Transmembrane receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) play crucial roles in cancer cell proliferation, survival, migration and differentiation. Area of intense research is searching for effective anticancer therapies targeting these receptors and, to date, several monoclonal antibodies and small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors have entered the clinic. However, some of these drugs show limited efficacy and give rise to acquired resistance. Emerging highly selective compounds for anticancer therapy are oligonucleotide aptamers that interact with their targets by recognizing a specific three-dimensional structure. Because of their nucleic acid nature, the rational design of advanced strategies to manipulate aptamers for both diagnostic and therapeutic applications is greatly simplified over antibodies. In this manuscript, we will provide a comprehensive overview of oligonucleotide aptamers as next generation strategies to efficiently target RTKs in human cancers.
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69
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Koirala D, Shelke SA, Dupont M, Ruiz S, DasGupta S, Bailey LJ, Benner SA, Piccirilli JA. Affinity maturation of a portable Fab-RNA module for chaperone-assisted RNA crystallography. Nucleic Acids Res 2018; 46:2624-2635. [PMID: 29309709 PMCID: PMC5861428 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkx1292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibody fragments such as Fabs possess properties that can enhance protein and RNA crystallization and therefore can facilitate macromolecular structure determination. In particular, Fab BL3-6 binds to an AAACA RNA pentaloop closed by a GC pair with ∼100 nM affinity. The Fab and hairpin have served as a portable module for RNA crystallization. The potential for general application make it desirable to adjust the properties of this crystallization module in a manner that facilitates its use for RNA structure determination, such as ease of purification, surface entropy or binding affinity. In this work, we used both in vitro RNA selection and phage display selection to alter the epitope and paratope sides of the binding interface, respectively, for improved binding affinity. We identified a 5'-GNGACCC-3' consensus motif in the RNA and S97N mutation in complimentarity determining region L3 of the Fab that independently impart about an order of magnitude improvement in affinity, resulting from new hydrogen bonding interactions. Using a model RNA, these modifications facilitated crystallization under a wider range of conditions and improved diffraction. The improved features of the Fab-RNA module may facilitate its use as an affinity tag for RNA purification and imaging and as a chaperone for RNA crystallography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepak Koirala
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Sandip A Shelke
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Marcel Dupont
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Stormy Ruiz
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Saurja DasGupta
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Lucas J Bailey
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Steven A Benner
- Foundation for Applied Molecular Evolution, Firebird Biomolecular Sciences LLC, 13709 Progress Boulevard, Alachua, FL 32615, USA
| | - Joseph A Piccirilli
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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Autour A, C Y Jeng S, D Cawte A, Abdolahzadeh A, Galli A, Panchapakesan SSS, Rueda D, Ryckelynck M, Unrau PJ. Fluorogenic RNA Mango aptamers for imaging small non-coding RNAs in mammalian cells. Nat Commun 2018; 9:656. [PMID: 29440634 PMCID: PMC5811451 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-02993-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite having many key roles in cellular biology, directly imaging biologically important RNAs has been hindered by a lack of fluorescent tools equivalent to the fluorescent proteins available to study cellular proteins. Ideal RNA labelling systems must preserve biological function, have photophysical properties similar to existing fluorescent proteins, and be compatible with established live and fixed cell protein labelling strategies. Here, we report a microfluidics-based selection of three new high-affinity RNA Mango fluorogenic aptamers. Two of these are as bright or brighter than enhanced GFP when bound to TO1-Biotin. Furthermore, we show that the new Mangos can accurately image the subcellular localization of three small non-coding RNAs (5S, U6, and a box C/D scaRNA) in fixed and live mammalian cells. These new aptamers have many potential applications to study RNA function and dynamics both in vitro and in mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Autour
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR 9002, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Sunny C Y Jeng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - Adam D Cawte
- Single Molecule Imaging Group, MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK.,Department of Medicine, Molecular Virology, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Amir Abdolahzadeh
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - Angela Galli
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - Shanker S S Panchapakesan
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - David Rueda
- Single Molecule Imaging Group, MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK. .,Department of Medicine, Molecular Virology, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK.
| | - Michael Ryckelynck
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR 9002, 67000, Strasbourg, France.
| | - Peter J Unrau
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada.
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71
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Bouhedda F, Autour A, Ryckelynck M. Light-Up RNA Aptamers and Their Cognate Fluorogens: From Their Development to Their Applications. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 19:ijms19010044. [PMID: 29295531 PMCID: PMC5795994 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19010044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
An RNA-based fluorogenic module consists of a light-up RNA aptamer able to specifically interact with a fluorogen to form a fluorescent complex. Over the past decade, significant efforts have been devoted to the development of such modules, which now cover the whole visible spectrum, as well as to their engineering to serve in a wide range of applications. In this review, we summarize the different strategies used to develop each partner (the fluorogen and the light-up RNA aptamer) prior to giving an overview of their applications that range from live-cell RNA imaging to the set-up of high-throughput drug screening pipelines. We then conclude with a critical discussion on the current limitations of these modules and how combining in vitro selection with screening approaches may help develop even better molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farah Bouhedda
- Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, UPR 9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France.
| | - Alexis Autour
- Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, UPR 9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France.
| | - Michael Ryckelynck
- Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, UPR 9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France.
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72
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Wang L, Yan M, Zhang B, Zhao J, Deng W, Lin W, Guan L. Approach to Introducing Substituent on the Dipole Conjugate Chain: The D−π–A Methine Chain Electrophilic Substitution. Org Lett 2017; 20:60-63. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.7b03345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lanying Wang
- Key
Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry,
Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, P. R. China
| | - Mengqi Yan
- Key
Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry,
Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, P. R. China
| | - Borui Zhang
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio 45056, United States
| | - Junlong Zhao
- Key
Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry,
Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, P. R. China
| | - Wenting Deng
- Key
Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry,
Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, P. R. China
| | - Wenxia Lin
- Key
Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry,
Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, P. R. China
| | - Li Guan
- Key
Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry,
Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, P. R. China
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