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Abstract
Despite the discovery over 60 years ago by Huggins and Hodges that prostate cancers respond to androgen deprivation therapy, hormone-refractory prostate cancer remains a major clinical challenge. There is now mounting evidence that solid tumours originate from undifferentiated stem cell-like cells coexisting within a heterogeneous tumour mass that drive tumour formation, maintain tumour homeostasis and initiate metastases. This review focuses upon current evidence for prostate cancer stem cells, addressing the identification and properties of both normal and transformed prostate stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - AT Collins
- YCR Cancer Research Unit, Department of Biology, University of YorkUK
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52
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Dooley J, Erickson M, Farr AG. Alterations of the medullary epithelial compartment in the Aire-deficient thymus: implications for programs of thymic epithelial differentiation. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2008; 181:5225-32. [PMID: 18832676 PMCID: PMC2677919 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.8.5225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A widely held model of thymic epithelial differentiation is based on patterns of keratin expression, where a K8(+)K5(+) progenitor gives rise to K8(+)K5/K14(-) cortical thymic epithelium (CTEC), and medullary thymic epithelium (MTEC) are K8(-)K5(+)K14(+). The thymic phenotype of p63-deficient mice indicates that p63 is an important regulator of proximal stages of thymic epithelial differentiation. In this study, we have examined several features of the thymic medullary compartment in wild-type and Aire-deficient thymi in an effort to integrate the proapoptotic activity of Aire with these different perspectives of TE differentiation. Patterns of keratin and p63 expression by MTEC described here are difficult to reconcile with postmitotic MTEC that express a K8(-)K14(+) phenotype and suggest that the patterns of p63 and keratin expression reflecting differentiation programs of other epithelial tissues provide a useful framework for revising models of TE differentiation. Alterations of the Aire(-/-) MTEC compartment included reduced expression of p63, increased frequency of MTEC expressing truncated Aire protein, and shifts in the pattern of keratin expression and epithelial morphology. These data suggest a scenario where cellular targets of Aire-mediated apoptosis are postmitotic MTEC that have not yet completed their terminal differentiation program. According to this view, the minor population of globular K8(+)K14(-/low) MTEC observed in the Aire(+/+) thymus and significantly expanded in the Aire(-/-) thymic medulla represent end-stage, terminally differentiated MTEC. These Aire-dependent alterations of the MTEC compartment suggest that the activity of Aire is not neutral with respect to the program of MTEC differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Dooley
- Departments of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA 98195-7420
| | - Matthew Erickson
- Departments of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA 98195-7420
| | - Andrew G. Farr
- Departments of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA 98195-7420
- Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA 98195-7420
- Institute for Stem Cell and Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA 98195-7420
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53
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Jonmarker S, Glaessgen A, Culp WD, Pisa P, Lewensohn R, Ekman P, Valdman A, Egevad L. Expression of PDX-1 in prostate cancer, prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and benign prostatic tissue. APMIS 2008; 116:491-8. [PMID: 18754323 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0463.2008.01020.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Pancreatic duodenal homeobox 1 (PDX-1), a Hox type transcription factor, is necessary for differentiation of exocrine and endocrine pancreas, and regulates insulin gene transcription. PDX-1 expression was studied by immunohistochemistry on a tissue microarray (TMA) of 289 primary prostate cancers (PCa) from radical prostatectomy (RP) specimens with median follow-up of 48.9 months. We separately arrayed benign prostatic tissue, atrophy, high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN) and PCa from 40 men and also 17 lymph node metastases. Intensity and extent of immunoreactivity and their product (IRp) were evaluated by two independent observers. PDX-1 was overexpressed in cancer vs benign tissue (p<0.001), but also in atrophy and HGPIN vs cancer (p<0.001 and p=0.022, respectively). PDX-1 expression did not correlate with biochemical recurrence, but decreased with higher Gleason pattern (p<0.001) and in metastases vs primary PCa (p<0.001). Weighted kappa for interobserver agreement of intensity, extent and IRp was 0.65, 0.13 and 0.54, respectively. Presence of PDX-1 protein in benign and malignant prostatic tissue was confirmed by Western blot. In view of recent attention to the role of insulin systems in men with PCa, this protein is of interest in the pathogenesis of PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Jonmarker
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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54
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Klonisch T, Wiechec E, Hombach-Klonisch S, Ande SR, Wesselborg S, Schulze-Osthoff K, Los M. Cancer stem cell markers in common cancers - therapeutic implications. Trends Mol Med 2008; 14:450-60. [PMID: 18775674 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2008.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 288] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2008] [Revised: 08/01/2008] [Accepted: 08/01/2008] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Rapid advances in the cancer stem cell (CSC) field have provided cause for optimism for the development of more reliable cancer therapies in the future. Strategies aimed at efficient targeting of CSCs are becoming important for monitoring the progress of cancer therapy and for evaluating new therapeutic approaches. Here, we characterize and compare the specific markers that have been found to be present on stem cells, cancer cells and CSCs in selected tissues (colon, breast, liver, pancreas and prostate). We then discuss future directions of this intriguing new research field in the context of new diagnostic and therapeutic opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Klonisch
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, R3E 0W3, MB, Canada
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55
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Gurel B, Iwata T, Koh C, Jenkins RB, Lan F, Van Dang C, Hicks JL, Morgan J, Cornish TC, Sutcliffe S, Isaacs WB, Luo J, De Marzo AM. Nuclear MYC protein overexpression is an early alteration in human prostate carcinogenesis. Mod Pathol 2008; 21:1156-67. [PMID: 18567993 PMCID: PMC3170853 DOI: 10.1038/modpathol.2008.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 315] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The MYC onco-protein is a transcription factor that regulates cell proliferation, metabolism, protein synthesis, mitochondrial function and stem cell renewal. A region on chromosome 8q24 encompassing the MYC locus is amplified in prostate cancer, but this occurs mostly in advanced disease suggesting that MYC alterations occur late in prostate cancer. In contrast, MYC mRNA is elevated in most prostate cancers, even those of relatively low stage and grade (eg Gleason score 6) suggesting that MYC plays a role in initiation. However, since MYC protein levels are tightly regulated, elevated MYC mRNA does not necessarily imply elevated MYC protein. Thus, it is critical to determine whether MYC protein is elevated in human prostate cancer, and if so, at what stage of the disease this elevation occurs. Prior studies of MYC protein localization have been hampered by lack of suitable antibodies and controls. We utilized a new anti-MYC antibody coupled with genetically defined control experiments to localize MYC protein within human tissue microarrays consisting of normal, atrophy, PIN, primary adenocarcinoma, and metastatic adenocarcinoma. Nuclear overexpression of MYC protein occurred frequently in luminal cells of PIN, as well as in most primary carcinomas and metastatic disease. MYC protein did not correlate with gain of 8q24, suggesting alternative mechanisms for MYC overexpression. These results provide evidence that upregulation of nuclear MYC protein expression is a highly prevalent and early change in prostate cancer and suggest that increased nuclear MYC may be a critical oncogenic event driving human prostate cancer initiation and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bora Gurel
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Tsuyoshi Iwata
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Cheryl Koh
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | | | - Fusheng Lan
- Department of Pathology, The Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Chi Van Dang
- Division of Hematology, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Jessica L. Hicks
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - James Morgan
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Toby C. Cornish
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Siobhan Sutcliffe
- Siteman Cancer Center, Barnes-Jewish Hospital, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis MO
| | - William B. Isaacs
- Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, The Brady Urological Research Institute, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Jun Luo
- Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, The Brady Urological Research Institute, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Angelo M. De Marzo
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, The Brady Urological Research Institute, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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56
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Fioriti D, Mischitelli M, Di Monaco F, Di Silverio F, Petrangeli E, Russo G, Giordano A, Pietropaolo V. Cancer stem cells in prostate adenocarcinoma: a target for new anticancer strategies. J Cell Physiol 2008; 216:571-5. [PMID: 18481259 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PC) is major common malignancy in males in most industrialized Western countries, where it is the most commonly diagnosed cancer affecting men after middle age (>50 years). Over 90% of PC patients with incurable disease respond to primary treatment, which consists of intervention to lower serum testosterone. However, the duration of response is short (12-33 months) and in almost all patients, is followed by the emergence of a phenotype resistant to androgen deprivation in therapy (known as hormone or androgen-resistant PC). Considerable research efforts have been directed towards the identification of markers associated with the initiation and progression of PC, yet there is little consensus about the target cell within prostate epithelium that is susceptible to malignant transformation. Stem cells may represent a major target for mutations leading to cancer as their longevity assures continued presence during the long latency between carcinogenic agents exposure and cancer development. Therefore in order to allow the development of more effective treatment strategies for PC, a better understanding of the molecular changes that underlie cancer stem cells is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Fioriti
