Internalization of red blood cell-mimicking hydrogel capsules with pH-triggered shape responses

Study on the formation and properties of red blood cell-like Fe3O4/TbLa3(Bim)12/PLGA composite particles

Besides the particle size and surface performance, the shape also plays a key role in drug delivery systems. Red blood cells are the most abundant blood cells in the human body, and are excellent oxygen carriers, due to their unique biconcave discoid shape. In this study, red blood cell (RBC)-like Fe3O4/TbLa3(Bim)12/poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) composite particles, with magnetic response and bioimaging functions, were prepared by electrospraying. Various electrospraying parameters, such as solvent, PLGA concentration, collecting distance and solution flow rate were investigated in detail to attempt to obtain RBC-like composite particles. The size distribution, morphology, structure, and hydrophobicity-hydrophilicity of particles were characterized. The results revealed the RBC-like Fe3O4/TbLa3(Bim)12/PLGA composite particles exhibited a strong green fluorescence and good magnetic behavior even when incubated with cells. Furthermore, the intensity of the magnetization and fluorescence can be adjusted by changing the contents of Fe3O4 and TbLa3(Bim)12. The effect on cell viability of the RBC-like Fe3O4/TbLa3(Bim)12/PLGA composite particles was evaluated in A549 cells and RBCs, and it was determined to have low cytotoxicity and excellent blood biocompatibility, suggesting that it is a promising candidate for application in drug delivery, targeting and tracking.

Superamphiphobic coatings based on liquid-core microcapsules with engineered capsule walls and functionality

Microcapsules with specific functional properties, related to the capsule wall and core, are highly desired in a number of applications. In this study, hybrid cellulose microcapsules (1.2 ± 0.4 µm in diameter) were prepared by nanoengineering the outer walls of precursor capsules. Depending on the preparation route, capsules with different surface roughness (raspberry or broccoli-like), and thereby different wetting properties, could be obtained. The tunable surface roughness was achieved as a result of the chemical and structural properties of the outer wall of a precursor capsule, which combined with a new processing route allowed in-situ formation of silica nanoparticles (30–40 nm or 70 nm in diameter). By coating glass slides with “broccoli-like” microcapsules (30–40 nm silica nanoparticles), static contact angles above 150° and roll-off angles below 6° were obtained for both water and low surface-tension oil (hexadecane), rendering the substrate superamphiphobic. As a comparison, coatings from raspberry-like capsules were only strongly oleophobic and hydrophobic. The liquid-core of the capsules opens great opportunities to incorporate different functionalities and here hydrophobic superparamagnetic nanoparticles (SPIONs) were encapsulated. As a result, magnetic broccoli-like microcapsules formed an excellent superamphiphobic coating-layer on a curved geometry by simply applying an external magnetic field.

Ultrathin Shape Change Smart Materials

With the discovery of graphene, significant research has focused on the synthesis, characterization, and applications of ultrathin materials. Graphene has also brought into focus other ultrathin materials composed of organics, polymers, inorganics, and their hybrids. Together, these ultrathin materials have unique properties of broad significance. For example, ultrathin materials have a large surface area and high flexibility which can enhance conformal contact in wearables and sensors leading to improved sensitivity. When porous, the short transverse diffusion length in these materials allows rapid mass transport. Alternatively, when impermeable, these materials behave as an ultrathin barrier. Such controlled permeability is critical in the design of encapsulation and drug delivery systems. Finally, ultrathin materials often feature defect-free and single-crystal-like two-dimensional atomic structures resulting in superior mechanical, optical, and electrical properties. A unique property of ultrathin materials is their low bending rigidity, which suggests that they could easily be bent, curved, or folded into 3D shapes. In this Account, we review the emerging field of 2D to 3D shape transformations of ultrathin materials. We broadly define ultrathin to include materials with a thickness below 100 nm and composed of a range of organic, inorganic, and hybrid compositions. This topic is important for both fundamental and applied reasons. Fundamentally, bending and curving of ultrathin films can cause atomistic and molecular strain which can alter their physical and chemical properties and lead to new 3D forms of matter which behave very differently from their planar precursors. Shape change can also lead to new 3D architectures with significantly smaller form factors. For example, 3D ultrathin materials would occupy a smaller space in on-chip devices or could permeate through tortuous media which is important for miniaturized robots and smart dust applications. Our Account highlights several differences between ultrathin and traditional shape change materials. The latter is typically associated with hydrogels, liquid crystals, or shape memory elastomers. As compared to bulk materials, ultrathin materials can much more easily bend and fold due to the significantly reduced bending modulus. Consequently, it takes much less energy to alter the shape of ultrathin materials, and even small environmental stimuli can trigger a large response. Further, the energy barriers between different configurations are small which allow a variety of conformations and enhances programmability. Finally, due to their ultrathin nature, the shape changes are typically not slowed down by sluggish mass or thermal transport, and thus, responses can be much faster than those of bulk materials. The latter point is important in the design of high-speed actuators. Consequently, ultrathin materials could enable low-power, rapid, programmable, and complex shape transformations in response to a broad range of stimuli such as pH, temperature, electromagnetic fields, or chemical environments. The Account also includes a discussion of applications, important challenges, and future directions.

Concise Review: Fabrication, Customization, and Application of Cell Mimicking Microparticles in Stem Cell Science

Stem and non-stem cell behavior is heavily influenced by the surrounding microenvironment, which includes other cells, matrix, and potentially biomaterials. Researchers have been successful in developing scaffolds and encapsulation techniques to provide stem cells with mechanical, topographical, and chemical cues to selectively direct them toward a desired differentiation pathway. However, most of these systems fail to present truly physiological replications of the in vivo microenvironments that stem cells are typically exposed to in tissues. Thus, cell mimicking microparticles (CMMPs) have been developed to more accurately recapitulate the properties of surrounding cells while still offering ways to tailor what stimuli are presented. This nascent field holds the promise of reducing, or even eliminating, the need for live cells in select, regenerative medicine therapies, and diagnostic applications. Recent, CMMP-based studies show great promise for the technology, yet only reproduce a small subset of cellular characteristics from among those possible: size, morphology, topography, mechanical properties, surface molecules, and tailored chemical release to name the most prominent. This Review summarizes the strengths, weaknesses, and ideal applications of micro/nanoparticle fabrication and customization methods relevant to cell mimicking and provides an outlook on the future of this technology. Moving forward, researchers should seek to combine multiple techniques to yield CMMPs that replicate as many cellular characteristics as possible, with an emphasis on those that most strongly influence the desired therapeutic effects. The level of flexibility in customizing CMMP properties allows them to substitute for cells in a variety of regenerative medicine, drug delivery, and diagnostic systems. Stem Cells Translational Medicine 2018;7:232-240.

Tunable particles alter macrophage uptake based on combinatorial effects of physical properties

The ability to tune phagocytosis of particle-based therapeutics by macrophages can enhance their delivery to macrophages or reduce their phagocytic susceptibility for delivery to non-phagocytic cells. Since phagocytosis is affected by the physical and chemical properties of particles, it is crucial to identify any interplay between physical properties of particles in altering phagocytic interactions. The combinatorial effect of physical properties size, shape and stiffness was investigated on Fc receptor mediated macrophage interactions by fabrication of layer-by-layer tunable particles of constant surface chemistry. Our results highlight how changing particle stiffness affects phagocytic interaction intricately when combined with varying size or shape. Increase in size plays a dominant role over reduction in stiffness in reducing internalization by macrophages for spherical particles. Internalization of rod-shaped, but not spherical particles, was highly dependent on stiffness. These particles demonstrate the interplay between size, shape and stiffness in interactions of Fc-functionalized particles with macrophages during phagocytosis.

Photo-Cross-Linked Dual-Responsive Hollow Capsules Mimicking Cell Membrane for Controllable Cargo Post-Encapsulation and Release

Multifunctional and responsive hollow capsules are ideal candidates to establish highly sophisticated compartments mimicking cell membranes for controllable bio-inspired functions. For this purpose pH and temperature dual-responsive and photo-cross-linked hollow capsules, based on silica-templated layer-by-layer approach by using poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide)-block-polymethacrylate) and polyallylamine, have been prepared to use them for the subsequent and easily available post-encapsulation process of protein-like macromolecules at room temperature and pH 7.4 and their controllable release triggered by stimuli. The uptake and release properties of the hollow capsules for cargos are highly affected by changes in the external stimuli temperature (25, 37, or 45 °C) and internal stimuli pH of the phosphate-containing buffer solution (5.5 or 7.4), by the degree of photo-cross-linking, and the size of cargo. The photo-cross-linked and dual stimuli-responsive hollow capsules with different membrane permeability can be considered as attractive material for mimicking cell functions triggered by controllable uptake and release of different up to 11 nm sized biomolecules.

Shaped stimuli-responsive hydrogel particles: syntheses, properties and biological responses

This review summarizes a pool of current experimental approaches and discusses perspectives in the development of the synergistic combination of shape and stimuli-response in particulate hydrogels.