- Department of Urology, University La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
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57
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Bhatia B, Jiang M, Suraneni M, Patrawala L, Badeaux M, Schneider-Broussard R, Multani AS, Jeter CR, Calhoun-Davis T, Hu L, Hu J, Tsavachidis S, Zhang W, Chang S, Hayward SW, Tang DG. Critical and distinct roles of p16 and telomerase in regulating the proliferative life span of normal human prostate epithelial progenitor cells. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:27957-27972. [PMID: 18662989 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m803467200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Normal human prostate (NHP) epithelial cells undergo senescence in vitro and in vivo, but the underlying molecular mechanisms remain obscure. Here we show that the senescence of primary NHP cells, which are immunophenotyped as intermediate basal-like cells expressing progenitor cell markers CD44, alpha2beta1, p63, hTERT, and CK5/CK18, involves loss of telomerase expression, up-regulation of p16, and activation of p53. Using genetically defined manipulations of these three signaling pathways, we show that p16 is the primary determinant of the NHP cell proliferative capacity and that hTERT is required for unlimited proliferative life span. Hence, suppression of p16 significantly extends NHP cell life span, but both p16 inhibition and hTERT are required to immortalize NHP cells. Importantly, immortalized NHP cells retain expression of most progenitor markers, demonstrate gene expression profiles characteristic of proliferating progenitor cells, and possess multilineage differentiation potential generating functional prostatic glands. Our studies shed important light on the molecular mechanisms regulating the proliferative life span of NHP progenitor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bobby Bhatia
- Department of Carcinogenesis, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park-Research Division, Smithville, Texas 78957
| | - Ming Jiang
- Department of Urologic Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, the Departments of
| | - Mahipal Suraneni
- Department of Carcinogenesis, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park-Research Division, Smithville, Texas 78957
| | - Lubna Patrawala
- Department of Carcinogenesis, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park-Research Division, Smithville, Texas 78957
| | - Mark Badeaux
- Department of Carcinogenesis, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park-Research Division, Smithville, Texas 78957
| | - Robin Schneider-Broussard
- Department of Carcinogenesis, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park-Research Division, Smithville, Texas 78957
| | - Asha S Multani
- Cancer Genetics, University of Texas M.D Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Collene R Jeter
- Department of Carcinogenesis, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park-Research Division, Smithville, Texas 78957
| | - Tammy Calhoun-Davis
- Department of Carcinogenesis, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park-Research Division, Smithville, Texas 78957
| | - Limei Hu
- Pathology, University of Texas M.D Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Jianhua Hu
- Biostatistics, University of Texas M.D Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Spiridon Tsavachidis
- Biostatistics, University of Texas M.D Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Wei Zhang
- Pathology, University of Texas M.D Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Sandy Chang
- Cancer Genetics, University of Texas M.D Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030; Hematopathology, University of Texas M.D Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Simon W Hayward
- Department of Urologic Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, the Departments of
| | - Dean G Tang
- Department of Carcinogenesis, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park-Research Division, Smithville, Texas 78957; Program in Molecular Carcinogenesis, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, Texas 77030.
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58
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Robust expression of Prominin-2 all along the adult male reproductive system and urinary bladder. Histochem Cell Biol 2008; 130:749-59. [DOI: 10.1007/s00418-008-0445-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/11/2008] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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59
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Lai CL, van den Ham R, van Leenders G, van der Lugt J, Mol JA, Teske E. Histopathological and immunohistochemical characterization of canine prostate cancer. Prostate 2008; 68:477-88. [PMID: 18196537 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In this study we try to identify the origin of canine prostate cancer (cPC) by classifying the tumors histological subtypes and relate these subtypes to their combined expressional characteristics of several tissue specific and differentiation markers. METHODS cPCs were examined histomorphologically and by immunohistochemical detection of the cytokeratin markers CK14, HMWCK, CK5, CK18, and CK7, and of the markers UPIII, PSA and PSMA. RESULTS Histopathologically, six growth patterns could be differentiated. The most frequent patterns were solid, cribriform and micropapillary growth patterns, while sarcomatoid, small acinar/ductal, and tubulo-papillary growth patterns were less frequent present. Solid growth patterns were significantly (P = 0.027) more often seen in castrated dogs. Immunohistochemically, about half of the cPC cases showed expression of PSA (8/20) and PSMA (10/20); 85% and 60% of the cPC expressed UPIII (17/20) and CK7 (12/20), while 13 and 12 cPC expressed CK5 and CK14, respectively; all cPC expressed CK18. CK14 was significantly more often and UPIII less frequent expressed in the solid growth patterns than in the micropapillary and cribriform patterns, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Canine prostate cancer appear to be more aggressive and of a less differentiated type than most common human prostate cancers. Comparing the expression patterns of the markers in cPC to those in normal canine prostate tissue, cPC most likely originates from the collecting ducts rather than from the peripheral acini. Given also the fact that canine prostate cancer is unresponsive to androgen withdrawal therapy, canine prostate cancer mostly resembles human, androgen refractory, poorly differentiated prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Li Lai
- Department of Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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60
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Lai CL, van den Ham R, van Leenders G, van der Lugt J, Teske E. Comparative characterization of the canine normal prostate in intact and castrated animals. Prostate 2008; 68:498-507. [PMID: 18213634 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prostate diseases in the dog are generally regarded as representative for their human counterparts. We characterized the normal canine prostate in comparison to the normal human prostate. METHODS Prostates of dogs were examined histomorphologically and by immunohistochemical detection of the markers CK14, HMWCK, CK5, CK18, CK7, UPIII, PSA, and PSMA. RESULTS Histomorphologically, the canine prostate lacks the human zonal differentiation, has much more prominent acini, while comprising less stromal tissue. In general, the canine prostate epithelium displayed a highly differentiated character, with no cells expressing CK14, minimal amounts of cells expressing HMWCK/CK5 and the vast majority of cells expressing CK18 and PSA. After castration, the prostate epithelium regressed, and the remaining tubules were largely populated by cells showing a ductal phenotype (HMWCK+/CK5+/CK18+/CK7+). CONCLUSIONS The human and canine prostate are histologically differently organized. The general scheme of cellular differentiation of the prostate epithelium may however be applicable to both species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Li Lai
- Department of Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
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61
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Bhatia B, Multani AS, Patrawala L, Chen X, Calhoun-Davis T, Zhou J, Schroeder L, Schneider-Broussard R, Shen J, Pathak S, Chang S, Tang DG. Evidence that senescent human prostate epithelial cells enhance tumorigenicity: cell fusion as a potential mechanism and inhibition by p16INK4a and hTERT. Int J Cancer 2008; 122:1483-95. [PMID: 18059027 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.23222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Normal human prostate (NHP) epithelial cells undergo senescence in vitro and in vivo but the potential role of senescent NHP cells in prostate tumorigenesis remain unclear. Here we show that senescent NHP cells enhance the in vivo tumorigenicity of low-tumorigenic LNCaP prostate cancer and low/non-tumorigenic subset of cells (called L cells) isolated from multiple bulk-cultured prostate (and other) cancer cell lines. Subsequent studies suggest cell-cell fusion as a potential mechanism for senescent NHP cell-enhanced tumor development. Using fluorescently tagged tumor cells and/or NHP cells, we find that NHP cells, like fibroblasts, can undergo fusion with unfractionated tumor cells or the L cells. Using 293T-L cells as the model cell system, we verify NHP and 293T-L cell fusion by using differential RT-PCR, karyotyping, and gene expression analyses. Further experiments demonstrate that senescent NHP cells that have lost progenitor markers, accumulated p16INK4a (p16) protein expression, and acquired the AR mRNA expression, appear to be the preferential fusion targets. Strikingly, the tumorigenicity of the NHP/293T-L hybrid cells was inhibited by exogenous p16 as well as hTERT. Chromosomal analyses revealed that hTERT probably inhibited the in vivo tumorigenicity by maintaining genomic stability. These results suggest that senescent NHP cells, like senescent fibroblasts, may promote tumor development and that one of the mechanisms underlying the senescent NHP cell-enhanced tumorigenicity could be through cell fusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bobby Bhatia
- Department of Carcinogenesis, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park-Research Division, Smithville, TX 78957, USA
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62