Loading Capacity versus Enzyme Activity in Anisotropic and Spherical Calcium Carbonate Microparticles

A new method of fabrication of calcium carbonate microparticles of ellipsoidal, rhomboidal, and spherical geometries is reported by adjusting the relative concentration ratios of the initial salt solutions and/or the ethylene glycol content in the reaction medium. Morphology, porosity, crystallinity, and loading capacity of synthesized CaCO3 templates were characterized in detail. Particles harboring dextran or the enzyme guanylate kinase were obtained through encapsulation of these macromolecules using the layer-by-layer assembly technique to deposit positively and negatively charged polymers on these differently shaped CaCO3 templates and were characterized by confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscopy, fluorometric techniques, and enzyme activity measurements. The enzymatic activity, an important application of such porous particles and containers, has been analyzed in comparison with the loading capacity and geometry. Our results reveal that the particles' shape influences morphology of particles and that, as a result, affects the activity of the encapsulated enzymes, in addition to the earlier reported influence on cellular uptake. These particles are promising candidates for efficient drug delivery due to their relatively high loading capacity, biocompatibility, and easy fabrication and handling.

Enhanced Cellular Uptake of Bowl-like Microcapsules

Among several properties of colloidal particles, shape is emerging as an important parameter for tailoring the interactions between particles and cells. In this study, bowl-like multilayer microcapsules were prepared by osmotic-induced invagination of their spherical counterparts in a concentrated polyelectrolyte solution. The internalization behaviors of bowl-like and spherical microcapsules were compared by coincubation with smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and macrophages. The bowl-like capsules tended to attach onto the cell membranes from the bend side and could be enwrapped by the membranes of SMCs, leading to a faster uptake rate and larger accumulation inside cells than those of their spherical counterparts. These results are important for understanding the shape-dependent internalization behavior, providing useful guidance for further materials design especially in biomedical applications.

Non-affinity factors modulating vascular targeting of nano- and microcarriers

Particles capable of homing and adhering to specific vascular biomarkers have potential as fundamental tools in drug delivery for mediation of a wide variety of pathologies, including inflammation, thrombosis, and pulmonary disorders. The presentation of affinity ligands on the surface of a particle provides a means of targeting the particle to sites of therapeutic interest, but a host of other factors come into play in determining the targeting capacity of the particle. This review presents a summary of several key considerations in nano- and microparticle design that modulate targeted delivery without directly altering epitope-specific affinity. Namely, we describe the effect of factors in definition of the base carrier (including shape, size, and flexibility) on the capacity of carriers to access, adhere to, and integrate in target biological milieus. Furthermore, we present a summary of fundamental dynamics of carrier behavior in circulation, taking into account interactions with cells in circulation and the role of hemodynamics in mediating the direction of carriers to target sites. Finally, we note non-affinity aspects to uptake and intracellular trafficking of carriers in target cells. In total, recent findings presented here may offer an opportunity to capitalize on mitigating factors in the behavior of ligand-targeted carriers in order to optimize targeting.

Cubical Shape Enhances the Interaction of Layer-by-Layer Polymeric Particles with Breast Cancer Cells

Blood-borne objects display a nonspherical shape with in-flow dimensions much larger than the vascular endothelial fenestrations, yet, at the diseased state, are able to traverse through these fenestrations owing to their elasticity. The role of physical parameters including shape and elasticity in the behavior of objects found in the tumor microenvironment needs to be understood to ultimately enhance chemotherapy and minimize its side effects. In this study, sphere- and cube-shaped biocompatible elastic microparticles (EM) made via layer-by-layer assembly of hydrogen-bonded tannic acid/poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone) (TA/PVPON) as hollow polymer shells and their rigid core-shell precursors (RM) are explored. In contrast to rigid five-bilayer (TA/PVPON) core shells, hollow elastic shells are unrecognized by J774A.1 macrophages, yet interact with endothelial and breast cancer cells. Internalization of cubical shells is fivefold more efficient by HMVEC (human microvascular endothelial cells) and sixfold and 2.5-fold more efficient by MDA-MB-231 and by SUM159 (breast cancer cells), respectively, compared to spherical shells. The interaction of cubical (TA/PVPON)5 shells with endothelial cells is similar under 10 s(-1) (characteristic of tumor vasculature) and 100 s(-1) shear rate (normal vasculature) while it is decreased at 100 s(-1) shear rate for the spherical shells. Our data suggest that cubical geometry promotes interaction of particles with breast cancer cells, while elasticity prevents engulfment by phagocytic cells in the tumor microenvironment.

Synthesis of Nonspherical Microcapsules through Controlled Polyelectrolyte Coating of Hydrogel Templates

We report a simple approach to fabricate custom-shape microcapsules using hydrogel templates synthesized by stop flow lithography. Cargo-containing microcapsules were made by coating hydrogel particles with a single layer of poly-l-lysine followed by a one-step core degradation and capsule cross-linking procedure. We determined appropriate coating conditions by investigating the effect of pH, ionic strength, and prepolymer composition on the diffusion of polyelectrolytes into the oppositely charged hydrogel template. We also characterized the degradation of the templating core by tracking the diffusivity of nanoparticles embedded within the hydrogel. Unlike any other technique, this approach allows for easy fabrication of microcapsules with internal features (e.g., toroids) and selective surface modification of Janus particles using any polyelectrolyte. These soft, flexible capsules may be useful for therapeutic applications as well as fundamental studies of membrane mechanics.