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Zhao H, Nolley R, Chen Z, Reese SW, Peehl DM. Inhibition of monoamine oxidase A promotes secretory differentiation in basal prostatic epithelial cells. Differentiation 2008; 76:820-30. [PMID: 18248494 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-0436.2007.00263.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) expression is associated with high-grade prostate cancer. Immunohistochemistry showed that MAO-A is also expressed in the basal epithelial cells of normal prostate glands. Using cultured primary prostatic epithelial cells as a model, we showed that MAO-A prevents basal epithelial cells from differentiating into secretory cells. Under differentiation-promoting conditions, clorgyline, an irreversible MAO-A inhibitor, induced secretory cell-like morphology and repressed expression of cytokeratin 14, a basal cell marker. More importantly, clorgyline induced mRNA and protein expression of androgen receptor (AR), a hallmark of secretory epithelial cells. In clorgyline-treated cells, androgen induced luciferase activity controlled by the promoter of prostate-specific antigen, an AR target gene, in a dose-dependent manner. This activity was blocked by the AR antagonist Casodex, showing that AR is functional. In turn, androgen decreased MAO-A expression in clorgyline-treated, secretory-like cells. Our results demonstrated that cultured basal epithelial cells have the potential to differentiate into secretory cells, and that inhibition of MAO-A is a key factor in promoting this process. Increased expression of MAO-A in high-grade prostate cancer may be an important contributor to its de-differentiated phenotype, raising the possibility that MAO-A inhibition may restore differentiation and reverse the aggressive behavior of high-grade cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongjuan Zhao
- Department of Urology Stanford University School of Medicine 300 Pasteur Drive, Grant Building S227 MC 5118, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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63
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Litvinov IV, Vander Griend DJ, Xu Y, Antony L, Dalrymple SL, Isaacs JT. Low-calcium serum-free defined medium selects for growth of normal prostatic epithelial stem cells. Cancer Res 2007; 66:8598-607. [PMID: 16951173 PMCID: PMC4124600 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-1228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Stage-specific differentiation markers were used to evaluate the cellular composition and the origin of nonimmortalized (PrEC) and immortalized (PZ-HPV7, CA-HPV10, RWPE-1, and 957E/hTERT) human prostate cell lines. These studies documented that immortalized and nonimmortalized prostate epithelial cells established and maintained in low (i.e., <300 micromol/L) Ca(2+) serum-free defined (SFD) medium were all derived from normal nonmalignant prostate tissues and contain CD133(+)/ABCG2(+)/alpha(2)beta(1)(Hi)/p63(-)/PSCA(-)/AR(-)/PSA(-) prostate stem cells. In these cultures, prostate stem cells are able to self-renew and generate two distinct cell lineages: the minor proliferatively quiescent neuroendocrine lineage and the major transit-amplifying cell lineage. Subsequently, CD133(-)/ABCG2(-)/alpha(2)beta(1)(Hi)/p63(+)/PSCA(-)/AR(-)/PSA(-) transit-amplifying cells proliferate frequently and eventually mature into proliferatively quiescent CD133(-)/ABCG2(-)/alpha(2)beta(1)(Lo)/p63(-)/PSCA(+)/AR(-)/PSA(-) intermediate cells. Such proliferatively quiescent intermediate cells, however, do not complete their full maturation into CD133(-)/ABCG2(-)/alpha(2)beta(1)(Lo)/p63(-)/PSCA(-)/AR(+)/PSA(+) luminal-secretory cells in low Ca(2+) SFD medium. Addition of universal type I IFN and synthetic androgen (R1881) to culture medium resulted in up-regulation of androgen receptor protein expression. However, it failed to induce full differentiation of intermediate cells into AR(+)/PSA(+) luminal-secretory cells. Our results indicate that such inability of prostate epithelial cells to complete their differentiation is due to continuous expression of Notch-1 receptor and its downstream effector, Hey-1 protein, which actively suppresses differentiation via its ability to transcriptionally repress a series of genes, including the GATA family of transcription factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan V. Litvinov
- Chemical Therapeutics Program, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Cellular and Molecular Medicine Graduate Program, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Donald J. Vander Griend
- The Brady Urological Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Yi Xu
- Chemical Therapeutics Program, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Lizamma Antony
- Chemical Therapeutics Program, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Susan L. Dalrymple
- Chemical Therapeutics Program, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - John T. Isaacs
- Chemical Therapeutics Program, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Cellular and Molecular Medicine Graduate Program, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- The Brady Urological Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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64
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Reiner T, de las Pozas A, Parrondo R, Perez-Stable C. Progression of Prostate Cancer from a Subset of p63-Positive Basal Epithelial Cells in FG/Tag Transgenic Mice. Mol Cancer Res 2007; 5:1171-9. [DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-07-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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65
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Garcia FU, Haber MM, Chen X. Prostatic basal cells in the peripheral and transitional zones: zonal variation in morphology and in immunophenotype. Prostate 2007; 67:1686-92. [PMID: 17879949 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostatic adenocarcinoma exhibit prominent zonal predilections. Basal cells from the transitional zone and from the peripheral zone are postulated to have different underlying biological properties. We studied basal cells in both prostatic zones. METHODS Tissue microarrays (TMA) were prepared from 65 whole-mounted prostatectomy specimens with prostatic adenocarcinoma. The transitional zone and peripheral zone were sampled from each prostate. TMA sections were stained with a basal cell cocktail (CK 34betaE12 + p63). The immunostaining pattern and the morphology of basal cells were recorded. RESULTS Triangular-shaped basal cells were highlighted by CK 34betaE12 cytoplasmic and p63 nuclear staining. These basal cells had their long axis oriented perpendicular to the basement membrane and their apex toward the lumen interdigited between secretory luminal cells. This morphology was seen in the majority of peripheral zone benign prostatic glands (92.0%) but only a minority of transitional zone benign prostatic glands (18.0%). Basal cells of the transitional zone showed weak or absent CK 34betaE12 staining in 65.9% of glands while maintaining p63. All glands with high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN) contained the triangular basal cells. In addition, basal cell clusters were identified in 8.7% of peripheral zone glands and 5.2% of HGPIN glands. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that the basal cell morphology and the basal cell immunophenotype have a zonal variation. The finding of a unique morphology of basal cells and the presence of basal cell clusters in the peripheral zone suggests that the peripheral zone might be the stem/progenitor cell-rich area in the human prostates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando U Garcia
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
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66
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Abstract
Peter Nowell and David Hungerford's discovery of the Philadelphia chromosome facilitated many critical studies that have led to a paradigm shift in our understanding of cancer as a disease of stem cells. This Review focuses on the application of these concepts to investigation of the role of stem cells in prostate cancer initiation and progression. Major strides in the development of in vitro and in vivo assays have enabled identification and characterization of prostate stem cells as well as functional evaluation of the tumorigenic effects of prostate cancer-related genetic alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devon A. Lawson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, and
Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, and
Howard Hughes Medical Institute, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Owen N. Witte
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, and
Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, and
Howard Hughes Medical Institute, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
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67
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Long RM, Morrissey C, Walsh S, Hamilton HJ, Farrell N, O'Neill A, Fitzpatrick JM, Watson WR. Alterations in the expression of inhibitors of apoptosis during differentiation of prostate epithelial cells. BJU Int 2007; 100:445-9. [PMID: 17617147 DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-410x.2007.06932.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate alterations in the apoptotic phenotype, specifically the inhibitors of apoptosis (IAP) family, in prostate epithelial cells after differentiation from an apoptotic-resistant basal cell to an apoptotic-susceptible secretory cell. MATERIALS AND METHODS Cells of the immortalized human prostate epithelial line HPr-1AR were cultured with and with no 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) to drive differentiation. Western blotting and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) were used to determine changes in differentiation markers such as cytokeratins (CK) 14 and 18, and in XIAP, cIAP-1 and cIAP-2. Flow cytometry was used to assess viability and apoptosis, by propidium iodide DNA staining of the cells during differentiation. RESULTS Morphological changes and the increased CK-18 and decreased CK-14 expression confirmed differentiation of cells towards a secretory phenotype. Real-time PCR and Western blotting confirmed the expression of the IAPs in the HPr-1AR cells. There was a time-dependent decrease in the mRNA expression of XIAP, cIAP-1 and cIAP-2 after treatment with DHT. Differentiation also resulted in decreased cIAP-1 and XIAP protein expression, but cIAP-2 remained unchanged. Spontaneous apoptosis was significantly increased during cellular differentiation. CONCLUSION We show for the first time that differentiation of HPr-1AR prostate epithelial cells results in the development of a transient end-stage cell that might be explained by the loss of the IAP family of proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronan M Long
- UCD School of Medicine and Medical Science, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin and Dublin Molecular Medicine Centre, Dublin, Ireland.
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68
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Brown MD, Gilmore PE, Hart CA, Samuel JD, Ramani VAC, George NJ, Clarke NW. Characterization of benign and malignant prostate epithelial Hoechst 33342 side populations. Prostate 2007; 67:1384-96. [PMID: 17639507 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The prostate epithelial stem cell has been proposed as the primary origin of neoplastic change in prostate cancer. However, the isolation and characterization of unexpanded prostate epithelial stem cells have proven problematic. METHODS A prostate epithelial side population (SP) has been isolated utilizing a modified Hoechst 33342 dye efflux assay from both benign and malignant prostate tissue. CD45(-ve), integrin alpha2(+ve) Hoechst 33342 SP and NSP cells were isolated by FACS, immunophenotyped and functionally characterized in 3D culture. RESULTS FACS analysis revealed a verapamil sensitive SP accounting for 0.93 +/- 0.12% and 0.57 +/- 0.11% of the total epithelial population from both benign and malignant prostates. The benign SP phenotype revealed a heterogeneous cell population consisting predominantly of small basal cells containing minimal cytoplasm. Conversely, the malignant SP was of undetermined acinar origin and with a complete loss of expression of the CDK2 inhibitor p21(WAF1/Cip1). In vitro androgen-enhanced 3D culture of the benign and malignant SP cells led to the production of spheroids which had acinus like morphology and expressed primitive and basal cell markers. Incorporation of the CD133 marker isolated a further SP sub-fraction accounting for 0.037 +/- 0.01% of epithelial cells. CONCLUSIONS Our observations are consistent with the Hoechst 33342 dye efflux assay isolating a stem cell enriched population which can be further sub-fractionated by CD133 selection. Moreover, the loss of the CDK inhibitor in malignancy is consistent with the hypothesis that neoplastic change originates in the stem cell compartment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mick D Brown
- ProMPT Genito-Urinary Cancer Research Group, Paterson Institute for Cancer Research, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
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69
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Papini S, Rosellini A, De Matteis A, Campani D, Selli C, Caporali A, Bettuzzi S, Revoltella RP. Establishment of an organotypic in vitro culture system and its relevance to the characterization of human prostate epithelial cancer cells and their stromal interactions. Pathol Res Pract 2007; 203:209-16. [PMID: 17442502 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2007.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2006] [Revised: 01/29/2007] [Accepted: 02/09/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Human prostatic adenocarcinoma fragments (1-6mm) were cultured on collagen sponges in medium supplemented or not supplemented with 4,5alpha-dihydrotesterone (DHT) until 3 weeks, maintaining the three-dimensional (3D) epithelial and stromal organization present in the tumor in vivo. With time, in the presence of DHT, locally progressive cribriform nests of neoplastic cells with proliferative rates higher than those inside the fragment developed on the surface, while the stroma became more dissociated, and fibrosis replaced the muscular component. The 3D-culture provides a promising approach for studying the development and phenotype of prostate epithelial tumor progenitor cells and their stromal interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Papini
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Pisa, Italy
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70
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Montironi R, Mazzucchelli R, Lopez-Beltran A, Cheng L, Scarpelli M. Mechanisms of Disease: high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and other proposed preneoplastic lesions in the prostate. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 4:321-32. [PMID: 17551536 DOI: 10.1038/ncpuro0815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2006] [Accepted: 03/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
High-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN) is the most likely precursor of prostatic adenocarcinoma according to virtually all available evidence. This lesion is characterized by cellular proliferations within pre-existing ducts and acini, with nuclear and nucleolar enlargements similar to those seen in prostate cancer, although unlike cancer HGPIN retains a basal-cell layer. The recognition of HGPIN is clinically important because of the strong association between this disease and prostatic carcinoma. The predictive value for cancer of an initial diagnosis of HGPIN on needle biopsy has substantially declined, with values falling from 36% to 21%. A major factor contributing to this decline is related to increased use of needle biopsy core sampling, which has provided the means for many cancers associated with HGPIN to be detected on initial biopsy; repeat biopsy, even with good sampling, does not detect many additional cancers. Other possible findings in the prostate might indicate premalignant disease (low-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia, atrophy, malignancy-associated changes, and atypical adenomatous hyperplasia or adenosis), but the data for these premalignant diseases are much less convincing than those for HGPIN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodolfo Montironi
- Uropathology Section, Institute of Pathological Anatomy and Histopathology, Polytechnic University of the Marche Region (Ancona), School of Medicine, United Hospitals, Torrette, Ancona, Italy.
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71
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Letellier G, Perez MJ, Yacoub M, Levillain P, Cussenot O, Fromont G. Epithelial Phenotypes in the Developing Human Prostate. J Histochem Cytochem 2007; 55:885-90. [PMID: 17478449 DOI: 10.1369/jhc.7a7192.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
An intermediate population has been identified among prostate glands called transiently amplifying (TA) cells, which are characterized by coexpression of basal and luminal cytokeratins (CKs), high proliferation, and lack of p27 expression. These cells are rare in the normal adult prostate and increase in pretumoral conditions, but their importance in the developing gland remains unknown. We analyzed fetal prostates for the expression of CKs (5/6, 18, 19) and factors involved in proliferation and apoptosis: p63, Ki67, p27, epidermal growth factor (EGFR), Bcl2, androgen receptor (AR). Immunostaining was performed on a tissue microarray, including 40 prostates from fetuses aged 13-42 weeks and normal prostate tissue from 10 adults. In both solid buds and the basal compartment of canalized glands, cells expressed p63, CK5/6, CK19, CK18, BCL2, EGFR and were p27 negative. Luminal cells of fetal canalized glands continue to express CK19, EGFR, and BCL2, without p27 expression. In contrast, adult epithelial luminal cells showed diffuse AR and p27 expression, without CK19, BCL2, and EGFR staining. Proliferation was high and diffuse in fetal glands and rare and restricted to basal cells in adult glands. These results indicate that most fetal epithelial prostatic cells exhibit the phenotype of TA cells, suggesting their regulatory function in prostate development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy Letellier
- Service de Pédiatrie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire-Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France
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72
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Drewa T, Styczynski J. Progenitor cells are responsible for formation primary epithelial cultures in the prostate epithelial model. Int Urol Nephrol 2007; 39:851-7. [PMID: 17318344 DOI: 10.1007/s11255-006-9105-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2006] [Accepted: 08/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The adult stem cells (ASC) are supposed to regenerate epithelium. We hypothesized prostate epithelial CD133-positive ASC to be responsible for establishing the primary cell culture. The prostate epithelial stem cells were isolated using anti-CD133 microbeads in order to form different cell populations. The morphology of cultures developed from CD133(+) and CD133(-) prostate epithelial cells were compared with prostate epithelium cell culture obtained after simple isolation procedure. Four 8-week-old Wistar rats were used in the experiment and six cultures were obtained. Double CD133(+) and CD133(-) cultures from two rats were established after enzymatic digestion and positive selection by SuperMACS device, and two non-selected CD133(+)/CD133(-) cultures were developed by simple prostate epithelial cell isolation from two other rats. The epithelial nature was confirmed by anti-cytokeratine antibodies. It was observed that growth of the CD133(+)/CD133(-) and CD133(+)culture resembled epithelial-like prostate cell culture. It was not possible to establish epithelial-like culture from CD133(-) cell population. The primary epithelial cell culture collapsed in a few days after the CD133-positive ASC were removed. We concluded that the epithelial progenitor cells are responsible for establishing primary prostate epithelial cultures in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Drewa
- Department of Tissue Engineering, Chair of Medical Biology, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Karlowicza 24, 85-092, Bydgoszcz, Poland.