Intracellular Degradable Hydrogel Cubes and Spheres for Anti-Cancer Drug Delivery

Shape and responsiveness of nanoengineered delivery carriers are crucial characteristics for rapid and efficient delivery of therapeutics. We report on a novel type of micrometer-sized hydrogel particles of controlled shape with dual pH- and redox-sensitivity for intracellular delivery of anticancer drugs. The cubical and spherical poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA) networks with disulfide links are obtained by cross-linking PMAA with cystamine within hydrogen-bonded multilayers of PMAA/poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PMAA/PVPON) on sacrificial mesoporous templates. The pH-triggered hydrogel swelling/shrinkage not only affords effective doxorubicin entrapment but also efficient endosomal/lysosomal escape, and redox-triggered degradation provides drug release into the cytosolic space. The hydrogels degrade rapidly to low molecular weight chains in the presence of the typical intracellular concentration of glutathione, which should ensure a rapid renal clearance in vivo. Particle shape is found to affect internalization at the initial step of cell-particle interactions. Drug-loaded spherical particles are found to be 12% more cytotoxic than the corresponding cubes within the first 10 h of cell incubation suggesting more rapid internalization of spheres. Both doxorubicin-loaded hydrogel cubes and spheres demonstrate 50% and 90% cytotoxicity when incubated with HeLa cancer cells for 24 and 48 h, respectively. The presented approach integrates the advantages of pH-sensitivity, enzymatic degradation, and shape-regulated internalization for novel types of "intelligent" three-dimensional networks with programmable behavior for use in controlled delivery of therapeutics.

Reversible swelling-shrinking behavior of hydrogen-bonded free-standing thin film stabilized by catechol reaction

Dopamine-modified poly(acrylic acid) (PAA-dopa) and poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVPON) was layer-by-layer (LbL) assembled to prepare thin film based on hydrogen bonding. The carboxylic group of acrylic acid and the phenolic hydroxyl group of dopamine can both act as hydrogen bond donors. The critical assembly and the critical disintegration pH values of PVPON/PAA-dopa film are enhanced compared with PVPON/PAA film. The hydrogen-bonded PVPON/PAA-dopa thin film can be cross-linked via catechol chemistry of dopamine. After cross-linking, the film can be exfoliated from the substrate in alkaline solution to get a free-standing film. Moreover, by tuning the pH value, deprotonation and protonation of PAA will make the hydrogen bond in the film break and reconstruct, which induces that the free-standing film has a reversible swelling-shrinking behavior.

Spatio-Temporal Control of LbL Films for Biomedical Applications: From 2D to 3D

Introduced in the '90s by Prof. Moehwald, Lvov, and Decher, the layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly of polyelectrolytes has become a popular technique to engineer various types of objects such as films, capsules and free standing membranes, with an unprecedented control at the nanometer and micrometer scales. The LbL technique allows to engineer biofunctional surface coatings, which may be dedicated to biomedical applications in vivo but also to fundamental studies and diagnosis in vitro. Initially mostly developed as 2D coatings and hollow capsules, the range of complex objects created by the LbL technique has greatly expanded in the past 10 years. In this Review, the aim is to highlight the recent progress in the field of LbL films for biomedical applications and to discuss the various ways to spatially and temporally control the biochemical and mechanical properties of multilayers. In particular, three major developments of LbL films are discussed: 1) the new methods and templates to engineer LbL films and control cellular processes from adhesion to differentiation, 2) the major ways to achieve temporal control by chemical, biological and physical triggers and, 3) the combinations of LbL technique, cells and scaffolds for repairing 3D tissues, including cardio-vascular devices, bone implants and neuro-prosthetic devices.

Biodegradable dextran vesicles for effective haemoglobin encapsulation

Biocompatible and biodegradable dextran–PLA copolymer self-assembled into polymeric vesicles, which could encapsulate the hemoglobin. The encapsulated hemoglobin retained biological activity and could be potentially used as blood substitute.

Pharmacological aspects of release from microcapsules - from polymeric multilayers to lipid membranes

This review is devoted to pharmacological applications of principles of release from capsules to overcome the membrane barrier. Many of these principles were developed in the context of polymeric multilayer capsule membrane modulation, but they are also pertinent to liposomes, polymersomes, capsosomes, particles, emulsion-based carriers and other carriers. We look at these methods from the physical, chemical or biological driving mechanisms point of view. In addition to applicability for carriers in drug delivery, these release methods are significant for another area directly related to pharmacology - modulation of the permeability of the membranes and thus promoting the action of drugs. Emerging technologies, including ionic current monitoring through a lipid membrane on a nanopore, are also highlighted.