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73
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Tang DG, Patrawala L, Calhoun T, Bhatia B, Choy G, Schneider-Broussard R, Jeter C. Prostate cancer stem/progenitor cells: identification, characterization, and implications. Mol Carcinog 2007; 46:1-14. [PMID: 16921491 DOI: 10.1002/mc.20255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Several solid tumors have now been shown to contain stem cell-like cells called cancer stem cells (CSC). These cells, although generally rare, appear to be highly tumorigenic and may be the cells that drive tumor formation, maintain tumor homeostasis, and mediate tumor metastasis. In this Perspective, we first provide our insight on how a CSC should be defined. We then summarize our current knowledge of stem/progenitor cells in the normal human prostate (NHP), an organ highly susceptible to hyperproliferative diseases such as benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) and prostate cancer (PCa). We further review the evidence that cultured PCa cells, xenograft prostate tumors, and patient tumors may contain stem/progenitor cells. Along with our discussion, we present several methodologies that can be potentially used to identify putative tumor-reinitiating CSC. Finally, we present a hypothetical model for the hierarchical organization of human PCa cells and discuss the implications of this model in helping understand prostate carcinogenesis and design novel diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dean G Tang
- Department of Carcinogenesis, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park-Research Division, Smithville, Texas 78957, USA
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74
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Lang SH, Smith J, Hyde C, Macintosh C, Stower M, Maitland NJ. Differentiation of prostate epithelial cell cultures by matrigel/ stromal cell glandular reconstruction. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2007; 42:273-80. [PMID: 17163777 DOI: 10.1290/0511080.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2006] [Accepted: 04/09/2006] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Three-dimensional epithelial culture models are widely used to emulate a more physiologically relevant microenvironment for the study of genes and signaling pathways. Prostate epithelial cells can grow into solid cell masses or acinus-like spheroids in Matrigel. To test if the ability to form acinus-like spheroids in Matrigel is dependent on how undifferentiated a cell is or whether it is tumor or nontumor, we established six novel epithelial cell lines. Primary prostate epithelial cells were immortalized using HPV16 E6 gene transduction and were named Shmac 2, 3, and 6 (nontumor); Shmac 4, Shmac 5, and P4E6 (tumor). All cell lines were phenotyped in monolayer culture, and their ability to form acinus-like spheroids in Matrigel investigated. The cell lines exhibited a wide range of population doubling times and all showed an intermediate phenotype in monolayer culture ((luminal)CK(+)/(basal)CK(+)/CD44(+)/PSA(+)/AR(-)). Only Shmac 5 cells formed acinus-like spheroids when cultured in Matrigel. Co-culture of the spheroids with fibroblasts advanced differentiation by inducing androgen receptor expression and epithelial polarization. Our findings indicate that tumor cells can form acinus-like spheroids in Matrigel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shona H Lang
- YCR Cancer Research Unit, University of York, UK.
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75
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76
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De Torres Ramírez I. Factores pronósticos y predictivos del carcinoma de próstata en la biopsia prostática. Actas Urol Esp 2007; 31:1025-44. [DOI: 10.1016/s0210-4806(07)73765-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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77
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Kogan I, Goldfinger N, Milyavsky M, Cohen M, Shats I, Dobler G, Klocker H, Wasylyk B, Voller M, Aalders T, Schalken JA, Oren M, Rotter V. hTERT-immortalized prostate epithelial and stromal-derived cells: an authentic in vitro model for differentiation and carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 2006; 66:3531-40. [PMID: 16585177 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-05-2183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed type of cancer in men, and there is no available cure for patients with advanced disease. In vitro model systems are urgently required to permit the study of human prostate cell differentiation and malignant transformation. Unfortunately, human prostate cells are particularly difficult to convert into continuously growing cultures. We report here the successful immortalization without viral oncogenes of prostate epithelial cells and, for the first time, prostate stromal cells. These cells exhibit a significant pattern of authentic prostate-specific features. In particular, the epithelial cell culture is able to differentiate into glandular buds that closely resemble the structures formed by primary prostate epithelial cells. The stromal cells have typical characteristics of prostate smooth muscle cells. These immortalized cultures may serve as a unique experimental platform to permit several research directions, including the study of cell-cell interactions in an authentic prostate microenvironment, prostate cell differentiation, and most significantly, the complex multistep process leading to prostate cell transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ira Kogan
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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78
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Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in men. Despite recent advances in the detection of early prostate cancer there is little effective therapy for patients with locally advanced and/or metastatic disease. The majority of patients with advanced disease respond initially to androgen ablation therapy. However, most go on to develop androgen-independent tumours that inevitably are fatal. A similar response is seen to chemotherapeutic and radiotherapy treatments. As a result, metastatic prostate cancer remains an incurable disease by current treatment strategies. Recent reports of cancer stem cells have prompted questions regarding the involvement of normal stem/progenitor cells in prostate tumour biology, their potential contribution to the tumour itself and whether they are the cause of tumour initiation and progression. Although still controversial, the cancer stem cell is likely to be the most crucial target in the treatment of prostate cancer, and a thorough understanding of its biology, particularly of how the cancer stem cell differs from the normal stem cell, might allow it to be targeted selectively and eliminated, thus improving therapeutic outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne T Collins
- University of York, YCR Cancer Research Unit, Department of Biology, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK.
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79
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Gustafson MP, Xu C, Grim JE, Clurman BE, Knudsen BS. Regulation of cell proliferation in a stratified culture system of epithelial cells from prostate tissue. Cell Tissue Res 2006; 325:263-76. [PMID: 16557385 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-005-0093-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2005] [Accepted: 09/26/2005] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Mechanisms controlling epithelial proliferation and differentiation in the prostate have been primarily investigated in mouse models. The regulation of proliferation and differentiation is poorly understood in human prostate epithelial cells. In vivo, the glandular prostate epithelium consists of a p63-positive proliferating basal cell layer and a post-mitotic p27-positive secretory cell layer. We have established an organized stratified culture system of human primary prostate epithelial cells to gain insight into mechanisms regulating proliferation and differentiation. In this system, expression of p63 is observed in the bottom layer. In addition, BrdU incorporation persists even though cells are confluent. In contrast, in the upper layer, p63 expression is greatly diminished, p27 is expressed, and the cells are growth arrested. Overexpression of cyclin D1 or knockdown of p27 does not increase proliferation. After inactivation of the nuclear phosphoprotein Rb, the cell layers remain organized and cell proliferation increases only in the bottom layer. Furthermore, the expression of p63 remains confined to the bottom layer after Rb inactivation. Altogether, this in vitro model recapitulates certain aspects of in vivo growth regulation and differentiation and suggests that the loss of Rb family proteins in human cells trigger hyperplasia but is not sufficient for transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Gustafson
- Clinical Research and Human Biology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
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80
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Patrawala L, Calhoun T, Schneider-Broussard R, Li H, Bhatia B, Tang S, Reilly JG, Chandra D, Zhou J, Claypool K, Coghlan L, Tang DG. Highly purified CD44+ prostate cancer cells from xenograft human tumors are enriched in tumorigenic and metastatic progenitor cells. Oncogene 2006; 25:1696-708. [PMID: 16449977 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1209327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 715] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
CD44 is a multifunctional protein involved in cell adhesion and signaling. The role of CD44 in prostate cancer (PCa) development and progression is controversial with studies showing both tumor-promoting and tumor-inhibiting effects. Most of these studies have used bulk-cultured PCa cells or PCa tissues to carry out correlative or overexpression experiments. The key experiment using prospectively purified cells has not been carried out. Here we use FACS to obtain homogeneous CD44(+) and CD44(-) tumor cell populations from multiple PCa cell cultures as well as four xenograft tumors to compare their in vitro and in vivo tumor-associated properties. Our results reveal that the CD44(+) PCa cells are more proliferative, clonogenic, tumorigenic, and metastatic than the isogenic CD44(-) PCa cells. Subsequent molecular studies demonstrate that the CD44(+) PCa cells possess certain intrinsic properties of progenitor cells. First, BrdU pulse-chase experiments reveal that CD44(+) cells colocalize with a population of intermediate label-retaining cells. Second, CD44(+) PCa cells express higher mRNA levels of several 'stemness' genes including Oct-3/4, Bmi, beta-catenin, and SMO. Third, CD44(+) PCa cells can generate CD44(-) cells in vitro and in vivo. Fourth, CD44(+) PCa cells, which are AR(-), can differentiate into AR(+) tumor cells. Finally, a very small percentage of CD44(+) PCa cells appear to undergo asymmetric cell division in clonal analyses. Altogether, our results suggest that the CD44(+) PCa cell population is enriched in tumorigenic and metastatic progenitor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Patrawala
- Department of Carcinogenesis, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park-Research Division, Smithville, 78957, USA
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81
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Abstract
The prostate gland is the site of the most commonly diagnosed cancer in men in USA and UK, accounting for one in five of new cases of male cancer. Common with many other cancer types, prostate cancer is believed to arise from a stem cell that shares characteristics with the normal stem cell. Normal prostate epithelial stem cells were recently identified and found to have a basal cell phenotype together with expression of CD133. Preliminary data have now emerged for a prostate cancer stem cell that also expresses cell surface CD133 but lacks expression of the androgen receptor. Here we examine the evidence supporting the existence of prostate cancer stem cells and discuss possible mechanisms of stem cell maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Rizzo
- The Bob Champion Prostate Stem Cell Laboratory, Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, Sutton, Surrey, UK, SM2 5NG
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82
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Abstract
As prostate cancer is not a single disease, it is important to identify the pivotal pathway in the patient being treated. The molecular environment is the site of current oncological research to define new therapeutic targets for hormone-refractory disease, offering the potential to eventually individualize treatment through stratification of pathways. Targets may be validated either phenotypically (e.g. androgen receptor, cadherin) or functionally (e.g. prostate cancer-specific genes). In addition, several other candidates are potentially suitable, while others await discovery. Important initial steps have been made in the search for prostate cancer stem cells; identifying stem cells and the stromal, hormonal, and other signalling molecules that influence their behaviour would have important implications for managing prostate cancer. Although individual therapeutic pathways might be ineffective in a particular molecular environment, combinations of approaches might be capable of producing synergistic effects. A multimodal approach thus might be the best solution. Determining where best to search for a molecular target, and validating whether the target is associated with a sufficiently aggressive malignant process to justify further study is difficult, but the potential benefits are enormous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack A Schalken
- Department of Experimental Urology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Geert Grooteplein 30, Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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83
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84
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Dalrymple S, Antony L, Xu Y, Uzgare AR, Arnold JT, Savaugeot J, Sokoll LJ, De Marzo AM, Isaacs JT. Role of Notch-1 and E-Cadherin in the Differential Response to Calcium in Culturing Normal versus Malignant Prostate Cells. Cancer Res 2005; 65:9269-79. [PMID: 16230388 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-04-3989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A panel of expression markers was validated and used to document that, when radical prostatectomy specimens are cultured in low (i.e., <260 micromol/L)-calcium (Ca2+)-serum-free, growth factor-defined (SFD) medium, what grows out are not prostatic cancer cells but basally derived normal transit-amplifying prostatic epithelial cells. The selective outgrowth of the normal transit-amplifying versus prostatic cancer cells is due to the differential effect of low-Ca2+ medium on the structure of Notch-1 and E-cadherin signaling molecules. In low-Ca2+ medium, Notch-1 receptor is conformationally in a constitutively active, cell autonomous form not requiring reciprocal cell-cell (i.e., ligand) interaction for signaling. Such signaling is required for survival of transit-amplifying cells as shown by the death of transit-amplifying cells induced by treatment with a series of chemically distinct gamma-secretase inhibitors to prevent Notch-1 signaling. Conversely, in low-Ca2+ medium, E-cadherin is conformationally inactive preventing cell-cell homotypic interaction, but low cell density nonaggregated transit-amplifying cells still survived because Notch-1 is able to signal cell autonomously. In contrast, when medium Ca2+ is raised to >400 micromol/L, Notch-1 conformationally is no longer constitutively active but requires cell-cell contact for reciprocal binding of Jagged-1 ligands and Notch-1 receptors between adjacent transit-amplifying cells to activate their survival signaling. Such cell-cell contact is enhanced by the elevated Ca2+ inducing an E-cadherin conformation allowing homotypic interaction between transit-amplifying cells. Such Ca(2+)-dependent, E-cadherin-mediated interaction, however, results in cell aggregation, stratification, and inhibition of proliferation of transit-amplifying cells via contact inhibition-induced up-regulation of p27/kip1 protein. In addition, transit-amplifying cells not contacting other cells undergo squamous differentiation into cornified (i.e., 1% SDS insoluble) envelopes and death in the elevated Ca2+ medium. Stratification and contact inhibition induced by elevated Ca2+ are dependent on E-cadherin-mediated homotypic interaction between transit-amplifying cells as shown by their prevention in the presence of a cell-impermanent, E-cadherin neutralizing antibody. In contrast to growth inhibition of normal transit-amplifying cells, supplementation of low-Ca(2+)-SFD medium with 10% FCS and raising the Ca2+ to >600 micromol/L stimulates the growth of all prostate cancer cell lines tested. Additional results document that, at physiologic levels of Ca2+ (i.e., >600 micromol/L), prostatic cancer cells are not contact inhibited by E-cadherin interactions and Notch-1 signaling is no longer required for survival but instead becomes one of multiple signaling pathways for proliferation of prostatic cancer cells. These characteristic changes are consistent with prostate cancer cells' ability to metastasize to bone, a site of high-Ca2+ levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Dalrymple
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins and Departments of Urology and Pathology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21231-1000, USA
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85
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Schmelz M, Moll R, Hesse U, Prasad AR, Gandolfi JA, Hasan SR, Bartholdi M, Cress AE. Identification of a stem cell candidate in the normal human prostate gland. Eur J Cell Biol 2005; 84:341-54. [PMID: 15819412 PMCID: PMC2730953 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2004.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Stem cells of the human prostate gland have not yet been identified utilizing a structural biomarker. We have discovered a new prostatic epithelial cell phenotype-expressing cytokeratin 6a (Ck6a+ cells). The Ck6a+ cells are present within a specialized niche in the basal cell compartment in fetal, juvenile and adult prostate tissue, and within the stem cell-enriched urogenital sinus. In adult normal prostate tissue, the average abundance of Ck6a+ cells was 4.9%. With proliferative stimuli in the prostate organ culture model, in which the epithelial-stromal interaction was maintained, a remarkable increase of Ck6a expression was noticed to up to 64.9%. The difference in cytokeratin 6a expression between the normal adult prostate and the prostate organ culture model was statistically significant (p<0.0001). Within the prostate organ culture model the increase of cytokeratin 6a-expressing cells significantly correlated with increased proliferation index (r = 0.7616, p = 0.0467). The Ck6a+ cells were capable of differentiation as indicated by their expression of luminal cell markers such as ZO-1 and prostate specific antigen (PSA). Our data indicate that Ck6a+ cells represent a prostatic epithelial stem cell candidate possessing high potential for proliferation and differentiation. Since the development of benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate carcinogenesis are disorders of proliferation and differentiation, the Ck6a+ cells may represent a major element in the development of these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Schmelz
- Department of Pathology, Southern Arizona Veterans Affairs Health Care System, 3601 S. 6th Ave., Tucson, AZ 85723, USA.
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86
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Bhatia B, Tang S, Yang P, Doll A, Aumüeller G, Newman RA, Tang DG. Cell-autonomous induction of functional tumor suppressor 15-lipoxygenase 2 (15-LOX2) contributes to replicative senescence of human prostate progenitor cells. Oncogene 2005; 24:3583-95. [PMID: 15750631 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1208406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Normal human prostatic (NHP) epithelial cells undergo senescence in vitro and in vivo, but little is known about the tissue-specific molecular mechanisms. Here we first characterize young primary NHP cells as CK5(+)/CK18(+) intermediate basal cells that also express several other putative stem/progenitor cell markers including p63, CD44, alpha2beta1, and hTERT. When cultured in serum- and androgen-free medium, NHP cells gradually lose the expression of these markers, slow down in proliferation, and enter senescence. Several pieces of evidence implicate 15-lipoxygenase 2 (15-LOX2), a molecule with a restricted tissue expression and most abundantly expressed in adult human prostate, in the replicative senescence of NHP cells. First, the 15-LOX2 promoter activity and the mRNA and protein levels of 15-LOX2 and its multiple splice variants are upregulated in serially passaged NHP cells, which precede replicative senescence and occur in a cell-autonomous manner. Second, all immortalized prostate epithelial cells and prostate cancer cells do not express 15-LOX2. Third, PCa cells stably transfected with 15-LOX2 or 15-LOX2sv-b, a splice variant that does not possess arachidonate-metabolizing activity, show a passage-related senescence-like phenotype. Fourth, infection of early-passage NHP cells with retroviral vectors encoding 15-LOX2 or 15-LOX2sv-b induces partial cell-cycle arrest and big and flat senescence-like phenotype. Finally, 15-LOX2 protein expression in human prostate correlates with age. Together, these data suggest that 15-LOX2 may represent an endogenous prostate senescence gene and its tumor-suppressing functions might be associated with its ability to induce cell senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bobby Bhatia
- Department of Carcinogenesis, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park-Research Division, 1808 Park Rd. 1C, Smithville, TX 78957, USA
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87
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Long RM, Morrissey C, Fitzpatrick JM, Watson RWG. Prostate epithelial cell differentiation and its relevance to the understanding of prostate cancer therapies. Clin Sci (Lond) 2005; 108:1-11. [PMID: 15384949 DOI: 10.1042/cs20040241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most common malignancy in males in the western world. However, little is known about its origin and development. This review highlights the biology of the normal prostate gland and the differentiation of basal epithelial cells to a secretory phenotype. Alterations in this differentiation process leading to cancer and androgen-independent disease are discussed, as well as a full characterization of prostate epithelial cells. A full understanding of the origin and characteristics of prostate cancer epithelial cells will be important if we are to develop therapeutic strategies to combat the heterogeneous nature of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronan M Long
- Department of Surgery, Mater Misericordiae University Hospital and Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin, Republic of Ireland.
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88
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Abstract
The hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor (HGF/SF) and its receptor, the Met protein tyrosine kinase, form a classic ligand-receptor system for epithelial-mesenchymal communications in the normal and cancerous prostate. This review illustrates the expression and activities of HGF/SF and Met during prostate development, homeostasis, and carcinogenesis. The participation of HGF/SF in the morphogenetic program of rodent prostate development, the role of Met in normal human prostate epithelium, and underlying mechanisms of deregulated Met expression in localized and metastatic prostate cancer are discussed. On the basis of the commonly observed overexpression of Met in metastatic prostate cancer, HGF/SF-Met-targeted imaging and therapeutic agents can now be applied toward diagnosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice S Knudsen
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98125, USA
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89
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Alam TN, O'Hare MJ, Laczkó I, Freeman A, Al-Beidh F, Masters JR, Hudson DL. Differential expression of CD44 during human prostate epithelial cell differentiation. J Histochem Cytochem 2004; 52:1083-90. [PMID: 15258184 DOI: 10.1369/jhc.4a6256.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
CD44 is a polymorphic transmembrane glycoprotein that binds hyaluronan and growth factors. Multiple isoforms of the protein can be generated by alternative splicing but little is known about the expression and function of these isoforms in normal development and differentiation. We have investigated the expression of CD44 during normal prostate epithelial cell differentiation. A conditionally immortalized prostate epithelial cell line, Pre2.8, was used as a model system. These cells proliferate at 33C but at 39C stop dividing and undergo changes consistent with early stages of cell differentiation. During the differentiation of these cells, the expression of the CD44 isoform v3-v10 was upregulated. Two layers of epithelial cells can clearly be distinguished in the human prostate, a basal layer expressing keratins 5/14 and a luminal layer expressing keratins 8/18. In prostate tissue the v3-v10 isoform was found predominantly in basal cells but also in keratin 14-negative, keratin 19-positive cells intermediate between the two layers. CD44 v3-v10 was also expressed in other keratin 14-negative prostate tissues, the ejaculatory ducts and prostatic urethra. Therefore, CD44 v3-v10 may be important as a cell surface marker for differentiating cells in the prostate epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tahirah N Alam
- Prostate Cancer Research Centre, Institute of Urology, University College London, London, UK
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90
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Abstract
Primary cultures fill a unique niche among the repertoire of in vitro model systems available to investigate the biology of the normal and malignant human prostate. This review summarizes some of the properties of primary cultures, with special emphasis on two questions: are primary cultures from adenocarcinomas really comprised of cancer rather than normal cells, and do primary cultures faithfully retain characteristics of cells of origin?
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Affiliation(s)
- Donna M Peehl
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5118, USA.
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91
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Uzgare AR, Xu Y, Isaacs JT. In vitro culturing and characteristics of transit amplifying epithelial cells from human prostate tissue. J Cell Biochem 2004; 91:196-205. [PMID: 14689591 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.10764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The prostatic epithelium is functionally organized in stem cell units. This unit consists of a slow turn over stem cell within the basal epithelial layer which can replenish itself and provide progeny which differentiate down either a neuroendocrine or exocrine pathway. The maturation along the exocrine pathway initially involves transit amplifying cells within the basal layer proliferating and subsequently the progeny maturing into intermediate cells. These intermediate cells migrate into the luminal layer where they terminally differentiate into non-proliferative secretory luminal cells which express prostate specific differentiation markers, like PSA. A growing body of experimental evidence has identified the proliferating transit amplifying/intermediate cells as the cells of origin for the common prostatic adenocarcinomas. Using a series of growth characteristics, and mRNA and protein markers, we have validated that primary cultures can be established in serum free defined media from surgically resected human prostates which are composed of essentially pure population of transit amplifying cells. At each serial passage, the subsequent cultures undergo enhanced maturation into intermediate cells and by the 7-10th passage these cells eventually lose their proliferative ability. This study validates that these cells are a useful and relevant system for the determination of molecular events involved in prostatic carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarti R Uzgare
- Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Oncology, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, USA
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92
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Abstract
Benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer arise as a consequence of changes in the balance between cell division and differentiation. Little, however, is known about the control of this process. Stem cells are a small population of cells that divide occasionally to produce transit-amplifying cells that in turn produce the differentiated cell types of the tissue. It is believed that cancer cell proliferation is also driven by stem cells. We have shown that around one in 200 prostate epithelial cells have characteristics of stem cells and that these cells are contained within a population with a distinct keratin expression pattern. Work is now ongoing to identify markers for these cells that will allow us to study the role they play in prostatic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Hudson
- Bob Champion Prostate Stem Cell Laboratory, Male Urological Cancer Research Centre, Institute of Cancer Research, 15 Cotswold Road, Sutton, Surrey, SM2 5NG, UK.
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93
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Richardson GD, Robson CN, Lang SH, Neal DE, Maitland NJ, Collins AT. CD133, a novel marker for human prostatic epithelial stem cells. J Cell Sci 2004; 117:3539-45. [PMID: 15226377 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.01222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 542] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Stem cells are clonogenic cells with self-renewal and differentiation properties, which may represent a major target for genetic damage leading to prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Stem cells remain poorly characterised because of the absence of specific molecular markers that permit us to distinguish them from their progeny, the transit amplifying cells, which have a more restricted proliferative potential. Human CD133 antigen, also known as AC133, was recently identified as a haematopoietic stem cell marker. Here we show that a small population (approximately 1%) of human prostate basal cells express the cell surface marker CD133 and are restricted to the alpha(2)beta(1)(hi) population, previously shown to be a marker of stem cells in prostate epithelia. alpha(2)beta(1)(hi)/CD133(+) cells exhibit two important attributes of epithelial stem cells: they possess a high in vitro proliferative potential and can reconstitute prostatic-like acini in immunocompromised male nude mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin D Richardson
- Prostate Research Group, Surgical Oncology, Medical School, Framlington Place, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK
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94
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Imamov O, Morani A, Shim GJ, Omoto Y, Thulin-Andersson C, Warner M, Gustafsson JA. Estrogen receptor beta regulates epithelial cellular differentiation in the mouse ventral prostate. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:9375-80. [PMID: 15187231 PMCID: PMC438984 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0403041101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously reported epithelial cellular hyperplasia in ventral prostates (VP) of mice lacking estrogen receptor beta (ER beta). To investigate the causes of this phenomenon, we measured cellular proliferation and apoptosis in VP of ER beta(-/-) and WT mice. With BrdUrd labeling, the number of proliferating cells was 3.6-fold higher in ER beta(-/-) mice. There was also a decrease in apoptosis as measured by terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling assay and an increase in expression of the anti-apoptotic bcl-2. The state of differentiation of the epithelial cells of the VP was studied by immunohistochemical staining, Western blotting, and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). In ER beta(-/-) mouse VP, the number of p63-positive cells (basal phenotype) was 2.6-fold higher, and expression level of cytokeratin (CK) 8, a luminal cell marker, was lower. FACS analysis with p63 showed that in WT mice the ratio of basal to intermediate/luminal cell populations expressing p63 was 1:2.5, whereas in ER beta(-/-) mice it was 1:9. The expression of basal/intermediate marker CK 19 in three FACS areas, g1, g2, and g3, gated according to cellular size and granularity, was 1:0.6:2 in WT and 1:4:6.7 in ER beta(-/-) mice, showing a shift of CK 19-positive cells toward a cell population of intermediate size and granularity. We conclude that, in ER beta(-/-) mouse VP, there is increased epithelial proliferation, decreased apoptosis, and accumulation of incompletely differentiated cells in an intermediate pool. The continued proliferation of intermediate cells leads to the prostatic epithelial hyperplasia observed in the absence of ER beta signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Otabek Imamov
- Department of Medical Nutrition, Karolinska Institute, Novum, S-141 86 Huddinge, Sweden
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95
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De Marzo AM, DeWeese TL, Platz EA, Meeker AK, Nakayama M, Epstein JI, Isaacs WB, Nelson WG. Pathological and molecular mechanisms of prostate carcinogenesis: implications for diagnosis, detection, prevention, and treatment. J Cell Biochem 2004; 91:459-77. [PMID: 14755677 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.10747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is an increasing threat throughout the world. As a result of a demographic shift in population, the number of men at risk for developing prostate cancer is growing rapidly. For 2002, an estimated 189,000 prostate cancer cases were diagnosed in the U.S., accompanied by an estimated 30,200 prostate cancer deaths [Jemal et al., 2002]. Most prostate cancer is now diagnosed in men who were biopsied as a result of an elevated serum PSA (>4 ng/ml) level detected following routine screening. Autopsy studies [Breslow et al., 1977; Yatani et al., 1982; Sakr et al., 1993], and the recent results of the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial (PCPT) [Thompson et al., 2003], a large scale clinical trial where all men entered the trial without an elevated PSA (<3 ng/ml) were subsequently biopsied, indicate the prevalence of histologic prostate cancer is much higher than anticipated by PSA screening. Environmental factors, such as diet and lifestyle, have long been recognized contributors to the development of prostate cancer. Recent studies of the molecular alterations in prostate cancer cells have begun to provide clues as to how prostate cancer may arise and progress. For example, while inflammation in the prostate has been suggested previously as a contributor to prostate cancer development [Gardner and Bennett, 1992; Platz, 1998; De Marzo et al., 1999; Nelson et al., 2003], research regarding the genetic and pathological aspects of prostate inflammation has only recently begun to receive attention. Here, we review the subject of inflammation and prostate cancer as part of a "chronic epithelial injury" hypothesis of prostate carcinogenesis, and the somatic genome and phenotypic changes characteristic of prostate cancer cells. We also present the implications of these changes for prostate cancer diagnosis, detection, prevention, and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo M De Marzo
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21231-1000, USA.
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96
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Halkidou K, Gaughan L, Cook S, Leung HY, Neal DE, Robson CN. Upregulation and nuclear recruitment of HDAC1 in hormone refractory prostate cancer. Prostate 2004; 59:177-89. [PMID: 15042618 DOI: 10.1002/pros.20022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 373] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) is a co-repressor involved in differentiation and proliferation control. It is upregulated in malignant compared to benign tissue, and targets a number of transcription factors including p53. METHODS By immunohistochemistry, HDAC1 protein expression was investigated in human prostate specimens and the CWR22 mouse xenograft model. Flow cytometry and deconvolution immunofluorescence were also performed. RESULTS HDAC1 was upregulated in pre-malignant and malignant lesions, with the highest increase in expression in hormone refractory (HR) cancer. Using the CWR22 xenograft model we showed androgen dependent regulation of HDAC1. HDAC1 overexpression led to a significant increase in proliferation and a shift towards the undifferentiated cytokeratin (CK) profile in a PC3M derivative clone constitutively expressing HDAC1. CONCLUSION This study underlines the importance of HDAC1 in cell proliferation and the development of prostate cancer (CaP) and proposes a mechanism for HDAC1 nuclear recruitment. HDAC1 may constitute a crucial therapeutic target particularly in the most lethal phase of androgen independence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalipso Halkidou
- School of Surgical and Reproductive Sciences, The Medical School, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
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97
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Islam TA, Patel A, Kaisary AV, Mondragon A, Waxman J, Kamalati T. In vitro deregulation of markers characteristic of human prostate epithelial cells. Tissue Cell 2004; 36:107-13. [PMID: 15041412 DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2003.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2003] [Revised: 09/22/2003] [Accepted: 10/08/2003] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We have screened primary cultures of human prostate for the expression of markers reported to be characteristic of specific cell lineages in vivo, in order to ascertain whether human prostate cells in vitro maintain and reflect their in vivo differentiated phenotypes and to evaluate the homogeneity of the populations of cells that can be derived from this tissue. Using single and dual stain immunofluorescent microscopy to analyse very early organoid and subsequently derived monolayer stage cultures, we have observed that expression of markers characteristic of human prostate epithelial cells in vivo is deregulated within 48h, indicating that dissociation of human prostate tissue and cultivation of prostate epithelial cells in culture can result in promiscuous expression of cell type specific markers of prostate epithelial cells. These observations have important implications for studies of cell lineage and differentiation of prostate cells in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarin A Islam
- Cancer Cell Biology Section, Division of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, Hammersmith Campus, 5th floor, Cyclotron Building, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
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98
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Abstract
Multiple factors contribute to the high incidence and prevalence of prostate cancer including race, ethnicity, diet, environment, widespread awareness through prostate-specific antigen screening and genetics. Linkage analysis has identified several candidate sites for hereditary prostate cancer gene loci. Molecular studies have also identified genes that are frequently altered in sporadic prostate cancer. It appears that due to the heterogeneity of prostate cancer, multiple genes may be involved in the neoplastic process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Rubin
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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99
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Abstract
The normal prostate shows a high degree of cellular organization. The basal layer is populated by prostate epithelial stem cells and a population of transiently proliferating/amplifying (TP/A) cells intermediate to the stem cells and fully differentiated cells. The luminal layer is composed of fully differentiated prostate epithelial cells. Neuroendocrine cells are scattered throughout the gland. This organization is also seen in prostate cancer, where the tumor cell origin (cancer stem cells) can be traced to a normal cell type by characteristic keratin expression patterns. Basal cells showed strong expression of K-[keratin]5, but they were only weakly positive for K18. Luminal cells strongly expressed K18. A subpopulation of basal cells coexpressed K5 and K14. These keratin expression patterns changed with the degree of cell differentiation as well as location. The least differentiated stem cells in the basal layer were positive for K5 and K14, with weak expression for K18. Intermediate stages of differentiation were identified by expression of K5 and K18. Neuroendocrine cells also expressed K5 as well as typical neuroendocrine cell markers (eg, chromogranin A). Evidence supporting the hypothesis that prostate cancer arises from malignant transformation of intermediate stem cells included the presence in prostate cancers of keratin patterns associated with the intermediate stages of differentiation, androgen independence of both prostate cancers and intermediate stem cells, and expression of c-met by both the TP/A intermediate stem cells and tumor cells.
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100
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van Bokhoven A, Varella-Garcia M, Korch C, Johannes WU, Smith EE, Miller HL, Nordeen SK, Miller GJ, Lucia MS. Molecular characterization of human prostate carcinoma cell lines. Prostate 2003; 57:205-25. [PMID: 14518029 DOI: 10.1002/pros.10290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 451] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study presents a comprehensive survey and characterization of available prostate carcinoma cell lines, most of which have been widely used but are incompletely characterized. METHODS A total of 21 cell lines were investigated, including three "classical" (DU 145, LNCaP, and PC-3) and 18 "non-classical" lines (1013L, 22Rv1, ALVA-55, ALVA-101, ARCaP, CWR-R1, DuCaP, DuPro-1, LAPC-4, MDA PCa 1, MDA PCa 2a, MDA PCa 2b, NCI-H660, PC-346C, PC-93, PSK-1, UM-SCP-1, and VCaP). Cytogenetics, DNA profiling, expression of basal, luminal, and neuroendocrine differentiation markers, and mutation analyses of the TP53 and androgen receptor (AR) genes were performed. RESULTS Based on cytogenetics and DNA profiling analyses, out of the 18 "non-classical" lines, six were confirmed to be unique, eight (in four pairs) were confirmed to be related in origin, and four lines were identified as cross-contaminants. Of this latter group, PC-93 was found to be a derivative of HeLa, whereas DuPro-1, ALVA-55, and ALVA-101 were derivatives of PC-3. The 17 genuine prostate cell lines expressed keratin 8 (K8) and K18. Nine showed AR expression, of which five harbored mutations in the AR gene. Prostate-specific antigen and DD3 were exclusively detected in AR expressing cell lines. Seven lines expressed the basal cell marker K5, three of these lines showed co-expression of AR. CONCLUSIONS This study defines a collection of 17 genuine prostate carcinoma cell lines. This collection, although small, constitutes a variety of different types and stages of prostate cancer, while it also partly reflects the heterogeneous nature of this malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrie van Bokhoven
- Department of Pathology, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado 80262, USA.
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